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Author: 


Riesenberg,  Felix 


Title: 

Standard  seamanship  for 
the  merchant  service 

Place: 

New  York 

Date: 

1922 


^^^^S^-3 


MASTER    NEGATIVE   # 


COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 
PRESERVATION  DIVISION 

BIBLIOGRAPHIC  MICROFORM  TARGET 


ORIGINAL  MATERIAL  AS  FILMED  -    EXISTING  BIBLIOGRAPHIC  RECORD 


Riesenberg,  Felix,  1879- 

SlaiHlard  soaniansliip  for  the  inercliant  service,  })y 
l*\'lix  Kieseiibe]-,!;-  ...  ()2r)  illustrations.  New  York, 
I).  Vail  Noslijuid  (M)m])aiiy,  1922. 

vvji.   042   p.    iiicl,    front.,   illns.  (part   col.)    tables,   charts,   diagrs.    22''"*. 

^$7.5aj     J. Van  Nojjtrand's  nautical  manuals,  j 


l.JCavigation.    2.  ^^crcllant  marine.        i.  Title. 

Lilirary  of  CcnRrcss  ,.^  VK541.R53 

Copy  2.  [         ^ 


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22-11610 


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RESTRICTIONS  ON  USE: 


TECHNICAL  MICROFORM  DATA 


FILM  SIZE:  ?^5W>W\ 


TRACKING  #  : 


REDUCTION  RATIO:       W 


IMAGE  PLACEMENT:   lA 


IB      IIB 


DATE  FILMED:        3-^^-^*^ 


INITIALS: 


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FILMED  BY  PRESERVATION  RESOURCES.  BETHLEHEM,  PA. 


BIBLIOGRAPHIC  IRREGULARITIES 

MAIN  ENTRY:    Riesenbera.  Felix 


Standard  seamanship  for  the  merchant, 


Bibliographic  Irregularities  in  the  Original  Document: 

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in  tfje  Citp  of  ^eto  f^orfe 


LIBRARY 


School  of  Business 


-MJf    '^..  avl"^*t«^'- 


By  The  Same  Author 

The  Men  on  Deck 

unfortunately  shelved  bvt?»P?;„S.?J  !*»"»  »  Seaman's  Friend.' 
tending  seatLfng  ii(e."-Icaptate  O  T  c£ar»L'"lT'=°«"'"T"°"?  f '" 
spector,  Steamboat-Insp^"?  se?vice.  N.  T  *  '  ^'^'  '"" 

and  'Lh?uld''be''of  |?eS['va&''  toTnt^*.  '„°,S  '"^  ^^/^  "  <"=""'"" 
Mnrin*>  A»,   t**        ^.  \^^"®  to  junior  Officers  of  the  Merphant 

the  'AL'^eHcai'^Lamln^'  ^°']ft  ^offer^'"^^^  ^^^^  ^'^  ^he  duties  of 
which  should  make  thrlmer^cln  ^^.JS'^'^?^  *^^^^  standard 
throughout  the  'Seven  «?lt«'o^^i"     merchant    service     known 

it  was  in  ea?ly^  clfpper-shiD  divl  •'^°^*  ^^^l"^  ^"^  ^^^  '^''^^^'  ^^ 
Naval  Institute.      ^'"PP^^  ^^^P    ^^ys.  —Proceedlnar.    of    the    U.    S. 

mari7e/'ilSa%"ain"iiiSert^l^^i^aX«5  ^®'"""  °'  ^^^^-^  merchant 

MerZn^  Ma?Ine  "-^'^  w'^'in'^^'i^'"'  t^^  *^«  "^^  ^^^^^^-^  of  our 
Company.  Atfaiu'c  ^ekr^M^^j^S's.'    ^^^^^^^'    Southern    Paciflc 


Under  Sail 


masron'k\^"eTicrn'^;\;p^?;?%%|?'V  %  record  of  life  before  the 
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arouse's/iMs^rquX'flL^^c?e"^^^^^^^^^  the  associations  It 

manship.  .  .  .  Life  tossed  hv^flJilP^K  ^'^^^^  ^^  American  sea- 
enervated  in  Honolulu  and  tr^c^edtn  New  Yo^rlI"?.^tJ^  ,^*^^  ^^^Pj^^' 
a  form  of  life  departed  -rho  Pwol^,    ^'^^' '^  ^^^  "^®  splendid, 

the  chantey  that  enn^en;^  Vh^^^oS^®^'^  yarder  is  gone,  gone  is 

despite  the  hard-flsted  di^oin^r,^  ^®^°!.-^^5  ^^ew  in  their  work 
the  f o'Qisle  wMch  brinis  M?  r/^^^^^^  the  decency  of  the  men  In 
of  sea  narrativel'^J|d%^enil«T^^^  "^  '^  ^^^  ^^^-^  »>^«t 

dlalog^i!  Ind^  t h\  Xs c ri p U o n s  aJ?%?^^""  "^"^  ^''^  vigorous 
sketches  of  oflicers   ««^    P  1  "^    ^^®    picturesque.      His    charactPr 

daily  routine  aTeTull^oMn?orm?t?on'5nH"""''  ^i^  accounts  oTt'he 
the  pages  with  interest  bec^sl  of  th^^  read 


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STANDARD    SEAMANSHIP 

FOR  THE 

MERCHANT   SERVICE 


it 


BY 

FELIX  RIESENBERG,  C.E. 

MASTER  MARINER  in  SaU  and  Steam;  ST.  MART'S,  Class  of  1897; 

Lieutenant  Commander,     Volunteer  Reserve,  XT.  S.  N. 

Commanding  Schoolship  NEWPORT,  1917-1918-1919. 

Author  of  "  Under  Sail,  "  "  The  Men  on  Deck  "  etc. 


625  ILLUSTRATIONS 


\ 


f 


NEW  YORK 

D.   VAN    NOSTRAND    COMPANY 

Eight  Warren  Street 

1922 


■| 


(Ij'tA^ 


i 


I      ^ 


.„  •■-•     f- 


Copyright,  1922 
By  D.  Van  Nostrand  Company 


All  rights  reserved,  including  that  of  translations  into 
foreign  languages,  including  the  Scandinavian 


-V'  1 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America 


1^ 

n 


.  The  seaman  carries  on  in  open  competition  with 
the  world.  Only  the  most  able  and  efficient  nations 
prosper  in  the  constant  commercial  struggle  waged 
upon  the  sea.  The  ocean  cargoes  of  the  world  al- 
ways move  through  channels  of  the  least  resis- 
tance— of  lowest  total  transportation  cost. 

The  owner y  underwriter^  seafarer  and  the  mari- 
time nations  they  represent^  measure  their  pros- 
perity by  the  standard  of  ability^  energy  and  in- 
tegrity engaged  in  the  management  of  shipping. 


I 


PREFACE 


When  the  sea  and  men  and  ships  were  brought  together  at 
the  beginning  of  the  ancient  craft  of  seamanship,  the  range  of 
man's  vision  extended  with  his  conquest  on  the  sea.  The  dread- 
ful superstitions  of  land-locked  people  gradually  gave  way  before 
the  enlightenment  and  freedom  of  the  seas — the  seaman  moves 
forward  in  the  very  vanguard  of  human  progress. 

Without  the  sailor,  and  without  the  heroic  heritage  with  which 
he  has  endowed  the  world,  men  today  would  live  in  dark  and 
hopeless  isolation.  In  the  old  days  the  boldest  sought  the  sea — 
the  most  daring  men  were  those  who  voyaged  far  beyond  the 
blue  horizon.  And  today,  when  everything  at  sea  seems  safe, 
sailors  handle  mighty  vessels  thousands  of  times  as  great  and 
more  difficult  to  manage  than  those  with  which  the  art  of  sea- 
manship began. 

The  work  of  the  sailor,  as  his  name  implies,  started  with  the 
use  of  the  winds,  the  spreading  and  management  of  sails. 
Propulsion  by  means  of  oars  continued  for  many  years  after 
sails  came  into  use.  The  Phoenician  galleys  and  the  long  ships 
of  the  Vikings  combined  both  oars  and  sails.  The  long  voyages 
of  the  world,  however,  were  first  made  possible  by  sail.  The 
nef  and  the  caravel  and  the  larger  and  more  able  craft  that 
followed,  on  to  the  time  of  the  Great  Republic  and  the  ships  of 
her  day,  carried  the  art  of  sailing  to  a  high  state  of  perfec- 
tion. Then  came  a  third  transition  in  motive  power  at  sea. 
Boilers  and  engines  were  placed  in  the  hulls  of  ships  and  seaman- 
ship combined  the  art  of  sailing  with  the  art  of  handling  vessels 
by  their  own  power  applied  through  paddle  wheels  or  screws. 
For  centuries  the  sailor  had  managed  his  craft  alone,  after  the 
passing  of  the  oarsman,  and  then  he  was  joined  by  a  new  sea- 
farer, the  ocean  engineer. 

Always  the  old  processes  of  seamanship  have  undergone  their 
changes.    Oars — oars  and   sail — sail — sail    and    steam —  and 

vii 


'i 


-      »w  • 

TIU 


PREFACE 


PREFACE 


IX 


today  we  have  steam  and  motor  vessels  covering  the  seas  and 
able  saiUng  craft  stiU  holding  on  and  improvmgl^eroppTr" 

cost  sail  comes  back  wherever  voyages  are  long  and  freiehts 

too  low  to  tempt  the  power  carrier.  g  ana  rreignts 

In  the  great  field  of  power  driven  steel  construction  a  vast 

^FuTon  Zf  V  "  'rr^'  "^^"^^'^  '""^  engines  of  rtt 
Dies!?  t ?!  /  ?"'  ^"'"°'  *"**  ^'^^'  ^'^  ^''^  '""to'  of 
Sfo  i  fi^  f  '^  '*""  *"'  '^^'^  •'  "»«  competition  of  coal 
and  oJ  fuel  for  the  generation  of  steam.  Overshadowing  the 
giant  struggle  is  the  spirit  of  Faraday  picking  and  chTsLg  a 

7sZZ%      "^^  ^"^  ^^^°  ^'•"^S  fr<"»  "^^  discoverfes! 

th.  Lr         f "'  ^"^  °'**^"^'  *»*  construction  have  improved 

ttie  tomiage  of  vessels  has  increased  until  a  point  is  near  whlre 

umtmg  factors,  both  economic  and  material,  tend  to  puTal  en" 

to  further  growth  in  size.    The  thousand  foot  liner  Z  tSe 

^Tf.^T  *""  **'***  ^"'«"  *=""^'  "«  «"<>«*  the  largest 

craft  for  fa-ans-ocean  service  or  for  world-wide  cargo  trade 

SaJmg  craft  of  seven  to  eight  thousand  dead  weight  tons  are  aU 

tha^  men  may  safely  handle  even  with  the  most  scientific  sailing 

These  larger  faster  craft  have  brought  with  them  great  de- 
mands upon  the  ancient  art  of  seamanship.    New  and  better 

ZZl'  ^ATf:  ^'""^  ""*•  ^^''  '°P^«  °f  ^''Perio^  'nake  and  of 
rJint"'*!'*  '^'  ^"^  ^«"eth  are  now  employed.  Tackle  of 
aU  fands  IS  heavier,  stronger.  Anchor  cables  have  reached  an 
enomous  size;  anchors  are  being  forged  to  as  great  a  weight 
as  fifteen  tons.    Boats  have  multiplied  untU  the  lajer  passenger 

h^fJtt  r-^'  ^""^^  mechanical  davits  with  steam  and  electric 
hoists  for  theu-  management.  Forces  have  multiplied  in  every 
d^ectaon  while  crews,  composed  of  able  seamen,  are  smalleJ 
and  often  less  able  than  before.  And  with  all  of  this  has 
come  a  tremendous  increase  in  the  value  of  property  at  sea 
wMe  thousands  of  Uves  are  entrusted  to  the  sL^  o7a  single 

In  considermg  these  matters  we  must  always  remember  that 
the  sea  is  no  respecter  of  ships  or  persons.  The  sea  is  always 
ready,  at  the  first  sign  of  failure,  to  rush  in  and  destroy  the  ve^ 


craft  it  so  readily  supports  upon  the  surface  of  the  water.  The 
sea  is  only  safe  and  harmless  so  long  as  the  ship  is  safe  and 
seaworthy  and  ably  handled.  The  great  liner,  with  a  gash  in 
her  side,  becomes  a  very  charnel  house  of  death.  In  a  few 
moments  the  safe  and  comfortable  ship  is  a  horrible  trap.  The 
great  powerful  craft  rushing  through  the  sea  at  express  speed 
turns  her  power  and  her  momentum  into  a  dreadful  cause  of 
destruction  when  she  piles  upon  a  reef,  rams  an  iceberg,  or  cuts 
down  another  vessel. 

No  matter  how  important  a  man  at  sea  may  consider  himself, 
unless  he  is  fundamentally  worthy  the  sea  will  some  day  find 
him  out.  If  a  wrong  move  is  made  at  sea,  in  a  critical  moment, 
death  may  be  the  penalty  for  the  most  simple  failure — not  only 
death  to  one  but  to  many.  Incompetence  may  prevail  upon  the 
shore  but  at  sea  it  sooner  or  later  is  ruthlessly  uncovered  and 
utter  disaster  often  follows  in  its  wake.  The  strong  feeling 
among  seafaring  men  that  disaster  is  disgrace  has  its  origin  in 
this  ancient  law  of  the  sea.  The  master  going  down  with  his 
ship  signifies  the  inward  feeling  of  the  man  who  has  lost  all 
when  he  has  lost  his  shield  of  honor.  His  seamanship  has  failed 
in  the  great  emergency,  or,  lulled  by  false  security,  he  has  ne- 
glected some  precaution  and  many  lives,  other  than  his  own,  are 
the  price  of  his  neglect.  To  live  longer  under  such  a  burden 
would  be  too  much  so  he  pays  the  price  of  failure  with  his 
life. 

This  tradition  of  the  master's  responsibility  is  further  em- 
phasized by  the  fact  that,  no  matter  why  his  vessel  founders, 
he  must  be  the  last  to  leave  his  sinking  ship.  These  basic 
things,  grown  out  of  actual  and  constant  contact  with  danger, 
place  the  art  of  seamanship  upon  the  very  highest  plane  of 
responsible  employment. 

An  understanding  of  the  points  of  seamanship  is  of  great 
importance  to  all  who  contribute  toward  the  construction  and 
equipment  of  vessels.  The  naval  architect  and  the  designing 
engineer  and  builder  should  at  least  have  a  sound  working 
knowledge  of  seamanship.  This  has  not  always  been  the  case 
and  the  opinion  of  seaman,  in  the  merchant  marine  at  least,  is 
too  seldom  considered  by  those  who  plan  the  structures  the 
seaman  must  later  on  manage  at  sea. 


I 


*  PREFACE 

With  the  increase  in  the  use  of  power  has  come  a  feeling  of 
segregation  between  the  sailormen  and  engineers.    The  great 
engines  are  a  mystery  to  most  of  those  who  work  on  deck,  the 
ground  tackle,  cargo  gear  and  boats  are  strange  to  those  who 
work  below.    In  the  very  old  days  the  men  who  rowed  were 
chained  to  their  benches  at  the  galley  oars.    Today  men  are 
held  by  rules  and  customs  that  chain  them  to  their  special  jobs. 
Some  day,  many,  many  years  from  now,  perhaps,  seamen  and 
engineers  will  be  one  crew  performing  their  duties  in  rotation, 
ready  at  all  times  for  the  call  of  "  all  hands  "  to  do  a  job  of  saHor- 
izing  or  of  engineering  as  the  case  may  be.    Officers  will  alternate 
between  the  bridge  and  the  engme  room  and  the  master  and 
chief  engineer  will  be  one.    Those  below  wiU  get  a  breath  of 
fresh  au-  and  a  wider  outlook,  those  on  deck,  and  on  the  bridge, 
wiU  be  more  able  and  better  men.    Sticking  too  close  to  one 
grindstone,  as  we  do  today,  makes  us  clever  on  the  one  hand 
and  blmd  on  the  other.    In  the  meantime  ocean  going  engineers 
should  know  as  much  as  possible  about  the  launching  and 
handhng  of  small  boats  and  should  be  famiUar  with  the  use  and 
purposes  of  ground  tackle  and  cargo  gear.    Everywhere  on  board 
ship  the  functions  of  the  seaman  and  the  engineer  interlock  and 
combme  and  their  duties  bring  with  them  the  necessity  for 
mtelhgent  cooperation. 

In  1757  the  French  savant  Pierre  Bouguer,  distinguished  as  a 
profound  mathematician  and  geodesist,  noted  the  lack  of  trea- 
tises on  seamanship  compared  with  the  abundance  of  books  on 
navigation.    To  a  certain  extent  this  lack  of  writing  on  the  art  of 
seamanship  exists  today  and  always  wiU  so  long  as  men  must 
write  from  first  hand  knowledge.    Seamen,  since  the  beginning, 
have  handed  down  much  of  their  knowledge  by  word  of  mouth 
and  through  hard  experience.    Old  men  become  clever  in  the 
lore  of  the  sea  by  actual  physical  contact  with  its  forces.    In  every 
age  the  most  useful  things  survive  and  are  passed  onward  and 
m  seamanship  we  still  employ  many  ancient  knots  and  tools 
Seamen  of  today  f oUow  customs  and  use  many  phrases  once  cur- 
rent on  the  exploring,  fighting  and  trading  ships  of  the  distant  past 
The  outstanding  books  on  seamanship  have  been  so  few  that 
the  hst  IS  worthy  of  recording.    In  1777  WiUiam  Hutchinson 
wrote  A   Treatise  on  Practical  Seamanship.    D»Arcy  Lever's 


PREFACE 


XI 


Young  Officer's  Sheet  Anchor  appeared  in  1835.  In  1841 
Richard  Dana  of  Two  Years  Before  the  Mast  fame,  published 
his  Seamen's  Friend,  a  manual  containing  valuable  data  on  the 
seamanship  of  his  day.  In  1845  Tinmouth  published  his  inter- 
esting Inquiry  Relative  To  Various  Points  on  Seamanship. 
Brady's  Kedge  Anchor,  Stevens'  On  Stowage,  Luce's  Seaman- 
ship, and  the  seamanships  of  Nares  and  Alston  followed  in  due 
course,  all  of  them  exclusively  the  seamanship  of  sail.  Stevens, 
in  his  later  editions,  shows  the  stowage  of  steamers. 

Late  in  the  last  century  Captains  Todd  and^Whall  published 
their  Practical  Seamanship  for  The  Merchant  Service,  sl  work 
to  first  take  up  the  problems  growing  out  of  steam,  though  still 
devoted,  in  large  part,  to  the  sailing  craft  of  the  time.  This 
excellent  book  has  been  revised  and  while  out  of  date  on  many 
points  contains  much  valuable  information  and  is  still  in  large 
demand.  Then  we  have  the  naval  seamanships  of  Knight  and 
Henderson  and  the  Manual  of  Seamanship  of  the  British 
Admiralty.  Admiral  Knight's  excellent  Modern  Seamanship  is 
the  official  text  book  of  the  United  States  Navy.  All  of  these 
latter  books  are  mainly  devoted  to  the  seamanship  of  steam, 
and  none  of  them  treat  of  modern  merchant  service  develop- 
ments. Stowage,  the  tanker,  cargo  gear,  winches,  the  prepa- 
ration of  cargo  holds  and  the  special  problems  incident  to  the 
carriage  of  live  stock,  or  passengers,  are  not  included  in  the 
naval  books. 

For  some  years  it  has  been  evident  that  a  new  work  on  seaman- 
ship is  needed  by  the  merchant  seaman.  Great  progress  has 
been  made  in  ship  construction  and  handling  and  many  special 
safety  devices  and  appliances  have  come  into  general  use.  The 
great  increase  in  the  number  of  persons  carried  afloat,  the  added 
danger  and  responsibility,  seems  to  call  for  a  comprehensive 
presentation  of  the  art  as  it  stands  today. 

The  author  has  been  engaged  in  the  preparation  of  this 
book  during  the  greater  part  of  the  last  four  years,  having  begun 
preliminary  work  on  the  seamanship  soon  after  taking  command 
of  the  Schoolship  Newport  in  the  summer  of  1917,  and  con- 
tinuing since  his  retirement  from  that  post  in  the  spring  of  1919. 
Generous  and  valuable  assistance  has  been  rendered  him  from 
many  sources  and  he  has  attempted  to  fully  acknowledge  this 
in  the  foreword  and  in  the  text. 


zu 


PREFACE 


Standard  Seamanship  is  oflfered  to  those  serving  at  sea  and 
IS  also  modestly  suggested  as  of  value  to  tho^'wlo  des^ 
bmld,  own  and  insure  ships.  It  is  the  hope  of  theluLr  tS 
th^.  book  may  aid  in  the  attainment  of  a  broad  and  soundllda 

«1  J  '!r^^^P  «°^^^g  the  younger  members  of  a  most 
useful,  and  miportant  profession.  «  mosi 

New  York,  Felix  Riesenberg 

January  2, 1922 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT 


The  author  wishes  to  make  acknowledgment  of  the  manv 
sources  from  which  he  has  drawn  material  Tthe  pfepSatiTof 
Sta^ard  Seamanship.  Throughout  the  text,  whe^e  p'ossSe  to 
do  so  credit  is  given  to  authorities  cited.    The  marine  publka^ 

with  permission,  credit  being  given  in  the  text.  Without  exceo- 
tion  mdividuals  and  firms  have  been  most  helpful  and  Onerous 
m  their  assistance.  Many  of  the  large  ship,  engine  anTe^ 
ment  companies  have  made  available  valuable  data  and  research 
material;  much  of  this  has  never  before  been  published. 

The  author  is  specially  mdebted  to  the  foUowmg  gentlemen 
for  valuable  assistance.  Captain  Robert  A.  Bartlettfu.  S.  W 
Transport  Service,  commanding  S.  S,  Madawaska;  Commander 

pi  **'  ""^  *^!.^-  ^-  Power  Squadrons;  Captain  G.  M. 

Brodthage,   commandmg   the   tank   steamer  Halsey;  Captain 
Reginald  Fay,  Marine  Superintendent,  N.  Y.  Centrd  R    R 
Captam  Joseph  Hossock  of  Durkee  and  Co.,  N.  Y.;  Comma^deV 

L  IT  ;;  w"";?-  ^.  ""'  ^'  ""'•  J^°^^^  «•  ^^"^^^  Meteorolo. 
Sf '   ;.!'  ^^^*^^^/^^^a^>  N.  Y.;  Captain  A.  P.  Lmidin,  Chair- 
man  of  the  Board,  American  Balsa  Co. ;  Captain  C.  A.  McAUister, 
S;-    •      \^^^^t^'  Vice-President,  The  American  Bureau  of 
Shippmg;  Mr.  J.  H.  Michener,  Jr.,  of  the  Michener  Stowage 
Company;  Captain  Thos.  A.  Miller,  European  Representative 
of  the  Universal  Transportation  Co.;  Mr.  Robert  W.  Morrell 
naval  architect;  the  late  Captain  Emery  Rice,  commander  of  the' 
S.  S.  Mongolia;  Mr.  Edward  S.  Swazey  of  the  American  Balsa 
Company;  and  to  his  former  shipmate  Mr.  George  P.  Tepper 
for  valuable  data  on  spUcing  wire. 


PREFACE 


zm 


The  following  officers  of  the  Schoolship  Newport  rendered 
valued  assistance  in  the  work  of  gathering  material.  Captain 
Gershom  Bradford  (late  Executive  officer  of  the  Schoolship), 
Mr.  H.  W.  Stock,  and  Mr.  Wm.  Kuhnle,  Executive  and  Navi- 
gating Officers,  and  Mr.  J.  A.  Farrell,  secretary  to  the  author, 
while  in  command  of  the  Schoolship.  Special  acknowledgment 
is  due  to  Boatswain  Wm.  H.  Dreilick,  in  his  thirty-seventh  year  of 
continuous  service  on  the  Schoolships  St.  Mary*s  and  Newport, 
To  Boatswain  Dreilick  the  author  is  indebted  for  his  first  initia- 
tion in  the  art  of  seamanship,  and  for  much  valuable  assistance 
in  the  preparation  of  this  work. 

The  following  firms  have  supplied  illustrations  used  in  the 
text:  American  Balsa  Co.;  John  Bliss  and  Co.;  Broderick  and 
Bascom  Rope  Co.;  H.  E.  Boucher  Mfg.  Co.;  Chadburn  Ship 
Telegraph  Co.;  Cox  and  Stevens;  Crandall  Engineering  Co.; 
Durkee  and  Co. ;  Fireman's  Fund  Insurance  Company  of  San 
Francisco;  The  Frick  Co.;  W.  R.  Grace  and  Co.;  General 
Electric  Co.;  John  Hand  and  Son;  Lidgerwood  Mfg.  Co.;  Luck- 
enbach  S.  S.  Co.;  The  McNab  Company;  Michener  Stowage 
Co. ;  Morse  Dry  Dock  and  Repair  Co. ;  Pnumercator  Co. ;  John 
A.  Roebling  Sons  Co. ;  Sperry  Gyro  Co. ;  Steward  Davit  and 
Equipment  Co. ;  and  the  Wellman-Seaver-Morgan  Co. 

The  official  publications  of  the  U.  S.  Government  have  also 
been  drawn  upon  and  due  acknowledgment  is  made  to  the 
departments  quoted. 

The  author  also  wishes  to  express  his  great  appreciation  for 
the  encouragement  rendered  him  by  Mr.  C.  E.  Speirs,  Vice- 
President  of  D.  Van  Nostrand  Company,  whose  firm  belief  in 
the  need  of  an  American  Merchant  Service  Manual  inspired 
the  writing  of  this  book,  and  to  Mr.  E.  Eichel,  of  D.  Van 
Nostrand  Company,  for  his  assistance  and  able  handling  of  the 
book  in  preparation  for  the  press. 

In  a  book  of  this  nature,  based  largely  upon  custom  and  opinion 
and  combining  data  from  widely  scattered  sources,  errors  are 
liable  to  creep  in.  The  author  will  appreciate  corrections  and 
opinions  to  the  end  that  future  editions  may  be  made  more 
useful  and  complete. 

F.R. 


CONTENTS 

Page 

CHAPTER  1.     TYPES   OF  VESSELS 1 

Steam  and  Motor  Vessels — Sailing  Craft — Tonnage — ^Linear  Dimen- 
tions — Propelling  Machinery — Classification. 

CHAPTER  2.      THE  HULL 40 

Steel  Construction — Transverse  Construction — Parts  of  Hull — Longi- 
tudinal Construction — Methods  of  Construction — Wooden  Construc- 
tion. 

CHAPTER  3.     ROPES,  KNCTtS,   SPLICES 74 

Rope — Notes  on  the  Care  of  Rope — ^Knots — ^Hitches — ^Bends — 
Seizings — ^Lashings — Splices — Wire  Rope — Splicing  Wire  Rope — 
Rope  Tables. 

CHAPTER  4.     BLOCKS  AND  TACKLES 129 

Blocks — ^Tackles — ^Purchases — Mechanics  on  Board  Ship — Composi- 
tion and  Resolution  of  Forces. 

CHAPTER  5.      STEAMER  RIGGING— CARGO   GEAR 151 

Masts — ^Booms — Rigging — Heavy  Hoists — Cargo  Gear — Slings — 
Nets — Hooks — Tables — Mechanical  Loading  and  Discharging. 

CHAPTER  6.      SAILING        SHIP        RIGGING— SAILS— CANVAS 

WORK 179 

Masts  and  Spars— Rigging,  Rtmning,  Standing — Sails — Repairing — 
Cutting.     Canvas  Work. 

CHAPTER  7.   DECK  MACHINERY 221 

Cargo  Winches — The  Placement  and  Use  of  Cargo  Winches — 
Capstans  and  Warping  Winches — Pumps. 

CHAPTER  8.      HOLDS,  PEAKS,  TANKS 241 

Holds — ^Peaks — Tanks — ^Bunkers — ^The  Pnumercator. 

CHAPTER  9.      STOWAGE 255 

Foreword — Preparing  for  Stowage — Order  of  Stowage — Railway 
Iron— Steel  Billets— Sugar— Hides— Jute— Silk— Tea— Tobacco — 
Cotton — ^Wool — Casks — Lumber — General  Cargo — Dangerous  Car- 
go— Case  Oa — Grain  Cargo — Special  Cargo— Pilfering — Rats  and 
Cargo — ^Refrigerator  Ships — Ore  Carriers — Carriage  of  Coal. 

CHAPTER  10.      CARRIAGE   OF  LIVE   STOCK 322 

Loading — ^U.  S.  Government  Regulations. 

CHAPTER  11.      THE  TANKER 343 

The  Action  of  Tank  Vessels — Subdivision  of  Hull — ^Pump  Room — Pipe 
Lines — ^Valves — Hatches — ^The  Mooring  Lines — Expansion  Trunks 
— ^Important  Points — ^Ballasting  a  Tanker — The  Care  of  Tanks — 
Repairs  in  Dry  Dock,  Precautions — General  Remarks — Oil  Cargo — 
Barges — ^The  Molasses  Tanker. 

XV 


ill 


pi 


l!' 


ERRATA 


■iiiiiiiiiiiiiii 


Page    24  line  16  for  26,600,  read  21,600 

77  last  line  of  footnote  read   *'Such  rope  is  seldom 
made,  and  is  always  cable-laid/' 

80  line  30  for  1/8,  read  1  1/8 

80    "    33  for  8/16,  read  1/2 

83  foot  note  refers  to  ''Engineers  Society  of  Western 
Pennsylvania."  . 


«« 


it 


«< 


(« 


(( 


266  line  16  for  screened,  read  screwed. 


NOTE— A  few  obvious  errors  are  not  noted.     The  reader  should  make  the 
above  corrections  to  avoid  possible  mistakes. 


zvi 


CONTENTS 


CONTENTS 


zvu 


574 


CHAPTER  12.     PASSENGER  VESSELS 

CHA^E^ X3:'^0^'*'°°  Bms-Baggage-MaUs-Specie; 

General-l^es  of  Construction-Paris  of  a  sinailBoaillciasses  of  ^"^ 
^tL^^^ST*;'  Boats-Special  Types  of  Boats-Letter  from 
H?^        =  •  '-""'•^-ColaPsible  Boats-Radio  Equipment-BoS 
olT^^«^*"  ''"Of  Oars-Runmng  Out  a  Lin^Managemem 
rf  Open  Boats  in  a  Surf-Riding  Out  A  Gale  in  Small  Boats- 

CHA^E^/  "^"^^-^^  P'*'""-"-^'^  Boats-Boat  SaS^g. 
tHJU^ER  14.     COMPASS-LEAD-LOG-PILOTING  d« 

Compass-Boxing  The  Compass-Relative  Bearings-Vhe  '  Gyro 
^^^"7^%  Lead-The  Sounding  Maclnne-T^e  SubmS^e 
Sen^-The  Log-Old-Fashioned  Log-The  TaffraU  Log^he 
Navigator  Log-The  Speny  Log-Ths,  Shoal  Water  Alarmi-PUot! 
««-Data  On  Charts-Buoys-Dafi^  On  LighthouseTTiSL- 
ti:n7^7-^r°'  "^"^-^'"°  ''"^'^-  B/arings-The  otc- 
•   CHAPTER  15.      THE  BRIDGE 

Design-Relieving    Watch-Keeping* '  Waich-Bridge '  Routine-  ^'' 
ILTTh    *''.  '"    Signals-Morse    Code-Intemationr  Code 
lX~^t^         '^'''~''''''''  Routine-The  Log  Book-Pre! 
CHAPTER  16.     RULES   OF  THE  ROAD  AT  SEA 

Foreword-The  International  and  Inland  Rules-XT.  S^pilotRuies- 
Special  Rules-Notes  on  Rules  of  the  Road. 
CHAPTER  17.     GROUND  TACKLE 

Foreword-Anchors-Old    Fashioned-Stockless-Speci'al-ciassi:  ^^^ 
fieahon  of  Anchors-Chain  Cables-Marking  of  Cables-SecZg 
^cior  "wt^'n        f '  Windlass-Coming  to  Anchor-WeigWng 
^ufM^^cL'^'  ^""  ^  Mooring-Stowing  Anchors-To^ay 
CHAPTER  18.     HANDLING  A  STEAMER  ^-. 

Foreword-Anchoring-Riding  to  Single  "Anchor-Backing  "  an 
^F^rw^^~'''''T'  ^-^^^^^-Tying  Up-Docking  aUr 
Do^W  ?^  r^  ^'"^'^^"  ^'  ^^*^^'  Vessel-Notes  on 
ln^i;;!!!f  J'^'^'r^r  Screws-Towmg-Automatic  Ten- 
sion Engme-Taking  a  Vessel  in  Tow-Casting  Off  A  Tow-Aban- 
domng  A  Tow-Wire  Towing  Hawsers-Towing  Relations- 
Running  Short  of  Bunker  Fuel-Coaling  At  Sea-Bunk^ing  fLi 

UseToir?o"Sr'  'l^T  ^-«^— Egging  A  Jury  Rudder- 
Use  of  OU  To  Cahn  the  Sea-StabiUty-Rolling-Bage  Keels- 
Rolhng  Tanks-Gyro  Stabilizer-Sea  Waves-Convoys-ColSon- 
sLT^  ^erebcts  B^ging-Stranding-Fire  On  'Lard  smp^ 
CH^^^^irS^-N^DSV^  Tt^T  ''  ^— Blocka/es. 

IZZ^t^T^'  "  l'"^'  Rigger-Missing  Siays-Tacking  a 
Barkentine-Tackmg  a  Fore  and  After-Wearing  a  Square  Rigger- 


Wearing  a  Fore  and  After— Box  Hauling— Wearing  in  Heavy 
Weather— Club  Hauling— Heavy  Weather  SaiUng— Scudding— 
Notes  On  Handling  Sail— Fore  and  Aft  Canvas— Squalls— Jury 
Rigs— Man  Overboard— Nearing  Another  Vessel— Coming  to  Anchor 

— Casting. 

CHAPTER  20.     WEATHER  AT  SEA 795 

Foreword— Beaufort  Scale— Storm  Warnings— Forecasting  the 
Weather— Radio  Forecasts— Winds— Pilot  Charts— Data  On  Cy- 
clonic Storms— Rules  For  Maneuvering  in  a  Cyclonic  Storm- 
Weather  On  The  Oceans  Of  The  World. 

CHAPTER  21.      SAFETY  ON  BOARD   SHIP 876 

General— Rescue  from  Drowning— Restoring  the  Apparently 
Drowned— U.  S.  Coast  Guard  Lifesaving  Stations— Cleanliness- 
Living  Quarters— Drinking  Water— Bedding— Morale. 

CHAPTER  22.      SHIP   MAINTENANCE 891 

Painting— Paint  Guns— Paints— Varnish— Bottom  Compositions— 
Brushes— How  to  Paint— Formulas— Cementing— Dry  Docking- 
Decks  —  Caulking  —  Paying  —  Washing  Down— Laying  Up  — The 
Maintenance  Book. 


h 


i 


CHAPTER  I 

TYPES  OF  VESSELS 


Steam  and  Motor  Vessels 

Steamers  and  other  vessels  depending  upon  mechanical  pro- 
pulsion now  form  the  bulk  of  overseas  carriers  and  may  be 
roughly  divided  into  two  classes— Liners,  and  Tramps. 

Liners  may  be  considered  to  include  all  vessels  plying  between 
definite  ports  and  running  on  a  more  or  less  well  defined  sched- 
ule, whether  carrying  passengers,  cargo,  or  both. 

Tramps  are  generally  understood  to  be  vessels  engaged  in 
cargo  carrying,  their  movements  governed  by  the  freights  that 
offer.  Tramps  are  usually  of  moderate  tonnage  and  draft, 
designed  to  enter  many  ports,  and  of  slow  speed  and  low  fuel 
consumption.  Economy  of  operation  and  adaptability  as  cargo 
carriers  are  the  factors  kept  foremost  in  their  design. 

The  above  division  is  one  based  on  use  rather  than  design, 
but  in  either  case  we  have  vessels  of  marked  characteristics 
only  fitted  for  certain  services.  The  large  mail  steamer,  of  great 
tonnage  and  speed,  only  able  to  enter  deepwater  ports,  with 
special  terminal  facilities,  must  necessarily  be  a  liner.  Ranging 
down  from  this  we  have  a  great  variety  of  ocean  craft. 

The  many  kinds  of  vessels  met  with  at  sea,  and  seen  in  the 
ports  of  the  world,  have  been  called  into  existence  through 
balancing  of  the  wide  range  of  requirements  and  restrictions 
governing  the  building  and  operating  of  steamers.  A  few  of  the 
things  entering  into  the  design  of  ocean  craft  are  given  for  the 
consideration  of  the  seafaring  man  for  whom  this  book  is  being 
written. 

Depth  of  water  in  harbors  likely  to  be  used. 
Dock  dimensions  at  terminals. 

Length  of  runs  to  be  made.  1  Direct  factors  in  figuring   bunker 
Speed  desired.  J  spaces,  horsepower  and    tonnage. 

1 


2 

STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 

Classes  of  passenger  trade. 

Possible  service  as  cruisers,  or  transports. 

X^oSi:^^  ^^'  '''  ^^^^^^^^^^  '^  '^  -*  -  -ten.. 
Kinds  of  fuel  available. 
Most  economical  materials  of  construction. 
X-abor  costs  of  fabrication.* 
Ends  of  cargo  to  be  carried : 

?f"l"";  ^~''''/'""'  Oil,  Molasses,  Cotton,  Live- 
TesienXl'^  ^""'r''*'^  '"«'-"■'"-'  Acids,  Expio. 
izer.  Heavy  machinery,  Ore,  Sulphur,  etc. 

Size  of  vessel  wiU  also  depend  somewhat  on  the  amount 
of  cargo  generally  available.    The  type  of  car  J  h^nHi- 
v^  depend  upon  kind  of  cargo.  co^dlti^nTLigtS  T 
chargmg,  whether  at  wharves,  or  into  lighters  InTf*. 
re  riger  tj„g  „^«ehines,  winchL.  mal^  tlrs',  rd  S^g^^^S' 

b"eLgX^4?t^oX^i  riit^;rr "  ^^ 

sea  in  allt tThe"v^^sf:e:t;^^^^^^^  "T  T'^^  "^  «^« 
view  of  their  work  if  wJi7«i  J'  ^''^  ^«='»°>en  have  a  better 
from  improved  desl^."^'"  "'*"''  ""'^  ^^"^^^  ^^"-cy  "suits 

wil^XtnSonst"'  t '".^  ""^*^""^  ''''''  ^^  --' 

^t^^^:^^:j^  -veiopment^b^r  e^gi!;:; 

in  the  changinn;:;^To:r  :S  "  '^"^'  "^  ^"^^  '''*=*"- 

Jc?s:^T„S^«?Ji^«°  ^"^  '^''^°  •''''"^'''  "y  considerations  of 

Limiting  size  will  be  detennined,  thereforp  h,  a 
owners  may  desire  to  put  in  a  sii^ll  .Z-         l^    ""''"°*  °^  "O"*?  «>« 

put  m  a  smgle  ship,  m  combination  with  other  factors 


TYPES  OF  VESSELS 


Types  of  Vessels 


Fast  Transatlantic  and  Transpacific  Express.  Oil  burning,  turbine 
engines  geared  direct,  or  electric  drive.  Loaded  displacement  30,000  to 
60,000  tons.  High  speed,  large  passenger  accommodation,  mml  and  special 
cargo  only. 


Slower,  passenger  and  mails.  Vessel  designed  for  service  to  South 
American  ports,  Africa,  The  Mediterranean  Ports,  and  for  tounst  cruising. 
Moderate  cargo  holds.  Oil  or  coal  burning  reciprocating  or  turbine  engines. 
10,000  to  30,000  tons  loaded  displacement. 

The  two  types  iUustrated  are  capable  of  a  large  range  of  vari- 
ation but  both  show  the  characteristics  of  such  large  passenger 
craft.  Harbor  depths,  wharves  and  length  of  run  are  limiting 
factors. 


The  S.  S.  Texan,  ISfiOO  tons  loaded  displacement.    A  typical  American  cargo 

carrier.    Reciprocating  engines. 


A  steam  tanker.  Wide  range  of  tonnage.  The  motor  tanker  fitted  with 
Diesel  type  engines  is  entering  this  field.  Most  tankers  have  their  power 
plant  aft  and  bridge  amidships. 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


fitted  with  a  large  stern  anchor 
of  the  stockless  type,  is  a  handy 
arrangement  from  the  point  of 
seamanship,  and  the  stern  wind- 
lass engine  can  operate  the  poop 
capstans.  ^ 

Having  the  stern  anchor  handy, 
to  be  let  go  in  an  instant,  or 
lowered  m  a  boat,  is  an  improve- 
ment over  the  system  employed 
essaiy  emergency  anchor  i,  ^  °?^  ''^^"'^  '"^^''^  tWs  nec- 
in  the  'tween  deck  '  "^"°  ^"""'^  '««J^ed  to  a  stanchion 


Crwser  Stern 


Freighter  with  Irna  fi r     p       ■  / 

tonnaye.  **  ^'"^  "'eU  deck.     Cruiser  stern.     Wide  range  of 


TYPES   OF  VESSELS 


Well  deck  forward,  topgallant  forecastle,  and  long  poop.  Passenger 
carrier  in  limited  trades,  cargo  and  passengers  from  port  to  port  in  coast  line 
service.     Tonnage  range  from  2,000  to  10,000, 


Flush  deck.  Awning  decked  cons  true  tion.  Coas  twise,  cargo  and  possibly 
small  passenger  accommodation.  1,000  to  6,000  tons  approximate  range  of 
displacement.  Fruit  steamers  are  generally  of  this  type  and  are  usually 
painted  white. 


Spar  decked,  cruiser  stern,  cargo  and  small  passenger  accommodation. 

Moderate  tonnage. 


•    •    »     •     ^     •\m     •     • 


A  United  States  naval  collier.    A  highly  specialized  type  of  craft  for  quick 
coaling  operations  at  sea,  or  in  part,  from  ship  to  ship. 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


The  motor  vessel.  The  passing  of  the  funnel,  comes  to  us  with  almost 
as  great  a  shock  as  the  passing  of  sail.  Something  has  gone  and  there  is 
nothing  to  take  its  place.  The  motor  ship,  as  it  is  generally  styled,  comes 
with  as  wide  a  variety  design  as  does  the  steamer.  When  the  stack  goes  a 
great  deal  of  dirt  and  waste  of  fuel  will  go  with  it.  Motor  vessels  of  the 
Diesel  and  hot-bulb  type  usually  carry  small  stacks. 

The  lake  steamer  is  a  t3rpical  American  product.  These 
vessels  are  distinguished  by  their  great  number  of  hatches,  and 
many  of  them  have  their  power  plant  aft  as  in  the  tankers,  while 
the  pilot  house  and  navigating  bridge  is  placed  close  to  the  bow. 


The  ^Hake  steamer, ^^  developed  for  the  carriage  of  grain,  coed,  and  ore 
in  bulk,  and  for  greater  economy  in  loading  and  discharging  by  machinery. 

Special  considerations  of  summer  navigation  have  developed 
this  type.  Construction  has  been  too  light  for  ocean  use,  and 
even  hazardous  in  the  early  and  late  months  of  the  season  when 
the  great  inland  lakes  are  often  swept  by  heavy  storms. 


The  "  whaleback  "  steamer  was  developed  on  the  Great  Lakes, 
bu  t  has  no  t  found  permanen  t  fa  vor. 

A  nimiber  of  other  special  t3rpes  of  seagoing  craft  have  been 
designed  and  some  have  achieved  considerable  use. 


TYPES  OF  VESSELS 


Hohns,   in   his   standard   work,    "Practical   Shipbuilding" 
describes  the  turret  deck  steamer  as  follows: 


The  "  turret  deck  "  steamer  has  been  very  popular  with  the  British,  and 
presents  certain  advantages  from  a  measurement  standpoint. 

"The  Turret-deck  type,  now  practically  obsolete,  may  be 
regarded  as  a  development  of  the  American  whale-back;  the 
only  resemblance,  however,  is  in  the  rounded  gunwale  and  the 
absence  of  sheer;  under  water  the  hull  is  of  normal  form.  Its 
peculiarity  lies  in  the  fore-and-aft  superstructure,  which  re- 
sembles a  continuous  high-coaminged  hatchway,  decked  over, 
however,  except  in  the  way  of  the  hatchway  openmgs;  it  is 
termed  the  *  turret  deck.'  Several  advantages  are  claimed  for 
this  design,  particularly  its  suitability  for  carrying  grain  m  bulk." 

In  the  sketches  of  vessels  relative  size  is  partly  indicated  by 
the  proportion  of  the  upper  works. 

Extreme  size  in  vesel  construction  seems  to  have  been  reached. 
The  pre-war  competition  between  Great  Britain  and  Germany  in 
the  Transatlantic  Trade  was  bringing  forth  such  monsters  as 
the  Leviathan  (formerly  the  Vaterland),  the  Imperator,  and  the 
Bismarck,  while  the  British  came  back  with  ships  like  the 
Aquitania,* 


Aquitania: — 


Leviathan: — 


868.7'  Length 
97'     Breadth 
49.7'  Depth 

907.6'  Length 
100.3'  Breadth 
58.2'  Depth 

Imperator: —  882.9'  Length 

(re-named  Berengaria)     98.3'  Breadth 

57.1'  Depth 

Bismarck: —  912'     Length 

(re-named  Majestic)       100'     Breadth 

57.1'  Depth 


45,647  Gross  tonnage. 
28,408  Under  deck  tonnage. 
21,993  Net  tonnage. 

54,282  Gross  tonnage. 
37,384  Under  deck  tonnage. 
23,548  Net  tonnage. 

52,022  Gross  tonnage. 
36,307  Under  deck  tonnage. 
23,229  Net  tonnage. 

56,000  Gross  tonnage. 


8 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


This  period,  for  a  time  at  least,  seems  to  have  come  to  a  stop. 
The  tremendous  liner  is  so  limited  in  use,  so  expensive  to  run 
and  maintain,  that  more  moderate  and  better  balanced  craft 
may  be  looked  for  in  the  immediate  future. 

Motor  or  Steam 

The  question  of  motor  propulsion  or  steam  propulsion  is  of 
interest,  involving  problems  of  comparative  economy,  and  even- 
tually, at  least,  the  available  supply  of  oil  or  solid  fuel.  Motor- 
shipy  a  magazine  published  in  the  interests  of  motor  driven 
commercial  vessels,  has  issued  the  following  interesting  com- 
parison for  construction  in  1920.  What  the  comparison  will  be 
in  1930  is  left  to  the  imagination  of  the  reader. 

Comparison  Between  an  OU-fired  Steamer  and  a  Diesel-driven  Motorship  of 

'  the  Same  Dimensions 
(Taken  from  an  Existing  Motor  Vessel) 

Steamer  Motorship 

Length  O.  A 440  ft 440  ft. 

Length  B.  P 425  ft 425  ft. 

Breadth 56  ft 56  ft. 

Depth 38  ft 38  ft. 

Draught  (Loaded) 26  ft 26  ft. 

Dead-weight-capacity 9,350  tons 9,500  tons 

Fuel-Capacity 1,300  tons 1,300  tons 

Cargo-Capacity     (Maximum     on     7,600 

Miles  Voyage) 7,970  tons 8,925  tons 

Designed  Loaded-Speed 13i^  Knots 13  Knots 

Probable  Average  Sea-Speed  for  1  year .  .    111/2  to  12  Knots .  12  to  121/2  Knots 

Power 4,000  LH.P 4,000  LH.P. 

Propeller  Speed 85  R.P.M 100  R.P.M. 

Reserve  Emergency  Power 15  % 30  % 

Cruising  Radius  (in  days) 33  100 

Cruising  Radius  (in  miles) 10,296 31,200 

Daily  Fuel-Consumption  (loaded) 38  tons 12 1/2  tons 

Consumption  per  LH.P.  hour 0.95  lb 0.30  lb. 

Lubricating-Oil  consumption  per  day 7  gallons 12  gallons 

Fresh-Water    Carried    (including    for 

Boilers) 150  tons 50  tons 

Daily  Fuel-Consimiption  in  Port 31/2  tons IV4  tons 

Engine-room  Staff 23  men 17  men 

♦Annual  Wages  (Machinery-Staff  Only) . .  .$22,500 $20,820 

Total  Ship's  Crew 49  Men  and  43  Men  and 

Officers  Officers 

First  Cost  of  Ship $1,400,000.00 $1,540,000.00 

First  Cost  of  Ship  per  Cargo-Capacity-Ton  .$175,65 $172.54 

First  Cost  of  Ship  per  D.W.C.  Ton $150.00 $161.68 

*  American  scale.    The  loaded  displacement  of  both  ships  is  the  same. 


TYPES  OF  VESSELS 


n 

Sailing  Craft 

Sailing  craft  have  always  been  an  important  part  of  the  mer- 
chant marine  of  the  United  States  and,  at  the  present  time,  1921, 
nearly  a  million  and  a  half  gross  tons  of  our  shipping  are  pro- 
pelled by  sail  alone,  or  by  sail  and  motor.  The  high  cost  of  fuel, 
frequent  delays  in  bunkering,  and  the  added  cost  of  the  engineer- 
ing crew,  make  the  sailer  an  economic  factor  in  the  carriage  of 
cargo  overseas.  Bulk  cargoes,  lumber,  and,  in  fact  all,  non- 
perishable  goods  are  easily  transported  by  sail  over  the  long 
routes  where  trade  wind  conditions  make  for  speed  almost  equal 
to  that  of  the  slow  tramp.  Sailing  craft  have  increased  in  size 
and  today  we  have  the  five  masted  bark  France ,  the  largest 
sailing  craft  afloat.  She  flys  the  French  flag  and  is  the  logical 
outcome  of  the  many  years  of  consistent  development  of  long 
voyage  sailing  ships  and  sailors,  by  the  French  Government. 
The  France  displaces  10,500  tons  and  carries  a  deadweight  of 
7,500  tons.  She  is  430  feet  over  all  and  55.8  feet  beam,  and 
spreads  75,000  square  feet  of  sail.  The  France  has  averaged 
17  knots  for  a  days  run;  her  crew  consists  of  fifty-five  men.* 

*  The  American  clipper  ship  Sovereign  of  the  Seas,  as  recorded  by  Captain 
Arthur  H.  Clark  in  his  Clipper  Ship  Era,  is  supposed  to  have  attained  bursts 
of  speed  up  to  19  knots,  making  an  average  days  run  of  17%  knots  on  March 
18,  1853.  She  did  this  with  a  sprung  foretopmast,  fished  by  the  crew.  Her 
complement  was  105  men  and  boys,  eighty  of  these  were  able  seamen^  not 
cotmting  the  officers,  a  Master  and  four  Mates,  two  boatswains,  two  carpenters, 
and  two  sailmakers.    She  carried  under  three  thousand  tons  dead  weight. 

Other  fast  runs  under  sail,  all  of  them  in  excess  of  the  above,  and  all  made 
by  American  built  ships,  are  the  following: 

Ship  James  Baines^  Black  Ball  Line,  January,  1855,  when  running  the 
easting  down,  bound  out  to  Melbourne,  day's  run — 420  knots. 

Ship  Donald  McKay^  Black  Ball  Line,  Feb.  27,  1855,  Boston  to  Liverpool, 
on  her  maiden  voyage,  day's  run — 421  knots. 

Ship  Lightening^  Black  Ball  Line,  March  19,  1857  when  running  the 
easting  down  bound  out  to  Melbourne,  day's  nm — 430  knots. 

This  same  ship,  on  her  maiden  voyage,  Boston  to  Liverpool,  logged  the 
world's  record  day's  run  on  March  1,  1855 — 436  knots. 

The  ship  James  Baines  hung  up  the  world's  record  for  hourly  speed.  The 
following  is  from  her  log  book: 

"June  17th.  (1856),  Lat.  44,  S.,  Long.  106,  E.,  ship  going  21  knots  with 
main  skysail  set."     The  James  Baines  sailed  under  British  colors. 


10 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


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TYPES  OF  VESSELS 


11 


At  the  present  time  the  rig  coming  into  favor  with  Americans 
is  the  four  and  five  masted  barkentine,  a  good  rig  for  working 
to  windward  and  reasonably  able  in  going  before  the  wind. 
These  craft  are  generally  fitted  with  twin  screw  motors. 

The  problem  of  the  present  day  of  large  ships  and  small  crews 
is  set  forth  by  a  very  able  sailor,  Captain  C.  T.  Larsen  of  Seattle, 
quoted  in  an  excellent  article  by  Mr.  Fred.  B.  Jacobs,  in  the 
Marine  Review  of  Aug.,  1920,  on  the  economic  status  of  sailing 
craft.    Captain  Larsen's  observations  follow: 

"  In  a  very  large  sailing  ship,  the  sails  and  rigging  are  too 
heavy  for  economical  operation.  The  larger  the  sail  is,  the  more 
difficult  it  is  to  take  in  during  a  gale  and  it  often  blows  away. 
Again,  it  is  much  easier  to  get  charters  for  the  smaller  vessels. 
Where  a  large  steamer  will  take  a  cargo  for  half  a  dozen  different 
ports,  this  procedure  would  not  pay  with  a  sailing  ship  on  account 
of  the  extra  expense  and  loss  of  time  in  moving  from  port  to  port. 

"I  do  not  think  it  would  prove  economical  to  carry  the 
enormous  spread  of  canvas  that  the  old-time  clipper  ships  did. 
A  vessel  would  be  compelled  to  carry  an  ab-  ^^  ^^^^^  ^^^_ 
normally  large  crew  and  the  extra  sails  and  gear    ^^^  expensive 

would  be  comparatively  expensive,  making  the     

extra  cost  of  operation  more  than  offset  the  gain  in  speed. 

"  For  certain  trades  it  is  more  economical  to  operate  sailing 
vessels  than  steamers.    The  lumber  trade  from  the  Pacific 
coast  to  Australia  furnishes  a  good  illustration   5^,7^^^ 
because  the  prevailing  winds  are  such  that  a  sail-    economical 

ing  vessel  can  make  good  time.    Some  of  the    

schooners  and  barkentines  on  the  Pacific  make  excellent  running 
time,  up  to  14  knots  an  hour.  In  the  barkentine,  Koko  Head^ 
while  I  was  master,  we  made  336  miles  one  day  and  on  the 
following  day  305  miles.  We  also  made  the  passage  from  Cape 
Flattery  to  Delagoa  bay  in  85  days,  from  Delagoa  ^  ^^^ 
Bay  to  Newcastle,  N.  S.  W.,  in  30  days  and  from  -^ — 
Newcastle  to  Kahului,  T.  H.,  in  36  days. 

"  Aside  from  the  cannery  ships  operating  on  the  Pacific  coast, 
going  to  Alaska  in  the  spring  and  coming  back  in  the  fall  to  lay 
up  all  winter  at  San  Francisco,  there  are  not  many  square-rigged 
ships  or  barks  operated  on  the  Pacific.  There  are,  however, 
quite  a  number  of  barkentines  and,  in  my  opin-    ^^^  Barkentine 

ion,  the  barkentine  is  the  best  rig  of  all.    It  offers     

a  large  spread  of  canvas  to  run  with  when  the  wind  is  aft  and 
it  also  has  the  advantage  of  fore-and-aft  sails  when  the  wind  is 
abeam,  or  forward  of  the  beam. 


12 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


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"  In  considering  the  various  types  of  deep  water  vessels,  it 
is  found  that  each  kind  possesses  certam  advantages.  A  square- 
rieced  vessel  can  spread  a  lot  of  canvas  in  a  fair  wind  and  ^th 
the  wind  abeam  or  aft  of  the  beam  she  can  make  good  time,  often 
outsailing  a  tramp  steamer  for  days  at  a  time.  The  square 
rieeer  is  also  a  good  heavy  weather  ship.  To  be  sure  it  takes  a 
smart  crew  to  make  and  take  in  sail  because  there  are  so  many 
sails  to  handle.  On  the  other  hand,  a  square  rigger  will  often 
run  for  days  at  a  tune  in  favorable  trade  wmds  without  lettmg 

go  a  single  sheet.  .  j  xt.-« 

"To  do  her  best,  the  rigging  of  a  square  rigger,  and  this 
applies  particularly  to  the  standmg  rigging,  must  be  kept  set  up. 
Her  bobstay,  martingale  stay  and  martmgale    mms<  keep 
back  ropes  must  be  taut  enough  to  keep  the  head-    rjggjng  set  up 
stays  taut.    The  stram  in  turn  being  taken  by  the    — -  : 

backstays,  the  entire  rigging  is  taut  which  keeps  the  spars  in 
place.  Let  the  lanyards  on  the  backstays  work  loose  and  the 
whole  standing  rigging  gives  every  tune  the  ship  pitches.  This, 
of  course,  brings  an  enormous  strain  on  the  spars. 

"  In  considering  the  sails  of  a  square  rigger,  if  they  are  sheeted 
home  properly  and  the  yards  correctly  braced,  the  spars  do  not 
have  a  change  to  give  to  any  extent  as  the  ship  pitches.    To  be 
sure,  the  sails  may  slat  against  the  masts  in  light    Mmntages  of 
airs,  when  a  heavy  sea  is  running,  but  the  fact    square  rig 
that  the  entire  running  and  standing  rigging  is  - 

adequately  braced  against  the  strains  brought  about  by  the 
motion  of  the  ship,  is  a  point  decidedly  in  favor  of  the  square 

rig.  J. 

"The  square  rig,  on  the  other  hand,  possesses  some  dis- 
advantages.   In  the  first  place,  nowadays  it  is  a  hard  problem 
to  find  enough  able-bodied  seamen  to  man  a    square  rig 
craft  of  this  t3rpe  properly.    This  accounts  for  the    disadvantages 
fact  that  many  a  square  rigger  loses  half  her  can-    -;  ; 

vas  before  a  green  crew  is  broken  in.  Again,  it  requires  a 
comparatively  large  crew  to  handle  a  square  rigger.  Further, 
a  square  rigger  will  not  make  good  headway  when  sailing  on 
the  wind.  Many  of  them  will  not  lay  up  within  seven  points. 
No  square  rigger  will  lay  closer  than  six  points  and  even  then 
her  speed  is  retarded  as  it  is  impossible  to  keep  her  sails  full  at 
all  times,  due  to  the  pitching  caused  by  head  q„  ^J^g  j^j^d 
seas  striking  her  weather  bow.  To  be  sure,  in 
the  old  clipper  ship  days,  bowlines  were  rigged  to  haul  out  the 
weather  leaches  of  the  sails.  However,  the  modern  square 
rigger  seldom  steadies  out  bowlines  as  it  is  too  much  bother. 
Again  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  bowlines  must  be  let  go 
and  steadied  out  again  every  time  the  ship  is  tacked.  This  calls 
for  a  larger  crew  than  the  modern  square  rigger  generally  carries. 


14 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


TYPES   OF  VESSELS 


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"The  large  number  of  sails  and  yards  on  a  square  rigger 
make  her  difficult  to  handle  in  coming  about  as  all  the  yards 
must  be  hauled.    With  the  helm  alee  and  the    ^^^^^^  number 

head  of  the  ship  within  about  a  point  and  a  half   "^fj^ 

of  the  wind,  if  the  order  *  mainsail  haul '  is  given    

and  carried  out  just  at  the  right  moment,  the  yards  will  swing 
of  themselves,  as  any  deep  water  sailor  knows.  And  if  a  good 
run  is  made  with  the  braces,  they  can  be  run    difficulty  of 

nearly  sharp  up  on  the  other  tack  on  one  run.    fucking 

With  an  inexperienced  crew,  if  the  run  is  left    

until  the  ship's  head  is  in  the  wind,  the  sail  is  becalmed  and 
before  it  can  be  got  sharp  up,  the  wind  on  the  other  bow  will  cause 
a  dead  haul.  This  looks  easy  on  paper  but  with  the  small  crews 
allotted  to  modern  square  riggers  it  is  a  man's  job. 

"  Sometimes,  when  the  wind  shifts  suddenly,  a  square  rigger 
is  caught  all  aback,  that  is,  the  wind  is  bearing  on  the  forward 
part  of  the  sails.    Then  the  ship  must  be  boxed    ^j^^p  ^^j^^^ 

off  which  calls  for  good  judgment.    Sometimes    -^^^ 

she  refuses  to  box  off  in  which  case  the  officer   

on  watch  must  proceed  as  if  he  were  staying  ship. 

"  Just  imagine  for  a  moment  what  it  means  to  handle  a  square 
rigger  on  a  night  as  dark  as  a  *  score  of  black  cats '  and  it  is 
readily  seen  where  seamanship  of  the  highest    ^^^  gf^|pg  f^^^^ 

order  is  required.     Modern  square  riggers  are    ^  handle 

not  as  easily  handled  as  the  shorter  clippers  of    

half  a  century  ago.    These  ships  could  be  brought  about  in  heavy 
weather   when  under   doubled  reefed   topsails   and    courses; 
that  is,  if  the  sea  was  not  running  too  high.    Modem  ships 
Present-day  ships  will   not  come  about   when    ;nMs<  wear  in 
under  shortened  sail  and  for  this  reason  it  is    ^^^     weather 
necessary  to  wear  them  around.  

"  About  the  only  advantage  possessed  by  a  bark  over  a  ship, 
assuming  that  in  both  cases  the  vessel  is  a  3-master,  is  that  the 
bark  can  be  handled  by  a  smaller  crew.    The    j^^^  hark  needs 
spanker  and  the  gafif  topsail,  being  fore-and-aft    gj^aiier  crew — 

sails,  take  care  of  themselves  in  tacking.    The    

barkentine  possesses  a  decided  advantage  in  the  opinion  of 
many  seamen  over  a  bark  or  a  ship  in  that  it  is  easily  handled, 
owing  to  the  absence  of  a  large  number  of  square  sails.  Again, 
a  barkentine  possesses  practically  all  the  advantages  of  a 
schooner  for  working  to  windward  with  the  added  value  of  square 
sails  for  running  free. 

"  The  principal  advantage  of  a  fore-and-aft  rigged  vessel  is 
that  it  is  quite  easy  to  handle  in  tacking  ship.    With  the  fore- 
and-aft  rigged  craft,  she  is  in  her  ssrfest  position    Advantages  of 
wrtn  her  head  near  the   wmd.    There  is  no    ^y^  ^^^  ^^^^^ 
danger   of   being  caught  aback  in  tacking   or    


16 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


TYPES  OF  VESSELS 


17 


III 


II 


through  a  sudden  shift  of  wind.  This  rig  possesses  its  dis- 
advantages, the  principal  one  of  which  is  wear  r,-  , 
and  tear  on  the  sails.  It  must  be  remembered  ^^^°^^^^^^^^ 
that  the  gaffs  are  comparatively  heavy  and  that  when  the  vessel 
is  pitching  in  a  heavy  sea,  without  making  much  headway,  the 
slatting  of  these  heavy  spars  throws  an  enormous  strain  on  the 
sails  and  masts.  Again,  fore-and-aft  sails  re'^uire  much  atten- 
tion in  reefing  as  they  are  more  liable  to  be  split  than  are  square 
sails.  This,  of  course,  happens  through  the  earings  and  points 
not  being  properly  tied.  It  is  an  easy  matter  for  an  inexperi- 
enced man,  or  an  indifferent  seaman,  to  make  a  mistake  of  this 
kind  on  a  dark  night.  The  fact  that  a  fore-and-aft  rigged  vessel 
can  be  handled  by  a  small  crew,  however,  has  caused  this  rig 
to  become  popular  on  this  side. 

"  Fore-and-aft  riggers  are  not  in  common  use  in  European 
waters  due  to  the  fact  that  continental  navigators  favor  square- 
rigged  craft.    Thus,  for  small  craft  the  brig, 
brigantine  and  hermaphrodite  brig  are  favorite    ^"^^^^°" 
rigs.    Topsail  schooners  are  sometimes  used  in    ^^°^^'^^ 
European  waters,  however,  although  this  rig  is  seldom  seen  on 
this  side  of  the  Atlantic  or  on  the  Pacific.    A  topsail  schooner  may 
carry  a  fore  topsail  and  fore  topgallant  in  addition  to  her  fore- 
and-aft  sails.    The  advantages  of  this  rig  are  that  the  square 
sails  give  a  comparatively  large  spread  of  canvas  for  running. 

"The  coming  sailing  vessel  of  the  future,  however,  is  the 
auxiliary;  no  matter  what  her  rig  may  be.    A  vessel  fitted  with 
crude-oil  engines,  placed  aft  for  convenience, 
offers  a  decided  advantage  to  navigators  and  one    i  ,.  ^^^^^ 
that  is  beginning  to  be  appreciated.    Internal    ^°»^'^  ^^^^^^ 
combustion  engines  take  up  a  certain  amount  of  hold  space,  to 
be  sure,  but  the  advantage  gained  through  being  able  to  make 
headway  in  all  kinds  of  weather  should  not  be  undervalued. 
When  a  dead  beat  to  windward  is  encountered,  instead  of  sailing 
500  miles  to  make  250,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  start  the  engines 
Mid  plow  ahead  right  in  the  wind's  eye.    i^ain,  in  light  airs, 
the  engines  can  be  used  to  advantage  in  decreasing  the  port-to- 
port  time.    If  the  vessel  should  happen  to  be  dismasted,  the 
engmes  are  there  to  be  called  into  service.    If  anchored  near 
a  lee  shore  with  no  chance  of  ratching  off — start  the  engines." 

Captain  Larsen's  able  summing  up  of  sailing  craft  is  given  in 
tms  part  of  Standard  Seamanship  so  that  a  correct  understanding 
may  be  had  of  the  present  status  of  saiL  Many  authors  dismiss 
sau  with  a  few  sad  words  of  farewell.  They  simply  jettison  a 
subject  that  none  but  sailors  may  write  about  with  authority. 

f.Su    ^®^/®^  ^^  referred  to  Chapter  19— Handling  A  Sailer,  for 
lurther  mformation  on  the  subject. 


18 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


TYPES  OF  VESSELS 


19 


Barken+inc 


Brig 


Briganfme 


Three  Masted  Schooner 


Topsail  Schooner 


(I 


Ketch 


Yawl 


Slooj 


Standard  types  of  sailing  craft. 


m 

Tonnage 

The  tonnage  measurement  of  vessels  is  determined  in  a 
number  of  ways  depending  upon  the  manner  in  which  the  meas- 
urement is  intended  to  be  applied.  The  different  tonnage 
measurements  are  tabulated  as  follows : 

Gross  Tonnage 

Net  Registered  Tonnage 

Under  Deck  Tonnage 

Deadweight  Capacity 

Displacement 

Power-tonnage 

Equipmen  t-  tonnage 
Gross  Tonnage^  is  the  internal  capacity  of  the  vessel,  ex- 
pressed in  units  of  100  cubic  feet.    This  unit  is  based  on  Moor- 
som's   system  of  ship  measurement  in  which  the  "  ton "  is 
arbitrarily  figured  at  100  cubic  feet. 

Net  Registered  Tonnage,  sometimes  referred  to  as  Registered 
Tonnage,  or  the  Net  Tonnage,  is  arrived  at  by  deducting  from 
the  gross  tonnage  the  spaces  taken  by  boilers,  engines,  shaft 
alleys,  steering  apparatus,  chain  lockers,  chart  house,  officer's 
quarters,  crew  forecastle,  and  other  spaces  not  available  for  the 
carriage  of  passengers  or  cargo.* 

Net  tonnage  is  used  in  computing  harbor  and  port  dues, 
canal  tolls,  and  other  tolls,  except  pilotage,  where  the  draft  is 
usually  the  unit  of  measurement  in  computing  charges. 

Under  Deck  Tonnage  is  somewhere  between  the  Gross  and 
Net  tonnage  measurement.  It  is  the  tonnage,  by  100  cubic  feet 
increments,  measured  below  the  second  deck  from  below,  that  is 

*  A  great  part  of  the  ancient  commerce  between  France  and  England  con- 
sisted of  cargoes  of  wine  carried  in  great  casks,  or  tuns.  The  carrying 
capacity  of  different  vessels  was  expressed  in  this  imit,  ultimately  corrupted 
to  ton.    The  weight  of  a  tun  of  wine  was  approximately  2,000  lbs. 

An  exceedingly  interesting  paper,  "  Rules  for  the  Calculation  of  Tonnage 
and  Their  History j*'  by  Lieut.  Commander  Carl  H.  Hermance,  U.  S.  N.  R.  F. 
may  be  found  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  U.  S.  Naval  Institute,  March,  1920. 
And,  by  the  way,  all  Naval  Reserve  Officers  should  belong  to  the  U.  S.  Naval 
Institute.  The  dues  are  $3.00  per  year.  The  Proceedings  are  published 
monthly  and  are  of  exceptional  professional  interest.  Address,  the  Secretary, 
Annapolis,  Maryland. 


20 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


TYPES  OF  VESSELS 


21 


tonnage  below  the  tonnage  deck.  This  deck  is  the  upper  deck 
m  vessels  having  not  more  than  two  decks,  and  the  second 
deck  from  below  in  vessels  having  three  or  more  decks. 

The  U.  S.  Navigation  Laws  require  that  aU  spaces  deducted 
from  the  gross  tonnage  be  marked  certifying  to  their  use,  such  as, 

u  rlt^t  ^f  '^^^"^^  ^^^'  "   "  ^^^^^^  f«^  ^^&^^  space;  " 
certified  for  accommodation  of  Master;"    "Certified  for 
stowage  of  sails,"  etc.* 

Certification  legends  must  be  permanently  cut  in  a  beam  over 
the  door  leading  to  the  respective  places.f 

Deadweight  capacity  is  the  actual  carrymg  capacity  of  the 
vessel.  It  IS  the  most  sensible  means  of  comparing  cargo  ships. 
It  IS  smiply  the  weight  of  the  cargo  the  vessel  can  carry.  In 
passenger  craft,  the  deadweight  carrying  capacity  varies  through 
wide  limits,  depending  upon  the  proportion  of  the  vessel  given 
over  to  cargo  holds.  V^eight  of  fresh  water,  bunker  fuel,  stores 
and  crew  is  included  in  figuring  deadweight  tonnage.]: 

r^l^^rf^^  ^**'"  ^^  "measurement  of  ships,  to  obtain  the  gross  and  net 
s™\  "^If*"  ^e  lengthy  and  without  the  scope  of  a  work  devoted  to 
Z^r^u'  .^^\'^^^^'  ^^<>  ^^es  to  foUow  the  subject  of  ship  measure- 
ment  further  IS  referred  to  the  foUowing:  f         ^uic 

Measurement  of  Vessels,  Department  of  Commerce,  Washington,  D.  C. 
The  change  for  this  is  ten  cents-it  is  very  complete. 

TradT,^ndrn    ^^'""''"^  '"^  ^^^  Measurement  of  Ships,  British  Board  of 
Reglement  de  Navigation  dans  le  Canal  Maritime  de  Suez 
Smipson's   The  Naval   Constructor  gives  concise  rules  governing  the 

measurements  for  register  tomiage,  deductions  for  engine  room,  etc.,  and  the 

subdivisions  for  measuring  tonnage  sections. 

White's  Manual  of  Naval  Architecture,  also  gives  detaUed  information  on 

tonnage  laws  and  measurements.    This  is  an  important  subject  and  plays  a 

large  part  m  the  ultimate  design  of  merchant  vessels 

H  JI-^^'l'^  documented  vessel  of  the  United  States  must  have  the  figures 

denotmg  her  tomiage  deeply  carved,  or  otherwise  permanently  marked,  on 

^V^^fT^  .  ,f  "'^^'^  ''^''  *'  ^^  ^^  "^^^^  ^^  ^^  ^^  «^^ject 
to  a  fine  of  tlurty  dollars  on  every  arrival  in  a  port  of  the  United  States  while 
left  unmarked."    R.  S.  4153,  Sec.  5.  u  owes  wniie 

fnni J^"""^^  ^^  '^^j'  ^^^*  ""^  'P*'^  "«  ^°««d  to  the  ton  in  computing 

n^';-"'/'''?''^^  ^'^'^^'  ^^"^"^  ^^^^^  "PO"  ^^  b^  of  the  cargo! 
c?2  ^   '  ^f  V'^y.^e  ^«wed.    This  is  the  space  occupied  by  a  ton  of  good 

ave"  ge'^^^^^^  ^^^'  "^^  ^^  ^''  '"  ^^--  ^-^  required  for  a  ton  oJ 

A  cargo  ton  is  estimated  either  by  weight  or  by  measurement. 


Displacement  is  the  actual  weight  of  the  entire  vessel  and  all 
that  is  in  her.  Displacement  varies  with  the  draft.  This  ton- 
nage is  figured  in  long  tons  (2,240  lbs.).* 

Light  displacement  is  the  weight  of  the  vessel  with  holds  and 
bunkers  empty. 

Heavy  displacement  is  the  displacement  when  a  vessel  is 
completely  loaded,  cargo  and  bunker  spaces  filled,  and  vessel 
down  to  her  deepest  mark. 

The  tonnage  of  men  of  war  is  generally  given  in  terms  of 
displacement  with  normal  coal  and  ammunition  and  other  sup- 
plies on  board. 

Displacement  in  salt  and  fresh  water  varies,  that  is  the 
amoimt  of  water  displaced  is  more  in  fresh  than  in  salt  water. 
Thirty-five  cubic  feet  of  salt  water  weigh  one  long  ton,  and 
thirty-six  cubic  feet  of  fresh  water  also  weigh  one  long  ton. 
This  gives  rise  to  the  greater  draft  of  vessels  in  fresh  water. 
A  vessel  loaded  to  her  marks  in  fresh  water  will  lift  clear  when 
coming  into  salt  water,  that  is  she  can  actually  carry  more  cargo 
on  a  salt  water  voyage  when  loaded  to  the  same  draft. 

The  following  rule  is  useful  in  this  connection  and  should  be 
remembered.  Consider  river  water  as  weighing  63  lbs.  per 
cubic  foot,  while  salt  water  weighs  64  lbs.  per  cubic  foot. 

Therefore  a  vessel  can  be  loaded  to  her  marks  in  river  water, 
and  one  sixty-fourth  (by  weight)  added  to  her  cargo.  This  will 
submerge  her  marks,  but  on  entering  salt  water  she  will  lift  to 
her  marks  due  to  its  greater  density.  That  is,  if  6,400  tons 
have  been  put  on  board,  and  the  vessel  is  down  to  her  marks, 

*  The  weight  ton  in  the  United  States  and  in  British  countries  is  the  English 
long  or  gross  ton  of  2,240  poimds.  In  France  and  other  countries  having  the 
metric  system  a  weight  ton  is  2,204.6  pounds. 

A  measurement  ton  is  usually  40  cubic  feet,  but  in  some  instances  a  larger 
number  of  cubic  feet  is  taken  for  a  ton.  Most  ocean  package  freight  is  taken 
at  weight  or  measurement  (W/M),  ship»s  option.  Roughly  speaking,  the  tons 
of  cargo  that  can  be  carried  by  a  freight  steamer  can  be  obtained  by  multi- 
plying the  net  tonnage  by  2.5. 

For  a  modem  freight  steamer  the  following  relative  tonnage  figures  would 
ordinarily  be  approximately  correct:  net  tonnage,  4,000;  gross  tonnage,  6,000; 
deadweight  carrying  capacity,  10,000;  displacement  loaded,  about  13,350. 

—U.  S.  Shipping  Board  Bulletin. 


n  . 


22 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


TYPES   OF  VESSELS 


23 


Co 

I 
s 


6 


8 


100  tons  more  can  be  added  if  she  is  to  go  from  fresh  to  salt 

water.* 
The  displacement  measurement  is  most  useful  in  the  loading 

and  trimming  of  vessels  through  the  use  of  the  Displacement 

curve  and  the  Tons  per  Inch  scale.    All  modern  steamers  are 

supplied  with  this  curve  and  scale  and  from  it  the  weight  of  the 

vessel  can  betaken  by  reading  the  draft,  fore  and  aft,takmg  the 

mean,  and  setting  it  off  on  the  scale. 

To  arrive  at  the  displacement  of  a  merchant  vessel  with  a  fair 
degree  of  accuracy  estimate  the  block  coefficient  (if  not  known) 
that  is  the  ratio  of  the  volume  of  the  ship  under  water  to  the 
volume  of  a  block  having  length,  breadth,  and  depth,  equal  to 
the  length,  beam,  and  draft  of  the  vessel  under  consideration. 

The  following  block  coefficients  or  coefficients  of  fineness,  are 
given  by  Biles,  in  Design  and  Construction  of  Ships: 

Very  full  Qargo  vessels  up  to  8  knots 85  to  9 

Full  cargo  vessels  up  to  12  knots 8    to  85 

Large  cargo  vessels  up  to  12  to  14  knots 76  to  82 

Intermediate  cargo  and  coastwise  vessels 65  to  7 

Fast  Atlantic  Liners 6    to  65 

English  Channel  passenger  steamers 5    to  6 

Battleships 6    to  65 

Cruisers 48  to  55 

Sailing  vessels 6    to  72 

Yachts  (sailing) 3    to  52 

Walton  in  Know  Your  Own  Ship  puts  it  this  way  with  regard  to 
estimating  the  coefficient  of  fineness,  and,  as  estimating  is  more 
or  less  a  matter  of  intelligent  guess  work,  we  give  his  directions : 

*  Example:  A  ship  having  1,200  tons  displacement,  12'  6"  mean  draft  in 
sea  water,  and  6  tons  per  inch  immersion  at  this  draft;  what  would  be  her 
draft  in  fresh  water? 

First  find  volume  displacement  in  fresh  water,  which  is  1,200  X  36  =  43,200 
cu.  ft.  From  this,  subtract  volume  displacement  in  sea  water,  which  is 
1,200  X  35  =  42,000  cu.  ft.  43,200  -  42,000  =  1,200  CU.  ft.,  which  is 
voliune  of  layer  or  water  plane  between  fresh  and  sea  water  drafts. 

As  the  tons  per  inch  immersion  at  this  draft  are  6;  then  the  change  in 
draft  in  inches  =  Ve  X  1,200  ^  36  =  5.5  in.;  5.5"  +  12'  6"  =  12'  11.5" 
draft  in  fresh  water. 

— From  The  Naval  Artificer's  Manual,  U.  S.  Naval  Institute, 


^*  STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 

.8  (coef.  fineness),  would  be  a  very  full  vessel. 

.7  to  .75,  an  average  cargosteamer. 

.65,  a  moderately  fine  cargo  steamer. 

.6,  a  fine  passenger  steamer. 

.5,  an  exceedingly  fine  steamer,  but  an  average  for 

steam  yachts. 
.4,  a  very  fine  steam  yacht. 

Let  us  figure  the  displacement  tonnage  of  a  vessel,  taking  our 
amiensions  as  follows.— Just  to  make  it  easy: 

Length  600  feet 
Beam      60    " 
Draft      30    " 

Our  vessel  is  a  large  craft  carrying  passengers  and  cargo 
and  we  will  assume  her  block  coefllcient  to  be  .7. 
Then  we  have  the  following  calculation: 

.   ^  600  X  60  X  30 

35  ^  26,600  +  (approx.)  tons  displacement, 

35  being  the  cubic  feet  of  sea  water  to  a  ton. 

Power-tonnage  is  the  sum  of  the  gross  tonnage  and  the  mdi- 
cated  horsepower  of  the  engines.  This  measurement  was 
devised  to  provide  a  comparison  between  vessels  for  the  purpose 
of  determining  their  importance.  It  is  sometimes  used  in 
aUottmg  salary  schedules  for  American  Merchant  Marine  oflicers. 
A  vessel  of  ten  thousand  gross  tons  and  five  thousand  I.H  P 
would  be  rated  as  of  15,000  power-tons.  Also  a  craft  of  five 
thousand  gross  tons  and  ten  thousand  I.H.P.  would  be  a  15,000 
power-tons  craft,  the  commands  being  considered  of  equal  im- 
portance and  entitled  to  the  same  rate  of  pay.* 

(Figures  are  inclusive) 
^^*^^®^  Single  Screws  Twin  Screws 

^ Over  20,001  Over  15,001 

^ 12,001  to  20,000        9,001  to  15,000 

^ 7,501  to  12,000        5,501  to    9,000 

^ 5,001  to    7,500        3,501  to    5,500 

__    ••; Below    5,001  Below    3,501 

Vessels  are  classed  according  to  their  "  power-tonnage,"  represented  by 
gross  tonnage  plus  indicated  horsepower  as  given  in  the  latest  «  List  of 
Merchant  Vessels  of  the  United  States,"  compOed  by  the  Commissioner  of 
Navigation. 


TYPES  OF  VESSELS 


25 


Equipment  tonnage.  The  Equipment  Tonnage  of  a  ship  is 
that  tonnage  arrived  at  from  certain  dimensions  given  in  the 
Classification  Society  Rules  which  take  into  consideration  the 
exposed  surfaces  both  above  and  below  water,  and  is  used 
primarily  to  determine  the  size  of  anchors,  chains,  and  hawsers. 

Equipment  tonnage  very  closely  approximates  the  gross 
tonnage  in  most  ships  of  ordinary  construction. 


IV 

Linear  Dimensions 

Other  ship  dimensions  are  often  subject  to  confusion  through 
careless  use  of  terms.  The  following  principal  measurements 
are  defined : 

Length  over  all 

Length  between  perpendiculars 

Length,  registered 

Length  for  tonnage 

Length  by  A.B.S.*  Rules 

Length  on  load  water  line 

Flood  able  length 

Depth  moulded 

Depth  by  A.B.S.  Rules 

Depth  registered  or  Depth  of  Hold 

Breadth  moulded 

Breadth  registered 

Draft — Freeboard — Load  Line 
Length  over  all  is  the  distance  between  the  forward  and  after 
extremities  of  the  hull. 

Length  between  perpendiculars  is  the  distance  from  the  for- 
ward side  of  the  stem  to  the  after  part  of  the  rudder  post.  When 
the  stem  or  rudder  post  are  raked,  the  measurement  is  taken 
through  the  intersection  of  the  upper  deck,  or  in  the  case  of 
an  awning  decked  vessel,  or  one  with  a  shelter  deck,  the  inter- 
section of  the  second  deck  with  the  fore  part  of  the  stem  and 
the  after  part  of  the  rudder  post. 

When  the  stem  is  bent,  as  in  a  clipper  bow,  the  straight  middle 
part  is  extended  up  to  meet  the  line  of  the  deck  from  which  the 
measurements  are  taken. 

*  A.B.S.    American  Bureau  of  Shipping. 


26 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Lengfh  between  perpendiculars 


Length  registered  is  the  distance  from  the  fore  part  of  the 
stem,  under  the  bowsprit,  if  any,  to  the  after  side  of  the  head  of 
the  stempost. 

Length  for  tonnage  is  measured  in  a  straight  line  along  the 
tonnage  deck  from  the  inside  of  the  inner  plate  at  the  bow  to  the 
mside  of  the  inner  plate  at  the  stern,  making  allowance  for  the 
rake,  if  any,  which  the  midship  bow  and  stern  members  may 
have  in  the  actual  deck. 

Length  by  A,B.S,  Rules,  The  length  is  the  distance  in  feet 
on  the  estimated  summer  load  line,  from  the  fore  side  of  the 
stem  to  the  after  side  of  the  rudder  post;  where  there  is  no 
rudder  post  the  length  is  to  be  measured  to  the  center  of  the 
rudder  stock. 


Upper  Deck 

Spar  Deck 

Awning  Deck 

Middle  Deck 

■^ 

4 

Main  Deck 

1^ 

Main  Deck 

Lower  Deck 

if 
1 

Lower  Deck 

Lower  Deck 

T. 

1  ?• 

,1 

II 

Three  Deck 
Vessel 

-      Spar  Deck 
Vessel 

T 

Awning  Deck 
Vessel 

n 

Length  on  load  water  line  is  the  distance  from  the  front  of 
the  stem  to  the  after  part  of  the  rudder  post,  on  the  load  water 
line. 

Floodable  length  is  the  extreme  length  of  compartment  that 
can  be  flooded  and  the  vessel  still  remain  afloat  with  decks 
ahnost  awash.    Under  the  rules  for  bulkhead  spacing  a  margin 


TYPES  OF  VESSELS 


27 


of  safety  must  be  allowed.  This  margin  of  safety  is  called  the 
permissible  factor,  and  the  factor  varies  with  the  length  of  ship. 
A  vessel  571  ft.  long,  has  a  permissible  factor  of  0.5,  which 
means  that  the  permitted  length  of  each  hold  is  only  half  the 
floodable  length.  In  such  a  ship  there  are  two  compartments 
watertight  in  the  floodable  length. 

Depth  moulded  is  the  distance  from  the  top  of  the  keel,  or 
intersection  of  the  outside  of  the  frames  with  the  center  line, 
measured  amidships,  to  the  level  of  the  top  of  the  upper  deck 
beam  at  the  gunwale,  or  of  the  second  deck  in  the  case  of  awning 
and  shelter  deck  vessels. 

Depth  by  A.B.S.  Rules,  (D)  is  the  molded  depth  in,  feet, 
measured  at  the  middle  of  the  vessel's  length  on  the  estimated 
summer  load  line,  from  the  top  of  the  keel  to  the  top  of  the  deck 
beams  at  side  from  which  the  freeboard  is  estimated.  In  cases 
where  watertight  bulkheads  are  carried  to  a  deck  above  the 
freeboard  deck  and  it  is  desired  to  have  them  recorded  in  the 
register  as  effective,  D  is  to  be  taken  to  the  bulkhead  deck. 

Depth  registered,  or  Depth  of  hold  is  distance  amidships  from 
top  of  double  bottom,  or  top  of  floors,  or  from  a  point  2.5  inches 
above  these  points  where  ceiling  plankings  if  fitted,  amidships, 
no  matter  what  its  thickness,  to  the  top  of  the  upper  deck  beams, 
or  second  deck  beams  in  awning  or  shelter  deck  vessels. 

Breadth  moulded  is  the  greatest  breadth  of  hull  measured 
between  the  outer  surfaces  of  the  frames. 

Breadth  registered  is  the  greatest  breadth  measured  outside 
of  the  shell  plating. 

These  measurements  are  usually  taken  in  feet  and  tenths. 

Draft.    The  draft  is  taken    r^:m '%7^7'W 

__20ft6ln. 

2d;::;::xx:j?^::: 

/9Ff  icin 


at  the  bow  and  stern.  The 
draft  numerals  must  accur- 
ately cut  or  painted  on  both 
sides  of  stem  and  stern  post. 
Numerals  are  6  inches  high. 
The  base  of  the  numeral  rest- 
ing on  the  even  foot.  Inches 
are  estimated  by  eye.  Roman 
numerals  are  better  marks, 
but  ordinary  arable  numerals  are  less  easily  mistaken. 


Bzxix: 


l3Ff 


Arabic 


Roman 


28 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


TYPES  OF  VESSELS 


29 


Draft  by  A.B,S.  Rules,  (d)  is  the  molded  draft  in  feet  from  the 
top  of  the  keel  to  the  center  of  disc  or  summer  load  line.  The 
draft  to  be  used  with  the  tables  is  not  to  be  less  than  .66  the 
depth  (D). 

Freeboard  and  Load  Line.  The  freeboard  of  a  vessel  is  the 
height  of  the  side  above  water  level,  measured  at  the  middle 
of  the  vessel's  length,  that  is  at  amidships  from  the  top  of  the 
freeboard  deck;  the  distance  being  determined  in  accordance 
with  the  Freeboard  Tables.  Under  the  British  Regulations,  the 
measurement  is  actually  made  from  a  line  called  "  statutory 
deck-line,"  which  is  placed  above  the  top  of  the  freeboard  deck, 
this  modification  being  required  by  the  British  Merchant  Shipping 
Acts.*    As,  however,  the  correction  for  the  amount  of  statutory 

♦  "  The  subject  of  loading  of  vessels  is  closely  connected  with  the  name 
of  Samuel  PlimsoU,  who,  as  a  member  of  ParUament,  conducted  in  the 
early  seventies  of  the  last  century  a  strong  campaign  for  the  fixing  of  load 
hues  on  vessels  under  the  BHtish  flag.  In  Plimsoll»s  opinion  the  unusual 
number  of  disasters  at  sea  that  had  been  occurring  for  years  were  due  chiefly 
to  the  overloading  of  vessels,  and  he  contended  that  ParUament  should  estab- 
lish a  load  line  for  every  vessel. 

"A  royal  commission,  appointed  to  investigate  the  question,  reported  to 
Parhament  in  1874  that  the  estabUshment  of  load  lines  could  not  be  success- 
fuUy  accompUshed  by  law,  since  no  rule  of  universal  appUcation  could  be 
apphed  without  injury  to  British  shipping. 

"ParUament,  however,  did  not  accept  the  recommendations  of  this  com- 
mission and  passed  an  act  known  as  the  merchant  shipping  act  of  1876,  which 
provided  that  a  circular  disk,  with  a  Une  drawn  through  the  center,  should  be 
pamted  amidships  on  both  sides  of  every  British  vessel,  except  those  under 
80  tons  register  engaged  in  the  coasting  trade.  This  mark,  which  came  to  be 
Imown  as  PUmsoU  mark,  was  to  indicate  the  greatest  draft  to  which  vessels 
should  be  loaded.  The  fixing  of  the  load  Une  was  in  the  first  instance  deter- 
mmed  by  the  shipowner,  but  it  was  the  duty  of  the  Board  of  Trade  to  see  that 
no  overloaded  vessel  cleared  from  any  British  port. 

"  This  indefinite  method  of  procedure  led  to  many  disputes  which  were,  in 
the  course  of  time,  settled  by  the  general  acceptance  by  the  Board  of  Trade 
and  shipowners  of  load-Une  marks  fixed  according  to  the  reserve  buoyancy 
tables  of  Lloyd's  Register. 

"No  further  action  was  taken  in  regard  to  this  subject  until  1890,  when  it 
was  decided  that  the  matter  of  load  Unes  should  be  placed  upon  a  more  definite 
and  scientific  basis.  Accordingly,  in  that  year  the  load-Unes  act  was  passed. 
This  act  provided  that  the  load  Unes  should  be  marked  in  accordance  with 
regulations  provided  by  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  that  the  position  of  the  disk 
should  conform  with  the  tables  fixed  by  the  load-Une  committee.    This  act  was 


deck-line  is  added  on  to  the  freeboard,  as  calculated  from  the 
table,  the  general  definition  given  above  is  correct  in  practice. 

The  method  of  marking  directly  from  the  deck  is  used  by  the 
American  Bureau  of  Shipping,  which  has  officially  adopted  the 
British  Freeboard  Tables  as  the  basis  of  its  freeboard  assign- 
ments. Further,  as  this  particular  requirement  of  the  Merchant 
Shipping  Acts  in  regard  to  the  statutory  deck-line  has  no  appli- 
cation in  this  country,  the  American  Bureau  has  been  left  free 
to  adopt  this  somewhat  simpler  method  of  marking. 

The  loadline  of  a  vessel  is  the  draft  to  which  the  vessel  is 
immersed  when  weighted  down  to  the  various  markings  on  the 
sides,  placed  there  in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  the 
Freeboard  Tables.  The  reserve  buoyancy  of  a  vessel  is  meas- 
ured by  the  volume  of  the  enclosed,  or  water-excluding,  portions 
of  a  ship  which  come  above  the  load  water  line.  This  amoxmt 
depends  upon  the  form  of  the  upper  structure  of  the  ship  and 
varies  according  to  the  draft  to  which  the  ship  is  immersed.  .  .  . 


Plimsoll  Mark  for  Steamers  (arrow  points  forward) 
FW  =  Fresh  Water. 
IS  =  Indian  Ocean  in  Summer. 
WNA  =  North  Atlantic  in  Winter  {October  to  March  inclusive). 
S  =  Summer  in  waters  other  than  the  Indian  Ocean. 
W  =  Winter  in  waters  other  than  the  North  Atlantic. 
All  except  the  first  of  the  above  symbols  indicate  the  maximum  depth 
in  salt  water  for  the  corresponding  oceans  and  seasons. 

reproduced  in  the  merchant  shipping  act  of  1894,  sections  437  to  443,  and  pro- 
vision was  made  for  its  modification  by  the  Board  of  Trade  without  reference 
to  ParUament." — ^From  Navigation  Laws,  Special  Agent  Series  No.  114, 
Department  of  Commerce,  Washington. 


30 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


TYPES  OF  VESSELS 


31 


The  question  of  freeboards  is  primarily  a  question  of  safety  of 
life  at  sea.  Safety  of  ships  and  cargoes,  and  protection  of  the 
interests  of  shippers  and  underwriters  are  important  in  them- 
selves; but  it  is  the  business  of  the  Government  to  see  that  no 
special  interests  of  one  section  of  the  community  are  served  at 
the  expense  of  any  other  section.  Commercial  and  political 
ends  must  always  be  made  subservient  to  the  bigger  considera- 
tions involved  in  the  protection  of  human  life  and  the  Govern- 
ment owes  it  to  its  citizens  to  provide  adequate  legislation  for 
the  protection  of  the  lives  of  those  who  go  to  sea. 


WNA 


WNA 


Plimsoll  Mark  for  Sailing  Vessels 

F  =  Fresh  Water, 
WNA  =  Winter  in  North  Atlantic. 


The  responsibiUty  which  rests  upon  a  Government  in  this 
respect  cannot  be  delegated  elsewhere.  Only  the  Government 
call  hold  the  balance  between  the  selfish  interests  of  those  who 
might  be  tempted  to  send  ships  to  sea  in  an  overloaded  condition, 
at  a  risk  to  the  lives  of  those  on  board. 

The  modern  cargo  ship  loads,  let  us  say  from  30  to  40  tons 
per  inch  of  immersion  at  the  load  water  Hne.  An  extra  foot  of 
draft  will,  therefore,  mean  that  the  ship  carries  360  to  480  addi- 
tional tons  of  cargo,  unless  the  owner  is  prevented  from  doing  so 
by  restrictions  imposing  on  the  vessel  a  definite  maximum  draft 
established  by  an  independent  and  impartial  authority. 

The  freeboard  of  a  vessel  depends  upon  a  good  many  fac- 
tors, among  which  are  the  following:  Type  of  vessel,  strength 
of  huU  and  houses,  sheer  of  deck,  trade  of  vessel,  time  of  year 
Freeboard  marldngs  are  placed  on  vessels  by  the  American 
Bureau  or  Lloyds  Register  (if  desired  by  the  owner  in  this 
country),  and  their  ruling  should  be  followed,  as  a  formula  based 


on  depth  may  not  take  into  account  the  vessel's  peculiarity. 
Associations  such  as  The  New  York  Underwriters'  will  often 
Ihnit  the  draft.  For  full  information  about  the  British  Board  of 
Trade  freeboard  see  pamphlet  *  Freeboard  Tables'  published 
by  them.  An  article  by  H.  A.  Everett  published  in  the  April, 
1917,  issue^of  Marine  Engineering  will  be  found  very  interesting. 

We  quote  from  it  as  follows : 

"  The  American  Bureau  formerly  published  a  suggested  free- 
board allowance  which  in  the  cases  of  the  ordinary  cargo  steamer 
will  give  a  freeboard  roughly  one  foot  greater  than  that  assigned 
by  the  Board  of  Trade.    An  abstract  of  this  table  is  given  below : 


Depth  of  Hold  from  Top  of 
Ceiling  to  Underside  of 
Deck  (Main  Deck), 
Feet 

8 
12 
16 
20 
24 
28 


Freeboard  at  Lowest  Point  of 
Sheer  for  Each  Foot 
Depth  of  Hold, 
Inches 

iy2 

3 

3V4 

3y2 


"  *  Hurricane  deck  vessels  having  no  water  ports  fitted  at  the 
second  deck,  also  raised  quarter  deck  vessels,  may  have  less, 
but  suggest  that  hurricane  deck  vessels  have  not  less  than  one- 
half  and  quarter  deck  vessels  not  less  than  three-quarters  of  the 
freeboard  in  the  table.  The  depth  of  hold  and  freeboard  to  be 
measured  from  the  second  deck  in  hurricane  deck  vessels.  .  .  .' 

"  The  following  formula  will  give  approximately  the  freeboard 
for  an  ordinary  cargo  vessel  of  over  20  feet  depth,  having  a 
normal  sheer,  the  freeboard  being  measured  from  the  weather 
deck: 

"  Freeboard  =  .40  depth  -  6.0  (feet) 

"  Depth  =  depth  from  top  of  keel  plate  to  weather  and  strength 
deck  (foot  units)." 


Propelling  Machinery 

The  power  plant  of  a  mechanically  propelled  vessel  is  of  such 
vast  importance  in  the  handling  of  the  ship  that  a  work  on  sea- 
manship must  at  least  enumerate  the  various  kinds  of  power 
now  being  employed  at  sea.  Further  study  by  deck  officers  is 
highly  desurable  and  many  excellent  books  are  to  be  had  in  this 
field. 


52 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


Steamers  may  have  their  power  plants  conveniently  divided 
into  two  components,  the  steam  making  apparatus,  and  the 
steam  using  apparatus,  or  into  simply  boilers  and  engines. 
Further  classification  is  of  course  necessary. 

Boilers  can  be  divided  as  follows : 

Fire  tube  boilers.  Water  and  steam  surrounding  tubes,  fire 
led  through  tubes  and  headers.  The  principal  forms  of  the  fire 
tube  boiler  are  the  following:  Scotch  boiler;  Vertical  boiler; 
Locomotive  boiler;  Leg,  or  flue  and  return  tube  boiler. 

Water  tube  boilers.  Water  circulating  inside  of  tubes,  fire 
and  hot  gasses  surrounding  these  tubes,  steam  collected  in 
suitable  drums,  etc.  The  principle  forms  under  which  water 
tube  boilers  may  be  classified  are  the  following:  Large  and  small 
tube  boilers;  Straight  and  curved  tube  boilers.  By  the  position 
of  the  tubes,  viz.,  inclined ,  or  horizontal;  by  the  arrangement 
of  the  tubes,  viz.,  in  groups,  or  as  single  tubes;  by  the  position 
of  the  upper  ends  in  regard  to  water  level,  viz.,  into  drowned 
tube  and  priming  tube,  boilers.  In  the  drowned  tube  the  end 
is  below  the  water  level,  while  the  priming  tube  extends  above 
the  water  level.  By  the  arrangement  of  the  circulation,  as 
single  tube,  or  double  tube  boilers. 

The  above  statement  will  show  that  water  tube  boilers  are 
capable  of  a  great  many  variations  in  form.  There  are  many 
boilers  of  this  variety,  combining  different  parts  of  the  above 
classification  and  known  by  trade  names.  The  water  tube  boiler 
roughly  consists  of  steam  dnmi  or  drums,  on  top,  tubes,  and 
bottom  drums  to  supply  the  tubes  with  water.  Surrounding 
these  tubes  and  drums  are  the  fires  placed  on  suitable  grates, 
and  the  hot  gasses  are  made  to  be  more  effective  by  baffles  and 
headers. 

Further  classification  of  the  steam  making  part  of  the  ship's 
power  comes  through  the  use  of  different  fuels,  namely  coal,  and 
oil,  also  a  combination  of  coal  dust  and  oil,  known  as  colloidal 
fuel,  and  the  method  of  burning,  viz..  Natural  draft  or  Forced 
draft* 

•  The  imperative  need  for  increased  supplies  of  liquid  fuel,  particularly 
for  naval  purposes,  has  prompted  American  engineers  to  investigate  the  prob- 
lem of  incorporating  solid  and  liquid  fuels  in  such  manner  that  the  resultant 
mixture  can  be  handled  and  utilized  as  ordinary  oil  fuel.    The  work  was 


TYPES  OF  VESSELS 


33 


I 


Engines  using  steam  may  be  classified  as  follows: 

Reciprocating  engines.  Compound;  triple,  or  quadruple  ex- 
pansion, the  steam  passing  successively  through,  two,  three,  or 
four  cylinders,  gradually  increasing  in  size  before  exhausting 
mto  the  condenser.  The  pressure  of  the  steam  is  used  in  high 
pressure,  1st  intermediate,  2d  intermediate  and  low  pressure 
cylinders,  in  the  quadruple  expansion  type. 

Turbine  engines  in  which  the  velocity  of  the  steam,  issuing 
from  nozzles,  and  impinging  against  guides  and  blades,  causes 
the  direct  rotation  of  the  shaft  upon  which  the  turbines  are 
mounted.  As  in  the  case  of  reciprocating  engines,  the  steam  is 
sent  from  one  casing  to  another,  graduaUy  increasing  in  size, 
where  its  expansion  is  utilized. 

Turbines  in  slow  or  medium  speed  vessels  are  only  efficient 
when  rotating  more  rapidly  than  is  efficient,  or  possible,  for  a 
propeUer  immersed  in  water.  For  this  reason  the  high  turbme 
speeds  must  be  reduced  by  suitable  reducing  gears  attached  to 
the  propeUer  shafts.  To  go  astern  special  backing  turbine  blades 
are  brought  into  action,  these  are  mounted  on  the  same  shaft  as 
the  going  ahead  blades. 

Another  power  plant  that  has  been  tried  is  the  combina- 
tion of  high  pressure  reciprocating  cylinders,  the  lower  pressure 
steam  exhausting  through  them  to  low  pressure  turbines.  This 
utilizes  the  smaller  high  pressure  cylmders  with  their  direct 
action  against  the  shaft,  and  avoids  the  large  low  pressure 
reciprocating  parts  while  using  the  smaller  low  pressure  turbine 
principle.  This  type  is  no  longer  used  because  of  the  improved 
design  of  reducing  gears. 

Electric  drive  is  used  where  steam  driven  turbines  turn 
electric  generators  or  dynamos.  The  current  is  then  led  aft  to 
motor  units  attached  direct  to  the  propellor  shafts.  This  system 
has  proven  extremely  flexible  and  efficient  on  vessels  of  the 
United  States  Navy  and  lately  merchant  vessels  are  also  using 
this  form  of  machinery.  It  seems  now  to  be  the  last  word  in  oil 
burning  steam  plant  propulsion.* 

carried  out  under  the  auspices  of  the  Submarine  Defence  Association  with  the 
assistance  of  the  United  States  Navy  Department,  and  the  results  are  of  im- 
portance as  they  promise  not  only  conservation  of  oil  fuel,  but  also  utilization 
ot  low-grade  solid  fuel.     This  combination  is  called  Colloidal  Fuel. 

The  merits  of  the  electric-drive  system  as  applied  to  naval  capital  ships 
are  well  stated  by  Admiral  C.  W.  Dyson,  chief  of  the  design  division  of  the 


I 


34 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


Motor  ships: — The  thermal  efficiency  of  the  steam  engine,  no 
matter  how  refined  we  may  make  it,  will  always  be  low,  and 
the  work  delivered  at  the  propellor  per  ton  of  coal,  or  oil,  burned 
is  shamefully  small  when  compared  with  the  theoretical  heat 
energy  contained  in  the  fuel. 

The  internal  combustion  engine  is  making  its  way  rapidly 
because  of  its  greater  economy  both  in  space  and  fuel.  Boilers 
are  dispensed  with,  and  the  moving  parts  are  less  cumbersome 
per  horsepower  developed.  With  the  coming  of  these  engines 
we  have  the  motor  ship. 

Motor  power  plants  may  be  simply  divided  as  follows : 

Heavy  oil  engines  such  as  the  Diesel^  and  the  hot-bulb  engines 
depending  for  ignition  on  their  high  compression,  the  pressure 
developing  heat  sufficient  to  ignite  the  charge.  Such  engines  can 
operate  on  practically  any  kind  of  oil  fuel.* 

Bureau  of  Steam  Engineering,  Navy  Department,  in  the  May,  1917,  issue  of 
the  Journal  of  American  Society  of  Naval  Engineers.  It  will  be  seen  that 
many  of  the  advantages  stated  apply  as  well  to  merchant  vessels. 

1.  Greatly  increased  torpedo  protection  for  ships. 

2.  Greater  flexibility  in  machinery  arrangement. 

3.  Better  and  wider  separation  of  important  units. 

4.  Minimum  lengths  and  diameters  of  steam  pipes. 

5.  Reduced  heating  of  vessel  from  steam  pipes. 

6.  Better  centralization  of  power. 

7.  Fewer  bulkheads  pierced  by  steam  and  feed  piping. 

8.  Reduced  engine  room  complement. 

9.  Elimination  of  danger  from  fractures  of  piping  due  to  shells  striking 

protective  deck. 

10.  Greater  ease  in  control. 

11.  Greater  flexibility  in  power  distribution. 

12.  Better  maintenance  of  economy  through  a  wide  range  of  powers. 

13.  No  metallic  contact  between  rotor  and  stator  of  motor. 

14.  Eliminates  all  dangers  of  disarrangement  due  to  shaft  vibration,  when 

the  helm  is  put  hard  over. 

15.  Maximum  reduction  in  length  of  shafting. 

16.  Increased  backing  power. 

*  The  mode  of  compressing  air  and  injecting  fuel  into  it  for  combustion, 
peculiar  to  the  Diesel  engine,  is  responsible  for  a  very  low  fuel  consimiption, 
compared  to  automobile  engines  on  the  one  hand,  and  also  as  compared  to- 
steam  machinery  on  the  other.  This  fuel  oil  consumption  is  equivalent  to 
nearly  35  per  cent,  thermal  efficiency  for  the  Diesel  engine,  the  actual  weight 
of  oil  consumed  depending  somewhat  on  its  quality. 

— Dr.  C.  E.  Lucke,  Head  of  the  Department  of  Mechanical  Engineering, 

Columbia  University 


TYPES  OF  VESSELS 


35 


Gasolene  and  kerosene  engines,  with  electrical  ignition,  on 
the  principle  of  the  automobile  engine. 


k-----        145  Fee  / 5>| 

Reciprocating  Sfeam  Engine 


\^-—nSFeef- ->j 

5+eamTurbines 


|<^S/ee/-->l 
Mo+or  Ship 
Sketches  show  relative  space  occupied  by  machinery  and  bunkers. 

Producer  gas  engines.  Gas  is  generated  from  coal,  or  coal 
dust  and  the  gas  so  generated  is  used  in  an  internal  combustion 
engine. 


36 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


We  are  in  the  very  beginning  of  the  development  of  the  in- 
ternal combustion  engine.  Chemical  power,  whether  released 
through  heat  explosion,  or  by  other  means,  may  be  the  basis  for 
future  power  at  sea.* 

The  turbo-generator  sets,  of  steam,  sending  the  current  aft 
to  the  shaft  motors  through  great  copper  cables,  may  be  soon 
displaced  by  motor-generator  sets,  gas  driven,  and  effecting  a 
further  saving  in  bunker  and  boiler  space. 

All  deck  officers  should  study  the  development  of  ship  power 
plants. 

VI 

Classification 

The  whole  business  of  overseas  trade  is  stabilized  through  the 
financial  machinery  of  insurance.  The  sea  will  always  claim  a 
certain  number  of  victims.  Vessels  founder,  go  ashore,  collide 
with  each  other,  or  with  ice  or  derelicts,  catch  fire,  boilers  ex- 
plode, cargoes  shift,  and  a  thousand  perils  beset  them  on  every 
hand.  It  is  the  purpose  of  good  seamanship  to  so  manage 
vessels  that  such  happenings  are  reduced  to  a  minimum,  that 
vessels  in  danger  are  not  abandoned  until  all  hope  of  saving 
them  is  gone. 

But  when  losses  do  occur,  as  they  always  will,  insurance  steps 
in  and  pays  the  loss  to  the  individual  out  of  the  general  fund 
contributed  by  all. 

But  the  insurance  underwriter  must  not  take  tmdue  risks. 
He  must  have  a  reasonable  assurance  of  the  seaworthy  quality 

*  The  possibility  of  combining  in  one  engine  the  superior  thermal  cycle  at 
the  high  temperatures  and  pressures  of  the  combustion  engine  with  the  low 
thermal  cycle  of  steam  to  deal  with  its  rejected  heat,  and,  in  the  same  engine, 
to  add  the  superior  working  advantages  of  the  steam  engine,  is  the  basis  of 
work  carried  out  by  Mr.  W.  J.  Still. 

The  Still  engine  is  an  engine  capable  of  using  in  its  main  working  cylinder 
any  form  of  liquid  or  gaseous  fuel  hitherto  employed;  it  makes  use  of  the 
recoverable  heat  which  passes  through  the  surfaces  of  the  combustion  cylinder, 
as  well  as  into  the  exhaust  gases,  for  the  evaporation  of  steam,  which  steam  is 
expanded  in  the  combustion  cylinder  itself  on  one  side  of  the  main  piston, 
the  combustion  stroke  acting  on  the  other  side.  It  increases  the  power  of 
the  engine,  and  reduces  the  consumption  of  the  fuel  per  horsepower  devel- 
oped.—From  a  paper  by  Mr.  Frank  D.  Acland,  Royal  Society  of  Arts,  May  26, 
1919. 


TYPES  OF  VESSELS 


37 


of  the  vessel  he  is  insuring.  The  vessel  must  comply  with 
certain  rules  of  construction,  and  also,  of  course,  with  the  navi- 
gation laws  of  the  country  from  which  she  hails,  and  in  certain 
respects,  with  the  laws  of  the  countries  with  which  she  trades. 

Rules  of  construction,  settmg  down  the  minim^Tm  require- 
ments as  to  size,  strength  and  position  of  the  various  parts  of  a 
hull,  of  the  rigging,  ground  tackle,  etc.  of  modern  vessels  are 
formulated  by  the  various  classification  societies. 

The  American  Bureau  of  Shipping^  recognized  by  the  U.  S. 
Government  as  the  official  classification  society  of  the  United 
States,  has  set  up  such  rules,  and  inspects  and  surveys  vessels. 
These  rules  are  based  upon  long  experience  and  tests  under  sea 
conditions,  interpreted  by  scientific  methods. 

The  ratings  given  vessels  by  the  A.B.S.  are  a  safe  guide  for 
the  placing  of  insurance  on  hull  and  cargo. 

The  classification  society  also  is  the  greatest  safeguard  against 
loss  of  life  at  sea  through  faulty  construction,  or  poor  equipment. 

The  following  extract  from  the  "  Conditions  of  Classification  " 
of  the  Rules  of  The  American  Bureau  of  Shipping,  are  of  interest 
to  the  seaman: 

/*  (1)  Vessels  which  have  been  built  under  the  special  super- 
vision of  the  Surveyors  to  the  Bureau,  in  accordance  with  Plans 
approved  by  the  Committee  and  the  requirements  of  the  Rules, 
or  with  alternative  arrangements  equivalent  thereto,  will  receive 
Certificates  of  Class.    In  each  case  a  written  application  must 
be  made  for  Classification  to  the  Secretary,  or  to  the  Surveyor 
for  the  district  in  which  the  vessel  is  to  be  built,  from  whom  the 
necessary  application  forms  may  be  obtained.    Vessels  which 
are  approved  for  trade  in  any  part  of  the  world  will  be  distin- 
guished m  the  Bureau's  Record  Book  by  the  symbol  ^  A.1  , 
signifymg  the  Highest  Classification  of  the  American  Bureau  of 
bluppmg  and  Special  Survey  during  construction  of  the  HuU. 
Vessels  intended  for  trade  in  any  part  of  the  world  but  which 
nave  not  been  built  in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  the 
Rules  for  the  Highest  Classification,  will  be  distinguished  in  the 
Bureau's  Record  Book  by  the   symbol  ^  A.l.   *  With  Free- 
board, it  bemg  a  condition  of  the  Classification  of  such  Vessels 
that  mmimum  Freeboards  will  be  assigned  by  the  Committee. 
Vessels  intended  for  a  particular  trade  which  have  been  built 
fHw  *   ^^  specially  arranged  and  approved  by  the  Committee 
tor  that  trade,  will  be  distinguished  in  the  Bureau's  Record  Book 
by  the  symbol  >^  A.l.  followed  by  the  necessary  limitation  of 


f 


I 


38 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


trade:  For  example  *  River  Service;'  *  Coasting  Service;' 
*  Tug  Service; '   *  Fishing  Service; '   *  New  York-Boston; '  etc. 

"  Machinery  and  Boilers  which  have  been  built  under  the 
special  supervision  of  the  Surveyors  to  the  Bureau  and  in  accord- 
ance with  the  requirements  of  the  Rules,  will  receive  a  Certificate 
of  Class;  such  machinery  will  be  distinguished  in  the  Bureau's 
Record  Book  by  the  symbol  ^  A.M.S.,  signifying  the  Highest 
Classification  of  the  American  Bureau  of  Shipping  and  Special 
Survey  during  construction  for  Machinery  and  Boilers. 

"  The  letter  ©  placed  after  the  symbols  of  classification,  thus: 
>^-  A.I.  d)  will  signify  that  the  Equipment  of  the  vessel  is  in 
compliance  with  the  requirements  of  the  Rules. 

"  In  cases  where  the  Equipment  is  not  in  compliance  with  the 
requirements  of  the  Rules,  a  dash  will  be  substituted  for  the 
letter  (f)  thus :  >i*  A.I.— 

"  (2)  Vessels  which  have  not  been  built  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  Surveyors  to  the  Bureau  but  are  submitted  for 
Classification  will  be  subjected  to  a  Special  Classification  Survey, 
as  set  forth  in  Section  46.  Certificates  of  Class  will  be  granted 
if  the  Hull,  and  in  case  of  Steam  Vessels,  the  Machinery  and 
Boilers,  are  found  satisfactory  and  are  approved  by  the  Com- 
mittee ;  the  symbols  in  the  Record  Book  will  be  as  described  in 
Paragraph  1,  but  the  mark  >^  signifying  Special  Survey  during 
construction  will  be  omitted." 

From  the  "  Conditions  as  to  Surveys  "  we  take  the  following: 

"  The  Special  Periodical  Surveys  on  Classed  Vessels  must  be 
carried  out  at  intervals  of  four  years  from  the  date  of  build,  or  at 
such  shorter  intervals  as  may  be  fixed  by  the  Committee  in 
special  cases,  or  from  a  date  six  months  after  launching  in  the 
case  of  a  new  Vessel,  not  completed  within  that  period.  Such 
Surveys  may,  if  desired  by  the  Owners,  be  carried  out  within 
twelve  months  prior  to  the  date  when  they  become  due,  provided 
the  subsequent  interval  between  Surveys  does  not  exceed  four 
years.  .  .  . 

"  Owners  will  receive  notice  of  the  dates  when  the  Special 
Periodical  Surveys  become  due,  but  it  must  be  understood  that 
the  responsibility  for  non-compliance  with  such  notice  rests  with 
the  Owners,  or  their  Representatives." 

The  Record  of  American  and  Foreign  Shipping,  is  published 
by  the  A.B.S.  on  the  first  of  January  of  each  year  and  corresponds 
to  the  Register  published  by  Lloyds. 

The  oldest  of  the  British  societies  is  Lloyd's,  an  associa- 
tion of  marine  underwriters  and  surveyors  taking  its  name  from  a 
coffee  house  kept  by  Mr.  Edward  Lloyd  in  Tower  Street,  London, 


TYPES  OF  VESSELS 


39 


during  the  seventeenth  century,  where  owners,  underwriters 
and  shipmasters  came  to  transact  business.* 

Without  the  classification  societies  merchant  shipping  would 
be  in  an  uncertain  condition.  Seamen  who  note  the  condition 
and  performance  of  their  vessels  under  the  severe  tests  of  actual 
stress,  and  who  make  intelligent  reports  on  their  behavior,  add 
greatly  to  the  knowledge  necessary  to  the  naval  architect  and 
designer. 

"  In  practice,  the  arrangement  and  massiveness  of  the  various 
parts  are  simply  that  which  long  experience  of  the  strength  and 
endurance,  displayed  in  active  service  by  vessels  of  different 
sizes  and  type,  indicates  as  the  minimum  compatible  with  these 
qualities.  ...  It  is  mainly  due  to  .  .  .  classification  societies 
that  this  experience,  extending  over  the  whole  history  of  wood, 
iron,  and  steel  shipbuilding,  and  which  otherwise  might  have 
been  lost,  has  at  all  times  been  carefully  recorded,  interpreted, 
and  made  available  to  all  in  the  annual  publication  of  their  rules 
of  construction  and  tables  of  scantlings."— Holms'  ''Practical 
Shipbuilding.^* 

*  The  principal  classification  societies  are  as  follows: 

American  Bureau  of  Shipping. 

Lloyds  Register  of  British  and  Foreign  Shipping. 

Bureau  Veritas,  Paris. 

British  Corporation,  Glasgow. 

Imperial  Japanese  Maritime  Corporation. 

Norske  Veritas. 

Registro  Navale  Italian©. 

Germanischer  Lloyd. 

Nederlandsche  Vereeniging  van  Assuradeuren. 

Veritas  Austro-Ungarico. 
The  societies  assigning  load  line  marks  identify  their  marks  by  two  letters 
over  the  horizontal  Une  and  on  each  side  of  the  disc  (see  page  256).  The 
markings  used  are  as  foUows— A.  B.— American  Bureau  of  Shipping;  L.  R.— 
Lloyds  Register;  B.  V.— Bureau  Veritas;  B.  C— British  Corporation;  N.  V.— 
Norske  Veritas;  G.  L.— Germanischer  Lloyd. 


.^ L 


THE  HULL 


41 


CHAPTER  2 


THE  HULL 


Steel  Construction 

Steel  vessels  form  the  greatest  percentage  of  the  world's 
tonnage.  The  names  and  purposes  of  the  component  parts  of  a 
steel  hull  should  be  familiar  to  the  seaman  who  is  charged  with 
the  use  of  the  structure  as  a  whole,  when  maneuvering  the  ship, 
and  with  its  parts,  while  working  cargo,  handling  ground  tackle, 
etc.  He  should  therefore  have  a  very  precise  knowledge  of  the 
formation,  use,  location  and  names  of  the  various  members 
entering  into  the  construction  of  the  ship. 


B 


6 


Within  the  last  quarter  century  great  advances  have  been 
made  in  ship  construction.  Mild  steel  is  now  used  in  the 
majority  of  seagoing  vessels  and  the  various  shapes  of  this 
material  have   practically  become   standard.    Differences   in 

40 


design  are  brought  about  by  different  combinations  of  the 
standard  shapes.  The  standard  shapes  are  also  varied  in  a 
great  number  of  sizes  and  weights.  These  are  iUustrated  by 
typical  sections  that  can  easily  be  identified  by  inspecting  the 
construction  of  a  modern  steel  vessel. 
These  shapes  are 

A,  the  plate,  of  many  sizes  and  weights. 

B,  the  angle,  plain  and  bulb,  (B')  with  legs  of  various  length, 

and  of  many  weights. 

C,  the  T  bar. 

C,  the  T  bar  with  bulb. 

D,  the  I  beam.     . 

E,  the  channel. 

F,  the  Z  bar. 

In  the  construction  of  vessels  of  extreme  size,  steel  of  high 
tensile  strength  is  introduced  where  necessary  in  order  to  keep 
down  weight,  as  in  the  sheer  strakes,  amidships,  in  liners  of 
great  length. 

In  addition  to  the  above  standard  forms  of  construction  certain 
special  forms  of  material  are  often  employed,  such  as  half 


wmm. 


special  forms 

rounds,  rods,  angle  bars,  columns,  hatch  ledges,  and  some 
others.  These  rolled  shapes,  together  with  special  forgings  and 
castings  form  the  component  parts  of  a  steel  hull. 


jL  I  n 


Built  up  sections  of  standard  forms. 

Many  combinations  of  these  standard  forms  are  possible  and 
special  columns,  beams,  frames,  boxes,  and  the  like  are  formed. 

The  angle  bar  is  generaUy  employed  in  the  construction  of 
the  framing  of  a  vessel,  as  shown  in  the  iUustration.  The 
outer  angle  is  the  frame,  the  inside  angle,  riveted  to  it,  is  the 


^i    l! 


42 


ELEVATION 


5: 
I 


F]     Beam 


J 


PLAN 

/oin/  o/  Deck 

Beam  and  Frame 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 

reverse  frame.  The  shell  plating  is  riveted 
to  the  outboard  flange  of  the  frame. 

The  shell  plating  constitutes  the  outer 
plating  of  the  hull  and  corresponds  to  the 
planking  on  a  wooden  vessel.  It  is  placed 
on  the  hull  in  long  strips,  called  strakeSy  and 
these  are  combined  in  various  ways,  over- 
lapping, edge  to  edge,  and  in  single  and 
double  layers.  The  principle  forms  of  shell 
plating  are  illustrated  in  the  sketch. 

The  strakes  on  the  bilge  taper  in  breadth, 
being  wider  as  the  hull  widens  out  amid- 
ships. The  topside  strakes  are  usually 
parallel,  or  nearly  so.  To  avoid  narrowing, 
certain  strakes  are  discontinued  at  some 
distance  from  the  ends  of  the  vessel.  A 
strake,  so  discontinued  is  called  a  drop 
stroke,  and  the  strake  taking  the  place 
of  two  drop  strakes  and  continuing  them 
is  called  a  stealer. 


InandOuf 
System 


Single 
Joggled 


Double 
Joggled 


Clinker 


Flush 

wi+h  Inside 

Butt  Straps 


Covering 
Strake 


Inner  Strokes 
doubled  to 
avoid  outer 
Chafe 


t^yy/y/4 


liners  or  Shell  Packing  shown-*- 

Types  of  shell  plating 

The  various  forms  of  material  constituting  the  hull  are  gener- 
ally fastened  together  by  means  of  rivets,  though  some  progress 


i 


THE  HULL 


43 


Countersunk 


has  been  made  in  fastening 

steel  parts  together  by  the   ^^^^^^^^^^ 

process  of  electric  welding.  Snap  Hammered  Oval 
Rivetmg,  however,  is  still  the 
standard  form  of  fastening,  the  rivets  being  heated  red  and 
driven  while  workable  through  heat.  The  standard  shapes  of 
rivets  are  shown.  The  swell  neck  form  is  best  for  ship  work 
as  it  fills  the  holes  better.  The  head  of  the  rivet  is  formed  on  it 
before  driving,  the  point  is  formed  in  the  process  of  driving, 
which  may  be  by  hand,  or  by  some  form  of  power  hammer. 

Tap  rivets  are  really  screws  worked  in  where  rivets  cannot  be 
driven. 

The  distance  between  the  centers  of  rivets  is  known  as  the 
pitch.    In  fastening  together  parts  of  a  ship  the  strength  of  joint 

desired,  the  thickness  of  material, 
and  the  shearing  strength  of  the 
rivets  is  considered  in  determin- 
ing the  pitch.    Rivets  may  be  in 
either  single  or  double  shear  as 
.  shown  in  the  sketch.    The  shear- 
ing stress  on  a  rivet  is,  as  the  name 
implies,  the  stress  tending  to  shear 
the  rivet  in  two,  or  three  parts. 
The  shell  plating,  deck  plating,  hatch  coamings,  and  bulk- 
heads must  be  watertight,  as  also  must  be  the  tanks,  and  to 
secure  this  desired  water  tightness  caulking  is  resorted  to. 


T 


1 


2- 


£ 


Single  Shear 

— c:^ 


1. 


J 


3 


Double  Shear 


(L  ap  Caulked  -Buff  Caulked 

Countersunk) 


Caulking 
^     Tool; 


'ButfJoint 


rCaulked 
^-^JJiveffkad 


\ 


CaulktdLap  Joint  ^ 


1  • 

'lap  Joint  ^  Butt  Strap 

In  the  case  of  a  steel  vessel  this  consists  in  bending  down  one 
part,  or  edge,  in  close  contact  with  its  neighbor,  as  shown  in  the 
sketch,  rather  than  in  ramming  caulking  material  in  between, 
as  oakum  is  rammed  into  the  seams  of  a  wooden  ship.  Rivet 
heads  that  show  leakage  are  also  caulked,  but  this  is  not  con- 
sidered good  practice,  such  rivets,  if  discovered  in  the  course  of 
construction,  should  be  backed  out  and  new  ones  driven. 
Butt  joints  are  caulked  as  shown  in  sketch. 


■^(4. 


44  STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 

n 

Transverse  Construction 

This  system  follows  the  ancient  method  of  building  up  ribs, 
01  frames,  resting  transversely  on  a  keel,  and  connected,  across 
their  tops  and  middles  by  beams,  the  whole  structure  bound 
together  by  longitudinals  called  stringers,  the  ends  of  the  vessel 
consisting  of  the  stem  and  s tempos t,  generally  large  forgings. 
All  enclosed  by  plating  on  the  outside  of  the  hull,  and  deck 
plating  over  the  beams. 


Forecasf/e  Deck 
Beams 


j  UpperDeck  Seams, 


Colfision 
Bulkhead - 


Bulkhead . 
Angle  Irons 


Stem 

PanHng 

Beams 


Frames 

tower  Deck  Beami 

•  Reversed  Frames 

—  Side  Stringer 
"Bilge  Stringer 

-  Middle  Line  Keehon 
Keel 


Forward  Framing 


This  is  the  simplest  description  of  what  is,  in  fact,  a  very 
complicated  structure  embracing  many  parts,  of  a  great  variety 
of  form  in  different  vessels.  The  parts  of  a  vessel  can  best  be 
studied  by  an  inspection  of  the  vessel  itself,  having  recourse  to 
the  drawings.  It  is  well  to  know  the  exact  name  and  use  of 
every  part  of  a  ship;  no  one  who  wants  to  be  a  finished  sailor 
should  content  himself  with  less  knowledge  than  this. 

It  is  best  to  first  study  the  combination  of  the  parts  of  the 
structure,  as  a  whole,  noting  their  relation  to  each  other,  and 
then  to  learn  the  construction  and  use  of  the  many  members 
making  up  the  hull  of  the  vessel. 

Transverse  section  of  various  types  of  vessels  are  helpful  in 
further  study  of  the  vessel  and  its  parts. 


T 


THE  HULL 


45 


The  location  of  tanks  in  the  double  bottom  and  the  arrange- 
ment of  beams  in  the  hold  of  a  three-decked  vessel  is  shown  in 
the  accompanying  illustrations. 

m 

Parts  of  Hull 

The  principal  parts  and  fittings  of  the  hull  will  now  follow 
with  a  brief  description  of  each  part  named,  given  in  alphabetical 
order. 


stern  Frames 


F^p  Deck  Beams 


Stern    ., 
Frames 


Stern  Post- 
T'-ansom  Plates  •-''' 


■  -  «■"  Poop  Frames 


Gudgeons  ~y 


Stem  Tube  -.. 


Propeller  Pbst 


""^  Keel"- 

After  Framing 


Zi^iZ^^^.lJpperDeck 
Beams 

StuffingBox 
Bulkheads 

Frames 

LowerDeck 
Beams 

Reversed 
Frames 

'-Side 
Stringer 
'BilgeStringer 

Middle  Line  Keelson 


Accommodation  ladder.  A  ladder  extending  down  the  outside 
of  the  hull,  steps  perpendicular  to  the  side  of  the  vessel.  This 
IS  usually  the  gangway  ladder  for  the  accommodation  of  passen- 
gers, and  IS  swung  from  a  small  davit,  the  upper  end  being 
hinged  to  a  gangway  platform.  It  is  fitted  with  extensions,  when 
the  vessel  is  light  and  with  middle  platforms  in  vessels  of  high 
freeboard.  ^ 

Awning  stanchions.  Stanchions  at  the  rail  used  to  support 
the  rope  jackstays  and  other  devices  for  the  spreading  and  sup- 
porting of  the  awnings.  *-  5  u^i- 

Beam.  An  athwartship  member  of  the  framing,  supporting 
the  decks.  Beams  are  fastened  to  the  frames  by  knees,  as  shown 
m  sketches  and  are  one  of  the  most  important  elements  in  the 
strength  of  the  vessel. 

Beam  knee.  A  type  of  special  beam  enlarged  where  it  is 
riveted  to  the  frammg. 


46 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


THE  HULL 


47 


Belaying  pin.  A  wooden  or  metal  bar  slipping  in  a  hole  in 
pin  rai7  for  belaying  gear.  A  square  (oblong  section), 
pin  is  called  a  caviL 

Bent  plate  washer,  A  bent  plate  used  in  con- 
necting a  bar  keel  to  the  garboard  strake. 

Bilge.  The  rounded  portion  of  the  hull — or  holds — 
between  the  bottom  and  the  sides  of  the  vessel.  The 
bilge  is  somewhat  indefinite,  but  is  used  in  the  nam- 
ing of  many  parts  of  the  structure,  such  as  bilge  keels 
(on  the  outside  to  prevent  rolling),  bilge  keelsons  (on 
the  inside  for  added  strength)  and  for  the  description 
of  dimnage  placed  in  the  bilge,  to  keep  cargo  clear 
of  bilge  watery  that  may  lie  in  the  bilge  when  the 
vessel  heels  over. 

We  also  have  bilge  stringers;  bilge  blocks  (under 
^        the   bilge  when  the  vessel  is  in   dry  dock) ;   bilge 
Belaying   P^^P^y   ^^^  ^  vessel  is  "  bilged  "  when  a  hole  is 
Pin        stove  into  her  bilge  or  bottom. 

Block,  or  block  coefficient  (also  coefficient  of  fine- 
ness) y  is  the  decimal  fraction  representing  the  volume  of  the  un- 
derwater body  of  the  vessel,  taking  her,  "  Block  "  that  is  product 
of  length,  beam  and  draft,  as  unity. 

Bobs  tag.    A  short  stay  from  the  end  of  the  bowsprit,  to  the 
stem.     Most  vessels  have  three  or  four,  made  of  chain. 

Boiler  stool,  A  heavy  bracket  resting  on  the  tank  tops,  floors 
and  keelsons.     Supports  the  boilers. 

Bollard,  Cast  steel,  or  iron  cylindrical 
shapes,  bolted  to  the  decks,  usually  also 
to  the  deck  beams.  Serve  a  similar 
purpose  as  the  bit  is  fitted  in  wooden 
craft.    Hawsers  led  through  the  mooring 

pipes  in  the  bullwarks,  are  made  fast  to  the  bollards.  Bollards 
are  sometimes  cast  with  a  removable  cap,  screwing  up  and  down, 
and  serve  to  ventilate  compartments  below. 

Bolsters,    Curved  pieces  of  wood,  resting  on  trestle  trees 
over  which  the  shrouds  are  laid,  prevent  short  nips  and  chafing. 
Booby  hatch.    Wooden  cover  over  a  small  hatchway,  usually 
aft,  fitted  with  a  sliding  or  hinged  cover  and  used  as  a  com- 
panion, or  for  hoisting  in  and  out  small  stores. 

Boom,  General  term  for  the  spars  used  in  hoisting  cargo, 
and  coal.  The  term  derrick  is  sometimes  used  when  referring 
to  these  spars. 

Bosom  piece.    Short  angle  or  butt  strap  used  in  joining  the 

ends  of  angle  bars. 

Boss,  The  central  casting  of  a  propellor  into  which  the  tail 
shaft  is  bolted  and  to  which  the  blades  are  bolted,  or  cast. 

Bossing.  Shell  plating  bent  to  fit  around  the  propellor  shaft, 
doing  away  with  the  need  of  struts  in  a  twin  screw  vessel. 


n    n 


Bollards 


i 


I 


r 


Boundary  plank.  Planking  built  around  metal  structure 
which  extends  above  the  deck,  and  against  which  the  wood- 
decking  is  laid,  usually  of  hard  wood.  Teak  is  often  used  for 
this  purpose  as  it  is  not  discolored  by  rust.  Also  called  Margin 
plank. 

Bow  frame.  The  most  forward  frame  in  ships  not  fitted  with 
a  bowsprit.  When  a  bowsprit  is  fitted  it  is  called  a  knighthead 
frame. 

Bow  port.  Small  square  port  in  the  bow  of  a  vessel,  to  allow 
the  stowage  of  long  pieces  of  timber.  Only  used  in  vessels 
having  a  single  hold,  usually  in  wooden  sailing  craft. 


Bulwark 


Upper 
Shetrstrake 


Carlingi 


'Mam 
Sheerstrake 


Cartings 


^/fahr  Ballad  Tank' 
(Ctllular  Double  Bottom) 


'Garboard 


Midship  section,  heavy  construction 

Bowsprit.  A  spar  extending  forward  over  the  bow.  Rests 
on  the  stem,  to  which  it  is  secured  by  bands  or  lashings  called 
the  gammoning y  the  heel  bemg  wedged  in  the  knightheadSy 
some  distance  aft  of  the  stem.  It  is  stayed  by  the  bobstaysy  and 
bowsprit  shroudsy  and  extends  and  takes  the  stress  of  the  fore 
staysy  hove  through  bees  to  the  stem. 
3 


48 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


THE  HULL 


49 


Box  beam,    A  built-up  beam  in  the  form  of  a  box  girder. 
Bracket,    A  small  plate  used  to  connect  various  parts,  such 
as  deck  beams  to  frames,  frames  to  margin  plates,  etc. 

Breaching,    The  Y-shaped  pipe  which  connects  the  boilers  to 

the  funnel. 

Breakwater,  Structure  built  on  the  forward  deck  to  protect 
hatchways,  and  companion  ways  from  the  seas. 

Breast  hook.  Horizontal  framing  fitted  in  the  bow  to  give 
strength  to  the  structure  and  support  the  shell  plating  against 
heavy  blows. 

Bridge,  The  structure  from  which  the  vessel  is  managed  and 
navigated.  The  central  bridge  contains  the  steering  apparatus, 
lookout  stations,  and  navigating  accessories.  Docking  bridges 
are  sometimes  fitted  far  forward  and  aft. 

Bridge  piece.    The  upper  connection  of  a  stern  frame. 

Bulkhead,  Generally  a  partition  aboard  ship  anywhere,  ex- 
tending athwartship  or  fore  and  aft. 

The  following  bulkheads  will  be  specifically  named— after 
peak  bulkhead;  to  prevent  inrush  of  water  in  the  event  of  a 
break  in  the  propellor  shaft.  Collision  bulkheadj  placed  well 
forward  as  a  safeguard  in  the  event  of  collision.  The  main 
bulkheads  dividing  the  holds,  reserve  bunkers,  and  engine  room 
spaces. 

Bulkhead  fittings — doorSj  usually  three  feet  high  and  two  feet 
wide,  watertight,  and  operated  by  hand  or  by  quick  closing  gears 
from  above  or  below. 

Bulkhead  deck,  the  deck  to  which  bulkheads  extend. 

Bulkhead  sluice,  a.  small  opening  in  a  bulkhead  for  the  purpose 
of  drainage  and  which  may  be  closed  from  the  deck. 

Bulkhead  stiffeners,  angles,  or  webs  and  angles,  riveted  to  a 
bulkhead  to  stiffen  it. 

Stepped  bulkhead,  one  in  which  the  upper  part  does  not  come 
vertically  over  the  lower  part.  Often  met  with  in  adjusting  the 
machinery  and  bunker  spaces. 

Wash  bulkhead,  a  partial  bulkhead  in  tanks,  usually  fore  and 
aft,  to  prevent  the  surging  of  water,  or  oil  when  a  tank  is  only 
partly  filled. 

Bunker,    A  compartment  used  for  the  stowage  of  fuel. 

Pocket  bunker,  a  conduit  for  passng  coal  from  between  deck 
bunkers  to  the  firerooms. 

Reserve  bunker,  usually  forward  and  next  after  the  forward 
holds,  extending  athwartship.  On  short  runs  can  be  used  for 
cargo. 

Wing  bunker,  bunkers  situated  in  the  wings,  abreast  of  the 

boilers. 

Cabin,  General  term  for  living  quarters  of  officers  and 
passengers. 


i 


Camber,  The  rise  or  crown  of  a  deck  above  a  horizontal  line 
connecting  the  ends  of  the  beam. 

Cant  frame,  A  frame  not  perpendicular  to  the  fore  and  aft 
line  of  the  keel. 

Capstan.  A  vertical  revolving  drum,  spool  shaped,  and  fitted 
with  pawls.  Whelps,  or  ridges  on  the  drum  prevent  wet  lines 
from  surging.  Capstans  are  power  driven  but  may  also  be 
operated  by  man  power  by  the  use  of  capstan  bars  fitting  into 
pigeon  holes  in  the  capstan  head. 

Cargo  battens.  Planking  cleated  or  bolted  to  the  reverse 
frames,  in  the  holds  and  between  decks,  to  protect  cargo  from 
contact  with  the  steel  plating  and  frames. 

Carlings,  Short  beams  or  girders,  similar  to  headers,  used 
to  support  the  end  of  a  deck  beam  where  it  is  cut  for  hatch  open- 
ings, mast  holes,  etc. 

Cat  head,  A  short  heavy  projecting  knee  at  the  bows  fitted 
with  sheaves,  and  used  for  securing  an  old  fashioned  anchor. 
It  also  serves  as  a  support  for  jibbom  guys  on  sailers. 

Ceiling,  The  wooden  flooring  on  the  tank  tops,  also  the  inside 
lining  of  a  wooden  ship. 

Cellular  double  bottoms.  The  construction  of  double  bottoms 
in  which  longitudinal  or  intercostal  plates  and  the  transverse 
floors,  subdivide  the  space  into  small  compartments  or  cells. 

Center  girder.  The  center  line  girder  connecting  the  keel 
and  keelson  of  a  steel  built  vessel. 

Chain  locker,  A  deep  compartment  forward,  either  immedi- 
ately forward  or  aft  of  the  colUsion  bulkhead,  for  the  stowage, 
by  gravity,  of  the  anchor  chains.  The  chain  locker  is  usually 
divided  into  port  and  starboard  lockers  by  a  wooden  bulkhead. 

Checkered  plate.    Used  in  engine  room  flooring,  ladders,  etc. 

Cheek  plates.  The  plates  riveted  at  the  mast  head  to  form 
the  hounds,  which  support  the  trestle  trees,  these,  in  turn  sup- 
portmg  the  fid,  which  passes  through  the  heel  of  a  fidded  toih- 
mast,     (See  Chapter  6.)  j  i^ 

Chocks,  Heavy  metal  fittings  through 
which  hawsers,  or  lines  may  be  led.  Also 
the  seats  or  saddles  of  boats,  of  wood  or 
metal.  On  shipboard  a  chock  may  be 
anything  that  is  used  to  wedge  or  chock  A  Chock 

up  weights  carried  on  deck  or  in  the  holds. 

Circulating  pump.  The  large  pump  which  circulates  the  cool 
sea  water  through  the  condenser. 

Cleanout  door,  A  door  near  the  bottom  of  a  furnace  to  allow 
tne  cleanmg  out  of  cinders  and  ashes. 

;«  ^\^^^i;\^  Pi^ff'    The  plug  screwed  mto  the  bottom  of  a  trap 
m  piumbmg  fixtures,  removed  when  trap  is  to  be  cleared. 


y^-^ 


50 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


'^^r 


Cleat.    A  ship  fitting  used  for  the  be- 
laying of  ropes. 
Coaming,    The  plating  around  a  hatch 
A  Cleat  or  skylight. 

Coffer  dam.    Space  between  two  water 
tight  bulkheads,  located  close  together.     (See  Chapter  11.) 

Collision  chocks.  Heavy  brackets  fitted  fore  and  aft  of  boilers 
and  connected  to  floors  and  framing.  Intended  to  take  up 
impact  in  the  event  of  a  head-on  collision. 

Columns.  The  vertical  pillars  in  between  decks  and  holds, 
of  various  forms,  and  either  stationary  or  removable. 

Companion.  The  entrance  and  stairway  leading  from  a 
weather  deck  to  the  cabin  space  below,  or  from  the  topgallant 
forecastle  to  the  forecastle. 

Compartment.    A  subdivision  of  space  is  a  ship. 
Compensation.    The  increase  in  strength  of  members  to 
make  up  for  ports,  and  the  doubling  of  plates  around  hatch- 
ways, etc.,  to  compensate  for  loss  of  area  in  deck  plating. 

Composite  vessel.  Generally  understood  to  be  a  vessel  built 
of  metal  framing  and  wood  planking.  The  upper  plating  may 
be  of  steel  and  the  underwater  body  planked  and  coppered. 
The  Schoolship  Newport  is  of  this  construction. 

Cross  head.  The  casting  at  the  rudder  head  connecting  it 
to  the  hand  steering  gear. 

Davit.  The  crane  or  cranes  used  in  hoisting  and  lowermg 
ship's  boats.  Use  also  is  made  of  an  anchor  davit ^  in  stowing  the 
old  fashioned  anchor  which  is  brought  on  board  the  forecastle 
head.    A  davit  is  used  to  sling  the  companio^i  ladder. 

Dead  eye.  A  solid  circular  block,  usually  of  lignum  vitae 
through  which  lanyards  are  rove.  Used  in  setting  up  stays, 
shrouds,  etc.,  where  turnbuckles  are  not  fitted.  Generally 
restricted  to  use  in  wooden  vessels.     (See  Chapter  6.) 

Deadrise.  The  vertical  distance  between  the  point  where 
the  slope  of  the  vessel's  bottom  intersects  the  moulded  breadth 
line  and  the  base  line.    (See  page  62.) 

Deck.  The  plating  or  planking  over  the  beams,  corresponds 
to  the  flooring  in  buildings  ashore. 

Flush  decky  running  fore  and  aft  with  no  breaks. 
Forecastle  decky  short  deck  on  forecastle. 
Poop  decky  short  deck  on  poop.    Other  decks  take  the  names 
from  the  structure  covered,  such  as  bridge^  etc.    The  decks  in 
the  body  of  a  vessel  are  as  follows — ^from  the  top  down: 
Bridge  deck  Main  deck 

Boat  deck  Lower  deck 

Promenade  deck  Orlop  deck 

Shelter  deck  Lower  orlop  deck 

Upper  deck 


THE  HULL 


51 


Bridge  Deck 


Bridge 


The  American  Bureau  of  Shipping  designates  decks  as  follows: 
the    "Freeboard    Deck"   then 
(going  down)  second  deck;  third 
deck,  fourth  deck,  etc. 

Deflection.  The  amount  a 
beam,  or  column,  sags  or  springs 
out  of  line  under  a  load. 

Derrick.  Alternative  term  for 
a  cargo  boom. 

Derrick  post.  Corresponds  to 
a  mast,  or  king  post,  except  that 
the  derrick  post  may  revolve 
about  its  axis. 

Diagonal  ties.  Bands  of  steel 
running  across  from  one  side  of 
a  vessel  to  an  other  at  an  angle 
to  the  deck  beams.  Used  to 
stiffen  the  decks  of  sailing  craft. 

Diamond  plates.  Diamond 
shaped  plates  connecting  the 
web  frames  to  the  side  stringers. 
Act  as  brackets,  stififening  the 
frame  of  the  vessel. 

Diaphragm.  A  web  plate 
placed  between  two  members  in 
the  structure  of  a  vessel  and 
used  to  stiffen  them. 

Dog.  A  bent  metal  fitting 
with  handle  used  to  close  doors, 
manhole  covers,  etc. 

Donkey  boiler.  Every  seago- 
ing vessel  carrying  passengers 

must  be  fitted  with  a  donkey  boiler  of  sufficient  capacity  to  work 
the^re  pumpSy  wireless  if  need  be,  etc.  The  donkey  boiler 
shall  not  be  placed  below  the  lower  decks.  The  donkey  boiler 
IS  an  emergency  boiler  and  is  used  in' port  to  supply  steam  to 
winches,  heating  system,  etc.,  when  the  main  boilers  are  cold. 
Edge  strip.  A  narrow  strip  of  metal  (buttstrap)  placed  under 
the  jomt  in  shell  plating  laid  flush. 

Escape  holes.  SmaU  man  holes  in  the  deck,  remote  from 
hatchways,  used  for  trimmers  to  get  out  of  bunkers  after  filling 
bunker  with  coal,  also  used  to  fill  remote  corners  of  bunkers 
with  coal. 

Expansion  bend.  A  bent  section  of  piping  to  allow  for  ex- 
pansion and  contraction  without  causing  leaky  joints.  Used  in 
deck  steam  lines,  etc. 


Names  of  Decks 


52 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


THE   HULL 


53 


Expansion  plans.  Developments  of  the  shell  plating  and 
framing  of  the  ship  showing  the  size  and  mark  of  every  plate 
and  frame  including  bottom  and  sides.  This  makes  the  drawing 
look  distorted,  being  correct  in  length  but  expanded  in  breadth. 
Very  useful  things  to  have  on  board,  in  the  event  of  damage  to 
plates  or  frames  while  away  from  home. 

Eye  bolt.  A  bolt  formed  with  an  eye  in  the  head.  When 
a  ring  is  fitted  into  the  eye,  it  is  known  as  a  ring  bolt.  Heart- 
shaped  rings  are  sometimes  fitted  when  the  bolts  are  used  for 
passing  lashings. 

Eyebrow.  The  semicircular  or  triangular  iron  placed  oyer  a 
port  to  prevent  rain  from  dripping  into  it.    Also  called  a  wriggle. 

Fabricated  ship.  A  steel  ship  built  or  "  fabricated "  in 
different  shops  on  standard  plans,  and  assembled  in  the  ship- 
ward.  This  plan  of  shipbuilding  was  first  carried  on  with  marked 
success  by  the  Submarine  Boat  Corporation  on  Newark  Bay,  N.  J. 

Factor  of  safety.    The  ratio  between  the  ultimate  strength- 
of  a  piece  of  gear  and  the  allowed  working  stress. 


Ultimate  strength 
Working  load 


=  Factor  of  safety 


Fairlead.  Small  rings  of  li^gnum  vitae  or  metal  through  which 
lines  are  rigged  to  keep  them  clear. 

Faying  surface.  The  surface  of  plates  that  comes  in  contact 
with  other  plates,  or  framing.  All  holes  should  be  punched  from 
the  faying  surface  to  insure  a  close  fit  when  the  plates  come 
together. 

Fid.  A  heavy  rectangular  steel  pin  fitte4  through  the  heel 
of  a  fidded  topmast,  or  topgallant  mast,  and  upon  which  the 
mast  depends  for  support.  The  ends  of  the  fid  rest  on  the 
trestle  trees. 

Fiddley.  The  open  grating  around  the  funnels  of  a  steamer. 
A  favorite  roost  for  soldiers^  during  cold  weather. 

Flaws  in  steel.  Blisters^  raised  projections  on  the  surface, 
caused  by  gases  getting  under  the  skin  of  the  metal. 

Blow  holes,  cavities  in  steel  caused  by  air  and  gas. 

Brittlenessj  lack  of  ductility  caused  by  phosphorus. 

Crystallization,  caused  by  fatigue  (steel  gets  tired)  from 
repeated  overloading,  pounding,  etc.  Must  look  out  for  this  in 
cargo  hooks,  shackles,  chains,  etc.  When  such  parts  fracture 
the  presence  of  crystallization  can  often  be  noted. 

Internal  stresses,  caused  by  improper  working  of  temperature, 
and  lack  of  annealing. 

Piping,  hollow  center  in  steel  bars,  caused  by  shrinkage  while 
molten. 

Red  shortness,  ragged  appearance  on  edges  of  steel  plates 
caused  by  too  much  sulphur  in  the  steel. 

Vents f  same  as  blow  holes. 


Floor,  the  lower  portion  of  a  transverse  frame.  Usually  a 
vertical  plate  extending  from  center  line  of  keel  to  bilge,  and 
from  inner  to  outer  bottom  plating. 

Fore  and  afters.  The  longitudinal  pieces  over  a  hatchway, 
supported  by  the  strongbacks  (cross  beams).  The  center  fore 
and  after  is  usually  of  steel,  the  fore  and  afters  between  this  and 
edge  of  coaming  are  usually  of  wood. 

FJatZ^-^  /Oonm,JeAngJe-fron 

'  ■'    ■■' Gutter  Angle-Iron 


Upper  . 
Sneerstrake 


A  midship  section,  light  construction 

Forecastle.  The  forward  part  of  the  hull,  usually  raised  above 
the  main  deck,  formerly  used  as  quarters  for  crew.  Pronounced 
"FoVsle"  (Foksill). 

Fore  foot.  Point  of  the  stem  where  the  keel  rounds  up  to 
meet  the  stem  piece.  A  broad  fore  foot  is  called  a  club  foot. 
Paravanes,  used  to  sweep  up  mines,  attach  to  the  fore  foot. 

Fore  peak.  The  compartment  or  tank  just  within  the  bow  and 
forward  of  the  collision  bulkhead. 

Foundation  plate.    Heavy  plate  upon  which  the  keelson  rests. 

Framing.    The  skeleton  of  the  vessel. 


■-t^ 


54 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


THE  HULL 


55 


m 


Frame y  knightheady  first  frame  in  bow  of  a  vessel  carrying  a 
bowsprit. 

Frame  liners^  filler  plates  placed  between  frame  and  outer 
strakes  in  in  and  out  plating. 

Frame  spacing,  for  and  aft  distance  between  frames. 

Transverse  framing,  the  usual  framing  of  vessels,  as  described 
so  far. 

Longitudinal  framing,  Isherwood  System  and  Gatewood  Sys- 
tem, much  used  in  the  construction  of  tankers. 

Freeboard.  The  height  of  the  vessel  out  of  water  measured 
to  various  decks  in  various  types  of  vessels.  Freeboard  depends 
upon  the  construction  of  the  vessel,  for  instance,  txirret  vessels 
are  allowed  to  measure  freeboard  to  the  turret  deck,  while  in  fact 
their  breadth  of  hull  may  be  almost  submerged.    (See  page  28.) 

Freeboard  marks.  The  Plimsol  mark  has  become  standard, 
and  these  loading  marks  are  determined  by  surveys  of  the  imder- 
writers  in  American  ships.     (See  Chapter  I,  page  29.) 

Freeing  port.  Large  ports  in  bulwarks,  usually  on  well  decks, 
with  gratings,  or  hinged  ports  to  free  the  decks  from  water  when 
shipping  seas.  Ten  per  cent,  of  bulwark  area  usually  taken  up 
by  freeing  parts. 

Funnel  casing.  Outside  funnel,  built  around  inside  stack  for 
strength  and  insuUation. 

Furring.  Wooden  battens  bolted  to  frames  to  hold  cabin  and 
store  room  lining  planks.  , 

Galley.    The  kitchen  of  the  vessel. 

Gangway  doors,  or  port  shutters.  Large  doors  or  shutters  in 
the  bulwarks  hinged  up  and  down  or  fore  and  aft;^  to  admit  gang- 
way ladders,  or  to  clear  the  way  for  cargo  skids. 

Girder.    A  deep  beam. 

Goose  neck.  The  usual  fitting  at  the  heel  of  a  cargo  or  other 
boom,  connecting  it  to  the  mast.     (See  Chapter  5.) 

Grain  feeders.  Reservoirs  built  just  above  grain  holds  to 
keep  holds  filled  with  grain  and  prevent  shifting.  Similar  to  oil 
trunks  in  tankers. 

Granulated  cork.  Used  in  coating  inside  steel  work  to  pre- 
vent sweating. 

Graving  piece.  A  short  piece  of  plank,  inserted  into  damaged 
plank  of  an  old  deck.  Does  not  go  down  to  the  beams.  Ends 
of  graving  piece  usually  pointed.     (See  page  922). 

Gudgeon.  The  sockets  in  the  rudder  post  into  which  the 
rudder  pintels  ship. 

Gunwale.  The  upper  side  of  a  small  boat.  Sometimes 
used  in  connection  with  the  fitting  of  vessels.  Gunwale  tanks, 
etc. 

Gutter.  The  depression  at  the  edge  of  decks  to  drain  off 
water  to  the  scuppers. 


Corner  of  hatch  on  a  fabricated 
vessel 


Hatches.    The  openings  in  the  decks  through  which  cargo, 
fuel,  etc  is  passed. 

Hatch  battens,  narrow  metal  bars  at  the  hatch  coamings 
resting  against  the  tarpaulins  ' 

and  wedged  tight  by  driving 
hatch  wedges  between  the  bat- 
tens and  the  hatch  cleats  in 
which  they  rest. 

Hatch  covers,  usually  of 
heavy  wood,  sometimes  of 
steel  resting  on  rubber  gasgets. 
Hatch  tarpaulins,  canvas 
covers  extending  over  hatch 
and  down  side  of  coamings, 
and  held  in  place  by  battens 
as  described  above.    Usually  treated  to  make  them  waterproof. 

Hatchway,  the  vertical 
opening  under  a  hatch. 

Expansion  hatch,  the  hatch 
over  an  expansion  trunk. 

Hawse  pipe.  The  pipes  in  the 
bow  through  which  the  anchor 
cables  pass,  and  into  which  the 
stockless  anchors  stow. 

Hawser.  A  large  rope  used 
in  working  the  ship,  towing, 
tyiag  up  to  a  wharf,  etc. 

Helm.  Generally  used  with 
reference  to  the  tiller,  also 
thewhole  apparatus  by  which 
the  vessel  is  steered. 

Hold.     A    cargo    carrying 
compartment  in  the  body  of 
the  vessel. 
Hold  beams.    Beams  in  a  hold,  similar  to  deck  beams  but 
carrying  no  deck  plating,  they  generally  have  no  camber. 


Usual  form  of  hatch  construction, 

A,  wooden  hatch  covers. 

B,  forward  and  after  coaming. 

C,  side  coaming. 

D,  steel  strong  back. 
E,fore  and  after  (steel). 

F,  wedge  cleats. 

G,  hatch  rim. 


L 

Hatch 


••I 


i  I 

1 1 

I 


iJ 


Hatch 


Forms  of  ledges  for  hatch  covers 

Hold-beam  system.    The  placing  of  hold  beams  on  every 
tenth  frame  to  provide  added  stren^. 


56 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Holding  down  bolts.  Heavy  bolts  for  holding  down  machinery 
on  Its  beds.  The  main  engines,  plummer  blocks,  thrust  bear- 
ings, winches,  anchor  engines,  etc. 


BuffSfrap- 


xMainRaih 


Fortcasffe  Raik^. 
^ufwarkSfays 


(Windlass  -BowChock 


Upper  Deck' ~t 
Upper  Deck  Beam 

Frames 

Lower  Deck"> 

Lower  Deck  Beams 
Reversed  Frame  ■ 
SideStrirtger  — > 

Bilge  Keekort  --> 
Floors-^ 


Stem 


'■Panfirjg 
Beams 


Middle  Li/te  Keekon'  Keel""^        Scarph  of  Stem  ah f Keel- 
Bow  plating  frames,  etc. 


Collision 
Bulkhead 


Hull.    The  body  of  a  vessel. 

Hulk.  Generally  an  abandoned  or  cut  down  vessel  used  for 
storage,  etc  ,  such  as  coal  hulks. 

Hull  efficiency.  A  decimal  obtained  by  the  following  calcu- 
lation. 

Ship  resistence  X  speed 
Thrust  X  speeTof  propellor  "  ^'  ^' 

Hull  number.  A  number  assigned  to  a  ship  and  with  which 
all  material  entering  the  ship  is  marked  to  avoid  confusion  in 
assembling. 

Ice  doubling.  Extra  plates  in  bow  to  reinforce  against  im- 
pact with  ice. 

Insulation.  The  non-conduction  material  built  into  holds 
and  compartments  intended  for  the  carriage  of  frozen  or  chilled 
cargo.  Insullating  materials  are  charcoaly  sawdust,  silicate  of 
cotton,  or  slagwool,  pumice  in  the  form  of  fine  gravel  Felt 
and  cow  hair  and  balsa  wood  are  also  used. 

Intercostals.  Between-the-ribs  plates.  Built  in  separate 
sections  between  the  frames,  beams,  etc.  Floors  are  con- 
tinuous and  longitudinals  are  intercostal  in  the  transverse 
system  of  framing. 

Jack  staff.  Staff  at  bow  for  flying  jack;  jack  only  used  when 
not  under  way. 

Jib  boom.  Spar  extending  forward  from  the  bowsprit.  Only 
used  in  sailing  craft.  ■ 


THE  HULL 


57 


Joggle.    Plates  bent  to  fit  over  other  work,  or  other  plates. 

Keel.  The  backbone  of  the  vessel.  Of  various  forms. 
Usually  flat  underneath.  Duct  keel  is  a  hollow  box  girder  and 
carries  longitudinal  pipe  system. 


Flat  keel  and  keelson 


Bar  keel 


Keel  bar,  an  exterior  bar  beneath  main  keel. 

Keel  blocks,  blocks  built  up  under  keel  to  support  it  while 
ship  IS  building,  or  when  ship  is  in  dry  dock. 

False  keel,  a  plate  or  timber  bolted  to  outside  of  keel  to  pro- 
tect it  and  take  up  wear  in  case  of  grounding. 


Keel  Ptafe-*' 


'Ducf-For 
Pipincf 

Duct  keel 


Bottom/ 
of  Ship 


Keelson.  An  inner  keel  extending  above  the  keel  inside  of 
the  vessel.    Pronounced  Kelson. 

Side  keelson,  a  stringer  between  the  outer  bottom  and  the 
tank  top  and  parallel  to  the  keel. 

King  post.  A  short  steel  post  generally  without  stays,  sup- 
portmg  mmor  cargo  booms.    Sometimes  used  as  a  ventilator. 


58 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


Knee 


Knee.  A  triangular  or  curved  bracket  connecting 
deck  beams  to  the  frames. 

Knuckle  line.  The  intersecting  line  between  the 
poop  plating  and  the  stem  plating  in  a  vessel  having 
an  overhanging  counter. 

Lanyard,    The  heavy  hemp  gear  rove   through 
deadeyesy  or  hearts^m  setting  up  stays  and  shrouds. 
Also  of  manila  at  the  end  of  boat  davit  guys,  for  setting  them 
taut. 

Lattice  work.  The  diagonal  members  in  an  open  or  lattice 
girder  or  frame.     (See  Chapter  5— Lattice  cargo  boom.) 

Lightening  holes.  The  circular,  or  oval,  openings  in  floor 
plate  webs  to  lighten  the  weight.  Also  used  to  lighten  deep 
hatch  strongbacks. 

Lignum  vitae,  A  very  hard  dense  wood  used  for  bearing 
surface  in  tail  shaft  bearings,  aroimd  pintles  of  rudders  and  for 
dead  eyes,  block  sheaves,  etc. 

Limber  board.  The  line  of  ceiling  next  to  the  keelson  or  the 
margin  plates  m  a  steamer.  This  can  be  lifted  and  exposes  the 
gutter  next  the  keels,  known  as  the  limbers. 

Limber  holes.  Holes  cut  in  floor  plates  close  to  the  keelson, 
or  margin  plates,  and  next  to  the  lower  angle  bars  of  the  frames, 
to  allow  water  to  drain  toward  the  pump  suctions. 

Limber  chains.  Small  chains  running  through  the  limber 
holes  which  can  be  pulled  back  and  forth  to  keep  them  clear  and 
allow  for  drainage  to  the  pump  suctions. 

Locking  hoop,  A  collar  in  two  halves,  fitting  around  the  top 
of  the  rudder  stock. 

Locking  pin.  Any  pin  or  key  used  in  locking  parts  of  machin- 
ery, such  as  the  steel  pin  for  locking  the  loose  quadrant  to  the 
keyed  tiller. 

Louvre,  An  opening  in  the  side  of  a  deck  house  fitted  with 
inclined  slats  which  keep  out  rain  water  and  serve  to  ventilate. 

Lug  pad,  A  projection  carrying 
an  eye,  riveted  to  a  bulwark  or 
bulkhead  or  on  deck. 

Magazine,    A   compartment 
room    in    which    ammunition 
stored.      Fitted    with    means 
flooding,  and  kept  away  from  all 
fire.     (See  Chapter  9.) 

Manger,  A  dam  built  abaft  of  the  hawse  pipes  to  collect 
water  washing  into  the  hawse. 

Margin  plate.  The  outer  wing  of  the  inner  bottom,  con- 
necting it  with  the  shell  plating  at  the  bilge. 

Mast.  The  main  upright  spars  of  a  vessel  are  called  the 
masts.    Generally  set  on  the  center  line  and  slightly  raked  aft. 


Lug  pads 


THE  HULL 


59 


Masts  are  now  generally  built  up  of  metal  in  various  sections, 
usually  round.  Some  craft  have  square  masts,  in  the  shape  of  a 
box  column.  The  masts  of  modem  vessels  are  mainly  placed 
for  the  support  of  cargo  gear  and  are  stayed  against  maximum 
cargo  loads.  Modern  masts  also  find  a  use  in  the  erection  of 
radio  apparatus,  the  carrying  of  the  requked  lights,  and  as 
vantage  points  for  lookouts.  Very  little  sail  is  carried  except  in 
case  of  extreme  emergency.  A  stout  trysail  and  staysail  equip- 
ment however  would  be  a  good  insurance  in  the  event  of  injury 
to  engines,  and  might  be  of  use  in  heavy  weather  under  such 
conditions.  Wood  masts  are  soUd,  or  built  in  sections  and 
hooped. 

Mast  cap,  the  massive  metal  ring  fitting  over  a  lower  mast 
head  and  through  which  the  topmast  is  secured- to  it. ' 

Mast  coat,  canvas  coat  fitted  around  base  of  mast  where  it 
passes  through  the  weather  deck  to  make  the  mast  hole  water 
tight. 

Mast  doubling,  the  pofnt  where  the  lower  and  top  mast 
parallel  each  other,  also  the  top  and  topgallant  masts.  Also 
referred  to  the  extra  plating  in  built  up  steel  masts. 

Fore  mast,  the  forward  masts,  lower,  top,  topgallant  royal 
and  skysail.  The  highest  mast  carried  by  a  steamer  is  usually  a 
topmast.  ^ 

Mast  hole,  the  openings  in  a  deck  through  which  the  masts 
pass. 

Main  mast,  the  second  mast  from  forward,  with  upper  masts 
as  on  the  fore. 

Mizzen  mast,  the  third  mast  from  forward,  etc.     Other  masts 

m  the  order  of  their  number  from  forward  are.  Jigger,  spanker. 

driver.    Or,  Fore,  Main,  Middle,  Jigger,  etc. 

Mast  partners,  carlings  and  extra  framing  around  the  mast 
holes. 

Mast  pedestal,  a  frame  work  strongly  braced,  built  over  a  deck 
on  which  a  mast  is  stepped,  when  the  mast  cannot  be  extended 
down  between  decks.    Also  called  a  tabernacle, 

Pole  mast,  a  mast  made  in  one  piece  throughout,  that  is  lower 
and  topmast  in  one.  Also  the  wooden' pole  topmast  erected 
over  a  steel  lower  mast  to  carry  radio  antenna,  lights,  etc. 

Mast  step,  the  stmctural  frame  into  which  the  heel  of  the 
mast  rests.  Over  the  keelson  in  small  vessel,  otherwise  in  one 
of  the  between  decks,  or  over  the  shaft  tunnel  in  the  case  of  a 
single  or  triple  screw  vessel  of  moderate  tonnage. 

Mast  wedges,  the  wooden  wedges  driven  between  the  mast 
and  the  partners,  to  hold  the  mast  rigid  to  the  hull  of  the  vessel. 

(l^or  details  of  masts  see  Chapters  V  and  VI.) 

Messenger,  A  chain  or  rope,  used  to  transmit  power  from 
an  engine  to  some  windlass  or  capstan  a  distance  away,  or  not 
otherwise  directly  connected. 


mmM 


60 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Mooring  pipes.  The  eliptical  openings  in  the  bulwarks,  fitted 
with  rounded  edges  for  the  use  of  mooring  lines. 

Oil  tight  Riveted  and  caulked  to  prevent  oil  leakage.  Oil 
will  go  through  joints  where  water  is  kept  out. 

Outreach,  The  distance  a  cargo  boom  can  reach  out  beyond 
the  mast. 

Overhang,  Portion  of  the  hull  extending  beyond  the  water 
line  fore  and  aft. 

Oxter  plate.  The  shell  plate  of  very  sharp  curvature  con- 
necting to  the  sternpost. 


> 


Collision  Bulkliead-—A  Paint 


PotntinqSf ringer 


Panting  beams  shown  in  cross  section 

Panting  beam,  panting  stringer.  The  beams  and  stringers 
reinforcing  the  frames  forward,  to  take  up  the  pantirig  stresses, 
due  to  wave  action. 

Parrall,  A  hoop,  or  tub,  riding  up  and  down  the  topmast,  to 
support  the  upper  topsail  yard.  Also  fitted  on  other  yards  that 
hoist. 

Plummer  block.    The  heavy  structural  supports  carrying  the 
shaft  journals. 
Poop.    The  after  elevated  deck  of  a  ship  with  a  well  deck  aft. 

Usually   carries   the    steering  gear, 
and  living  quarters,  for  crew. 

Port,  The  left  hand  side  of  the 
vessel  looking  forward.  Also  open- 
ings in  the  hull  or  deck  houses  to  ad- 
mit air,  cargo,  or  coal. 

Blind  port,  a  port  fitted  with  a  steel 
door  closing  flush  with  the  side. 

Port  light,  the  heavy  circular  glass 

closure    framed    with    metal,    that 

screws  against  the  port  openings  in 

cabins  and  between  decks. 

Dead  lights,  the  steel  discs  that  screw  down  over  the  port 

lights,  securing  against  breakage  of  the  glass,  and  shutting  out 

light  when  necessary. 


Dead  Light 


Porf 


^'Porf  light 
Parts  of  a  port 


THE  HULL 


61 


Propeller,    The  screw  that  propells  the  vessel. 

Propeller  arch,  the  arched  part  of  the  hull  formed  by  the  stem 
frame  and  under  which  the  propeller  is  situated. 

Propeller  post,  forms  the  forward  part  of  the  stern  frame. 
The  after  part  of  the  stern  frame  is  the  rudder  post.  Above  is 
the  propeller  arch,  or  bridge  piece,  and  below  is  the  sole  piece, 
connecting  the  two  posts  and  extending  the  keel  to  the  foot  of 
the  rudder. 

Propeller  shaft,  or  shaft,  the  heavy  steel  shaft  that  transmits 
the  power  from  the  engine  to  the  propeller. 

Quadrant,  The  quadrantal  shaped  casting,  keyed  to  the 
rudder  head  and  to  which  the  steering  chams  are  attached. 
Sometimes  the  quadrant  is  toothed  and  the  motion  of  the  steering 
engine  is  transmitted  to  it  by  a  worm  gear,  or  by  pinions.  Many 
combinations  of  steering  machinery  are  used  but  the  quadrant 
IS  found  in  most  of  them. 

Quarter  deck.     Deck  on  a  sailing  ship  aft  of  the  mainmast. 

Quarter  pillars.  The  pillars  and  stanchions  half  way  between 
the  center  line  and  the  side  of  the  ship. 

fu  ^^^^^'  ^^^  score  in  the  stem  and  stern  posts  into  which 
the  shell  plating  butts.  In  wooden  vessels  the  fore  and  aft 
hood  ends  of  planking  butt  into  rabbet  in  stem  and  stern  post. 


•J^oulding 


Mooring  Pipe)^ 


^' Main  Rail 


Sterm._ 

OnterPlate, 

Screw  _._"-» 
Aperture    "  ^ 


-Upper  Deck 


<^-- frames 
Main  Deck 


dudgeons'''.^ 

Rudde. 

Frame 
Propeiko 

Blades         N\  ST  ■' 
Propeller  Post-^i^\'- 
Stern  Bush-    ''^ 

Prop 
Boss 


..\— Reversed  Frames 
lower  Deck 

Semi  Box 
'OrhpBeanr 

'•--..  Jtidde  line 
Keehon 

-floors 


>iope,kry'^'p^p:f-:y  i"s™^*'-<^^S7'''^* 


Stuffing  Box  Oland' 


•Keel 


After  plating  and  framing 


/?a/je.  The  inclination  of  spars  and  funnels  from  the  vertical, 
me  inchnation  of  a  bowsprit  from  the  horizontal  is  called  the 
stave  of  the  bowsprit. 

Rake  bunkers.    Bunkers  in  which  one  side  is  sloped. 

Rider  plate.  The  foundation  plate  between  a  piUar  and  the 
center  keelson. 


62 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


Rotting  chocks.  Heavy  brackets  under  the  boilers  and  en- 
gines to  take  up  the  extra  stress  of  rolling. 

Rose  box.  Also  called  strainer^  or  strum  box^  perforated 
boxes  over  the  ends  of  the  bilge  suction  pipes. 

Roundhouse.  An  erection  from  6  to  8  feet  in  height  on  or 
above  the  upper  deck  but  not  extending  from  side  to  side  of  the 
vessel,  as  is  the  case  with  a  bridge,  a  forecastle,  a  poop,  or  raised 
quarter-deck.  For  descriptive  purposes  on  vessel  documents, 
spaces  not  extending  from  side  to  side  of  the  vessel,  of  less 
height,  such  as  cabin  heads  or  trunks,  and  closed-in  spaces  over 
the  holds  of  motor  boats,  etc.,  may  be  classed  as  roundhouses. 

Rudder.    The  steering  blade  under  the  stern. 

Rudder  arms,  heavy  steel  arms  running  from  the  rudder 
stock  across  the  sides  of  the  rudder  plate. 

Balanced  rudder,  a  rudder  pivoted  so  that  the  forward  part 
balances  the  force  of  water  against  the  after  part  when  the  hehn 
IS  put  over. 

Bow  rudder,  a  rudder  in  a  recess  on  the  stem  sometimes  fitted 
to  ferry  boats  and  other  craft. 

Samson  post.    Same  as  king  post.    Supports  cargo  booms. 

Scuppers.  The  drainage  holes  in  the  waterways  on  a  deck, 
or  on  top  of  a  deck  house.  Blind  scuppers,  drainage  pipes  led 
down  inside  the  shell  plating  and  out  below  the  water  line.  A 
device  used  in  yachts  to  avoid  streaking  the  sides. 

Scuttle.  A  small  square  hatch  used  as  a  passage  through  the 
top  of  a  deck  house  or  deck,  as  the  forward  scuttle,  leading  to  the 
forecastle,  on  a  small  craft. 

Sea  cock.  The  valves  controlling  the  flow  of  sea  water  into  the 
tanks  and  compartments  of  the  ship. 

Seam.  A  joint  between  two 
planks,  or  two  plates. 

Sheathing.  Copper  or  com- 
position nailed  on  the  outside  of 
a  wooden  vessel  on  her  under- 
water body  to  prevent  fouling; 
also  means  any  kind  of  sheath- 
ing, as  in  holds,  etc. 

Sheer.  The  longitudinal  curve 
from  stem  to  stern. 

Shifting  board.    Board  parti- 

^^•,*  u-t4.'       r  t  *^®°^  placed  fore  and  aft  to  pre- 

vent smftmg  of  loose  cargoes,  such  as  grain. 

Shoulder.    The  projection  made  on  a  plate  when  caulked. 

Shovelling  flat.    Flat  part  of  coal  bunker  bottom. 

Shrouds.  The  stays  from  the  mast  top  to  the  sides  of  a  vessel, 
in  the  case  of  a  lower  mast.  From  mast  top  to  lower  mast  top 
rim,  m  the  case  of  a  topmast.    Shrouds  are  side  stays. 


THE  HULL  63 

Side  stringers.  Plate  girders  with  horizontal  webs  framing  in 
between  ihe  web  frames. 

Sole  piece.    The  bottom  connection  of  a  stern  frame. 

Sounding  pipe.  The  vertical  pipe  m  a  hold,  leading  to  tanks, 
double  bottoms,  bilges  and  oil  tanks,  the  sounding  rods,  chalked, 
are  lowered  through  these  pipes  to  get  the  depth  of  liquid  at  the 
bottom.  An  extra  plate  should  be  placed  on  tank  or  bilge  bottom 
immediately  under  the  sounding  pipes,  for  the  sounding  rod  to 
strike  on. 

Spring  buffer.  The  heavy  coiled  spring  inserted  in  the  steer- 
ing apparatus  to  take  up  shock. 

Stanchion.    Same  as  pillar,  or  column. 

Starboard.  The  right  hand  side  of  a  vessel  when  looking 
forward. 

Steel.  Iron  cast  from  the  molten  state  into  a  mass  containing 
a  small  percentage  of  carbon  and  sometimes  some  other  par- 
ticular element  to  give  it  special  properties.    We  quote  the 

Ship  Steel* 

Analysis  Analysis 

Elements                            Mild  Steel  Malleable  Iron 

Iron 99.185  99.090 

Carbon 0.180  o.lll 

Silica trace  0.088 

Sulphur 0.045  0.094 

Phosphorus 0.045  0.117 

Manganese 0.500  O.OOO 

Copper 0.045  o.OOO 

Slag,  etc 0.000  0.500 

100.000  100.000 

*  Percentage  of  Carbon  in  Various  Grades  of  Steel. 

Carbon  Per  cent.  Uses 

0.05—0.10  Wire,  tubing,  nails,  etc. 

0.10—0.15  Rivets,  screws  and  parts  to  be  hardened. 

0.15 — 0.20  Ordinary  forgings,  and  as  for  0.10—0.15. 

0.20—0.25  Boiler  plate,  structural  steel,  ordinary  forging,  etc. 

0.25 — 0.35  Forgings,  structural  steel,  etc. 

0.35 — 0.45  Shafts,  axes,  strong  forgings,  gears,  etc. 

0.45 — 0.55  Crank  pins  and  other  parts  subject  to  shocks. 

0.60—0.70  Forging  dies,  set  screws,  etc. 

0.70 — 0.80  Chisels,  smith  hammers,  wrenches,  etc. 

0.80—0.90  Punches,  dies,  rock  drills,  circular  saws,  etc. 

0.90—1.00  Mch.  hammers,  punches  and  dies,  springs,  etc. 

1.00—1.10  Springs,  slow  speed  mch.  tools,  taps,  etc. 


aB 


64 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


THE  HULL 


following  from  Holms'  Practical  Shipbuilding.    "  As  is,  of  course, 
well  known,  it  is  the  element  carbon  which  transforms  pure  iron 
mto  steel,  and  within  a  certain  limit,  the  greater  its  proportion 
the  harder  and  stronger  the  steel.    From  the  analysis  given  it 
will  be  observed  that  carbon  is  also  present  in  malleable  iron, 
but  as  It  exists  here  merely  as  an  entangled  impurity,  it  does 
not  confer  hardness   and   strength.    The   softest   mild  steel 
differs  little  from  a  chemically  pure  iron;  it  contains  less  than 
one  tenth  of  one  per  cent,  of  carbon,  its  strength  is  about  20  tons 
per  square  mch,  and  it  stretches  more  than  30  per  cent,  of  its 
length  before  breaking.    In  passing  from  this  material  to  a  hard, 
fugh  carbon  steely  the  qualities  of  mildness  and  ductility  gradually 
disappear.    The  hardest  steely  such  as  used  for  razors,  etc., 
contams  about  1.4  per  cent,  of  carbon,  its  tensile  strength  is 
about  100  tons  per  square  inch,  it  cannot  be  welded,  and,  of 
course,  it  is  extremely  brittle.    Between  these  two  extremes 
(Of  very  nuld,  low-carbon  steel,  and  a  very  hard  high-carbon  one) 
steel  of  any  required  strength  may  readily  be  produced,  the 
ductihty  and  general  mildness,  however,  being  in  inverse  pro- 
portion to  the  strength."  ^ 

The  tensile  strength  of  ship  steel  runs  from  about  28  to  32 
tons  per  square  inch. 

It  is  well  for  the  sea  officer  to  understand  something  of  the 
resistance  of  the  materials  with  which  he  works.    Assuming  the 
tensile  strength  of  the  steel  in  a  chain,  or  hook,  to  be  twenty 
tons  per  square  inch,  for  a  straight  pull  (tension),  he  can  get  a 
very  reasonable  idea  of  what  it  will  safely  hold  by  simply  figuring 
its  cross  sectional  area.    In  the  design  of  the  many  parts  of  a 
ship  technical  data  of  a  highly  scientific  nature  is  employed. 
Compressive  strength,  shearing  strength,  and  torsional  strength 
are  considered  in  designing  the  vessel  and  its  parts.    However 
It  IS  aU  a  matter  of  theory  based  upon  practice ;   of  empirical 
Jormulae,    The  sea  officer  who  takes  the  time  to  study  his  ship 
may  add  greatly  to  the  unperfect  knowledge  with  which  naval 
architects  have  to  work.    As  ships  get  larger,  theory  is  stretched 
to  meet  conditions  still  unknown.    The  factor  of  safety  is  the 
figure  that  represents  the  number  of  times  the  ultimate  resistance 
of  material  exceeds  the  working  load  for  which  it  is  designed. 
Tlus  is  usually  at  least  five,  and  when  figuring  constructions 
liable  to  sudden  stresses  such  as  a  ship  receives,  ten  and  twelve 
times  the  estimates  stresses  are  provided  for  in  the  design. 
1.10—1.20    Thread  cutting  dies,  ball  bearing  races,  wood  working  machine 
knives,  slow  speed  metal  cutting,  etc. 
Files  and  similar  tools. 
Wire-drawing  dies,  engravers'  tools,  etc. 
Ditto. 

Metal-cutting  saws,  etc. 


65 


1.20—1.30 
1.30—1.40 
1.40—1.50 
1.50—1.60 


Cold  bending  testy  to  bend  a  piece  of  steel  180  degrees  around 
a  pin  of  a  radius  equal  to  one  and  a  half  times  the  thickness  of 
the  piece  being  tested. 

Cold  flangingy  to  turn  the  edge  of  a  plate  while  the  metal  is 
cold.    As  the  garboard  plates,  for  instance. 

Cold  rollingy  to  continue  rolling  of  plates  after  they  have 
cooled  below  a  red  heat.  This  increases  the  strength  of  the 
plates. 

Alloy  steels.  Alloy  steel  are  those  steels  containing  certain 
extra  elements  by  the  addition  of  which  remarkable  new  proper- 
ties have  been  given  to  the  metal.  These  will  be  briefly  enum- 
erated. 

Chrome  steely  containing  from  1.5  to  2.5  per  cent,  of  chromium, 
having  very  high  elastic  limit  and  withstanding  shocks  very  well. 
Used  for  tools,  gears,  armor  plate,  etc. 

Manganese  steely  containing  from  11  to  14  per  cent,  of  manga- 
nese ;  so  hard  that  no  other  steel  will  cut  it.  Used  for  castings, 
machinery,  etc. 

Nickel  steely  contains  from  2.25  to  4.5  per  cent,  of  nickel; 
very  strong  and  tough  and  hard,  and  has  a  low  coefficient  of 
expansion.    Used  for  armor  plate,  steel  castings,  shafting,  etc. 

Tungsten  steely  contains  from  3  to  10  per  cent,  of  tungsten, 
having  remarkable  hardness.  Used  in  "high  speed"  tools 
because  it  does  not  loose  its  temper  when  hot  and  can  cut  at 
high  speed.  This  steel  retains  magnetism  better  than  any  other 
steel. 

Vanadium  steely  contains  from  0.1  to  0.15  per  cent,  of  vana- 
dium, is  very  strong  and  tough  and  stands  impact  well.  Elim- 
inates blow  holes  and  bubbles.  Used  in  castings,  forciuEs, 
machines,  etc. 

Combinations  of  the  different  alloys,  and  other  alloys,  such 
as  molybdenum,  aluminum,  and  copper y  are  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  special  alloy  steel.  Copper  is  said  to  increase  the 
resistance  of  steel  to  corrosion.  The  discovery  of  a  perfect  non- 
corrosive  steel  of  good  resistance  would  be  an  unlunited  benefit 
to  man  in  his  great  works  of  construction  where  rust  is  constantly 
eatmg  away  the  metal  in  every  unprotected  part.  Seamen  who 
are  constantly  chipping  and  painting  realize  this  defect  in  ship 
steel.  *^ 

The  manufacture  of  steel  is  carried  on  by  different  processes 
only  the  briefest  mention  of  these  may  be  included  her  and  the 
following  summary  is  taken  from  the  Mechanical  Engineer's 
Hand  Book. 

''Open-hearth  Process  (Siemens-Martin  Process).  Steel 
made  by  this  process  is  called  either  acid  or  basic.  In  either 
process  the  product  is  low  m  carbon  and  must  be  recarbonized 
by  means  of  proper  agents.    The  process  may  be  carried  on  in 


66 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


I 


r! 


I! 


stationary  or  tilting  furnaces.  From  15  to  80  tons  are  made  in 
tZ's  'Ti/^*^  T"  ^P^"^  f"r°«ces  have  a  caS  u?to  2M 

«  •...5^^i*"1***'°  ?^  *^«  'i^**  «  from  6  to  12  hours. 
«nrfli    open-hearth  steel.    The  charge  consists  of  pig  iron 

^d  i/m^l  Jh^-  •'**°  *"''  l""P  ''«'^«  «  '»''  phosphorus  Content" 
toil  Th™"°  opea-hearth  furnace  with  an  acid  or  siliceous 
hning.    The  process  consists  in  removing  the  impurities  in  the 

Ihontlv  f^r^'-'^^"^'  ^y  r  «"^  °*  ^  olydizingZme  bro4w 
about  by  the  union  of  producer  gas  with  preheated  air  in  a 

'^It'^.tT'^  'r^''-  ^^«  P'^-'^^s  »«  simiSr  to  S  pTddUng 
Sy^hfr/"'  ""^"^  '^['•"eht  iron,  but  is  carried  on  at  a  3 

"  Basic  open-hearth  process.    The  charge  of  either  melted 

Sdfcasris  oi^f^^>"^"  ***  ^^  ""'^  *""»<=«•    The  lining  in 

Se  '^;  or  maytoT^e'  utd'.  "'^^"^^  "'  "*^"  '"^^'^  "-*«^«>- 

«  The  Bessemer  Process  may  be  either  acid  or  basic  but  no 

SSctL?  of'acTd  fif "' ''  •^'*?.^  *«  ^""«d  States  Vepro^ 
f„  n«^^  S  2u  ^t^^^'?^''  ^**«'  's  "Pidly  diminishing,  givmg  wav 
to  open-hearth,  electric,  and  duplex.  From  8  to  20  tons  of  stee^ 
are  made  m  one  heat  which  lasts  from  10  to  15  minutes     tS 

S  wuT"*?.''f  P^"  ^^''^^^  ^<i  mot^tedrSonJso 
It  can  be  tilted  easily  for  charging  and  pouring."        "^°°^  ^ 

m«nv  nAhl^^i'^'?*'**  ^  ^  ^^^"^'^  furnace  of  which  there  are 
many  of  the  mduction  or  arc  type  ' 

the  manufacture  and  combination  of  aUoys.  ^P™^*'"^"*^  "» 
i<em.  The  forgmg  or  casting  formine  the  forward  Pnrl  nf  ♦!,« 
sT™"  fraiif 't^ f  *"""  ^^''^^^^  to'tlle  fore^Se"'  "'  *^' 

ouSof£-  hS^  Ka"g«rE\Jrii  Xf  S2er;r^^ 

lignum  vitae  and  lubricated  by  water  from  Se  sea    ' 

prfcS     ?^o  ^Sf-^w^  called  the  fire  room  in  American 

Sfra*e  &oo/f.    A  book  containing  the  Usts  of  nlate.:  in  ti,» 
vessel,  their  marks  and  dimensions?  ^  ^''^ 

iJ/lA^f'    ^  *""*  **=*"*«  *>"  «  structure.    Vessels  mav  be  sub- 

Au^'/r""*''  ^""'^"'9'  racking,  sagging,  shear,  tension  torsi^r, 
AU  of  these  are  understandable  to  the  seamw     SnfUihl 
stress  caused  by  the  waves  beating  ag^Z  hoTZ  side^! 


THE  HULL 


67 


Pounding  is  a  similar  stress  caused  by  sea  action.  Racking  is 
the  force  tending  to  distort  the  shape  of  a  section  through  the 
vessel.  Sagging  is  caused  when  a  vessel  is  lifted  on  her  ends,  the 
middle  sagging  down.    Hogging  is  the  reverse  of  sagging. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  well  to  correct  a  common  error  in 
the  use  of  words.  Stress  is  a  force,  while  strain  is  a  permanent 
distortion  due  to  some  stress.  A  vessel  that  has  hogged,  or 
sagged,  has  been  strained. 

Stringer,  A  continuous  fore  and  aft  member  used  to  give 
longitudinal  strength  to  a  vessel,  named  according  to  location. 
Panting  stringers,  side  stringers,  bilge  stringers. 

Strut,     Support  for  the  propeller  end  in  twin  screw  vessels. 

Stud,    The  short  steel  cross  bar  in  heavy  anchor  chain. 

Thrust  block.  The  heavy  bearing  and  its  supporting  block 
constituting  the  thrust  bearing  and  block.  This  takes  the  push 
of  the  propeller  and  transfers  it  to  the  body  olthe  vessel. 

Tom,  Term  for  a  shore.  Used  in  tonmiing  and  shoring  up 
sagging  floors,  decks,  etc.,  and  in  strengthening  against  extra 
heavy  loads. 

Transom,  The  last  main  frame  of  a  ship  attached  to  the  stern 
framework.    Transom  beam  is  the  beam  across  this  frame. 

Trim,  This  is  the  difference  in  draft  forward  and  aft.  For 
instance,  a  vessel  may  trim  one  foot  by  the  head,  or  two  feet  by 
the  stern.  In  the  first  case  she  is  a  foot  deeper  forward  than  aft. 
In  the  second  case  she  is  two  feet  deeper  aft. 

Tuck  plate,  A  flat  plate  fitted  over  the  bridge  piece  of  the 
stem  frame,  when  the  body  of  the  hull  is  some  distance  above 
the  arch. 

Tumble  home.  The  sloping  inboard  of  the  vessel's  side 
above  the  level  of  the  greatest  beam.    See  sketch,  p.  62. 

Tunnel  well,  A  well  in  the  double  bottom  imder  the  shaft 
tunnel  to  collect  any  water  that  may  get  into  the  timnel. 

Uptake,  The  breaching  in  the  smoke  flue  which  connects 
the  boiler  to  the  ftmnel. 

Vang.  A  stay  or  guy  fitted  to  standing  gaffs  and  booms,  to 
steady  them  in  any  desired  position. 

Wash  plate.  Plates  or  baffels  placed  in  tanks  to  prevent 
excessive  surging  of  contents  when  partly  filled. 

Wash  port.  Also  called  freeing  port.  Opening  in  bulwarks 
to  allow  for  quick  overflow  of  water  when  seas  are  shipped. 

Waterway,  The  narrow  gutters  along  the  sides  of  the  deck  to 
take  care  of  run  off  during  rain  or  washdown. 

Weather  deck.    An  upper  deck  exposed  to  the  weather. 

Wildcat,  The  large  toothed  sprocket  wheel  that  catches  the 
anchor  chain  and  carries  it  over  the  windlass. 


I 


68 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


f 


IV 

Longitudinal  Construction 

.rl^u  ^^^^T"^  ^^^  *^^  Isherwood  systems  of  construction* 
are  the  methods  generally  employed  in  the  construction  of  vessels 
on  the  longitudmal  system.  The  numerous  frames  of  a  trans- 
verse vessel  are  omitted  and  heavy  transverse  web  frames  are 

spaced  ten  to  twelve  feet 
apart,  and  a  system  of  lon- 
gitudinal framings  is  used 
between  them,  doing  away 
with  the  heavy  side  stringers 
of  the  usual  construction. 

This  system  of  shipbuild- 
ing is  finding  much  favor  in 
the  construction  of  tank  ves- 
sels. It  increases  the  lon- 
gitudinal strength  of  the  hull 
and  also  results  in  a  consid- 
erable reduction  in  weight. 
But  recent  progress  in  trans- 


Longitudind.  framing, 
Isherwood  system 


*^i*i,  Ac;vcui  progress  m  irans- 
verse  construction  has  cut  down  this  advantage  to  a  considera- 
ble extent.  The  iUustration  shows  the  disposition  of  web 
J^T'  a"d  longitudinals.  The  beams,  coamings,  stanchions, 
tanks,  and  bulkheads  are  named  as  in  the  transverse  system 


Methods  of  Construction 

I  ?***°*l^  "!  construction  are  changing  with  advanced  know- 
ledge of  shipbuilding. 

We  are  now  well  started  on  standard  ship  construction  that  is. 
vesse  s  of  a  certain  type  and  tonnage  built  one  after  another 
from  the  same  plans.  This  is  a  necessary  development  because 
of  the  demand  for  greater  efficiency  in  production. 

The  standard  ship  has  been  foUowed,  through  war  efforts,  by 
the  fabricated  ship,  a  plan  adopted  with  enthusiasm  during  the 

*  The  Gatewood  system  has  been  developed  by  Mr.  Wiffiam  Gatewood 
naval  architect  of  the  Newport  News  ShipbuUding  and  Dry  Dock  Co     ^e 
^31'"'*'"  "  *"'  '^'*'°'""'"*  °*  "  EngUsh  naval  ^cUtJt.m.  J.  w! 


THE  HULL 


69 


days  of  war.    The  fabricated  ship  is  necessarily  a  standard 
vessel,  and  in  the  case  of  many  vessels  is  constructed  of  struc- 
tural steel,  instead  of  the  special  ship  steel  generally  used.    The 
fabricated  ship  is  built  in  parts  made  strictly  to  size  at  shops 
scattered  over  the  country  where  the  various  shapes  are  rolled. 
The  finished  materials  are  shipped  to  the  yard  at  tide  water, 
for  assembly  and  launching.    This  system  saves  the  shipment 
of  all  waste  material,  and  does  away  with  much  of  the  expensive 
machmery  of  the  usual  shipyard.    Such  vessels  can  be  taken 
to  distant  points  and  assembled  without  much  trouble.    The 
fabricating  of  steel  strictly  to  size  was  in  successful  practice  in 
bridge  and  other  engineering  works  for  many  years,  and  has 
proven  entirely  practical  in  the  construction  of  ships.    The  first 
fabricated  ships  were  specially  designed  to  make  use  of  the 
special   bridge    and    structural   shapes   already   being   rolled. 
Heavier  steel  was  required  but  this  has  proven  an  advantage  in 
many  ways.    The  fabricated  vessels,  built  of  structural  steel, 
rust  out  less  quickly  and  have  proven  seaworthy  and  strong. 


fJUJi'AyyA 


y'////^///y^^^^^KK\\K^\K^\\y 


N«NC>N«>^  .»VK>«i*«^V\V!W>X<N»>N>^NV« 


Welded  connections 


Welded  ships  are  being  tried  and  for  many  connections  the 
process  of  welding  can  be  advantageously  employed.* 

*  The  merits  of  rivetless  vessels  have  been  much  discussed,  and  English 
builders  not  long  ago  launched  a  500-ton  rivetless  steamer.  It  remains  for 
American  engineers  to  declare  the  welding  system,  which  does  away  with 
rivets,  is  practical  for  large  ships. 

J.  S.  Dudley,  research  engineer,  and  L.  L.  Holladay,  electrical  engineer  of 
the  Merchant  Shipbuilding  Corporation,  owners  of  yards  at  Harriman  and 
Chester,  on  the  Delaware,  announce  that  they  have  completed  designs  for  an 


"^  STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 

The  casf  steel  ship  is  being  seriously  considered.  A  cast 
steel  ship  of  10,000  D.W.  tons  is  said  to  have  only  2,000  major 
parts  to  Its  hull,  against  20,000  such  parts  in  a  vessel  of  ordinary 

hl^-nl^r/f""^  '"*'*  *"'  '"'S^*''-  '»  "«  ''"at  'rithout  rivets.  The 
12,231  tons.    Mr.  Holladay  describes  the  ship  as  foUows- 

riJL^^i'""  *^  ^^^'^'  ''*''**''  throughout  and  therefore  whoUy  without 
nv«s  m  .ts  construction.  In  addition  to  certain  beams,  keel,  keelsons,  etc.. 
runnmg  longitudmaUy.  the  bottom  sheU  plating,  sheer  strakes  and  deck 

bottom '1^;!^^^'^';'  '"'''"'*'•  *'  =••'"  **"  P'**^'  top  plates  to  double 
ah^r^  "-d  buUdiead  plates  run  transversely  or  vertically.    All  plates  are 

o^  ,^,1  "'""^  "'""P"  °'  ""S'*^  "■<•  t'*'"  "e  'elded  with  a  joint 

95  to  100  per  cent,  as  strong  as  the  abutting  steel  members;  which  results  in 
tt^  ehmmation  of  aU  overlapping  steel  in  plating,  liners,  angle  irons  for  joining 
structural  parts,  stapling  and  rivets. 

"As  this  material  was  added  originally  only  inddentaUy  or  unavoidably, 
and  for  no  purposes  of  strength  or  stiffness,  therefore,  none  or  only  mino^ 

^wT^,T^'"  r""  *°'  '*'  '*'"°^'^-  ^«  ""y'  f'e'efore.  expect  a 
savmg  of  steel  due  to  elimination  about  as  foUows: 

Overlapping  of  plates  at  points iji/ 1/  „,  i«»  . 

A^gl^irons  uniting  structural  parts,  stapling,'  etc.;;;: .' .*  [  7  ^t  or  203  IZ 

Rivet  heads  ;. I    ^'^  °'    29  tons 

: 2     %  or    58  tons 

Total  " ' • 

151/2%  or  450  tons 

shil'  nn^u'^"^"  ""^  ?'"  P^*""  ""^^^  *^^  ^^^  ^^  ^  ^^  st^^d^d  riveted 
^p,  notwithstanding  the  efficiency  of  the  welded  joint  is  95  per  cent.,  whereas 
^e  efficiency  of  the  riveted  joint  averages  only  about  75  per  cem.    This 

s^r.V.lTr'^**'^?'  ^^  ""'"'^^^  preferable,  untU  experience  has  demon- 
s^aed  that  thinner  plates  may  be  used  with  safety.    The  largest  commercial 

^1  JTu  ^^  ""^^^  *^  '^^"'^  ^^  ^^^*  *>^  ^^Iding  to  a  minimmn  and 
keep  strength  up  to  a  maximum. 

fi."^//^f  *r  K^v^^^  ""^^^^^  *°  ""^'^  ^*^  ^«  g^^^t^st  ease*  speed,  ef. 

zont^'sSLf       •*".'  '  ""^""  ^'  ^^^^^  ^^  ''  ""'  ^'-'  -  -  flat  ^ori- 
Zr^Jr^     ;  ^  rr"""  **''  *  ^""^^'^  ^^^^«  ^d  overhead  welding  is 
2T1^\r^u\  ""^^  *"  *^^  elimination  of  about  450  tons  of  usefess 
r^       K  1^"?"'  *^'  ^*^^  ^^^*  ^^  °^^*^"^  ^  be  reduced  accordingly 
Ld'  r,  ^r^"  tt;?'^  "^'"^  '^^  "^^^S  ^  ^^-^  deal  of  labor  wSl  be' 

Do^tlo^  '  H  r  ''''  ^''^'  ^y^^  ^"*  ^^  ^^^P^^  ^d  plates,  trans- 

portation  and  handhng  of  steel  considerably  reduced  and  punchLg,  reaming 
dnlhng,  nveting  and  calking  eliminated.  imig,  reammg, 

Jl^I  TTf"^  the  thickness  of  pUtes  by  about  15  per  cent,  to  make  up 
for  the  steel  ehmmated,  and  considering  a  welded  joint  has  an  efficiency  of 
95  per  cent,  agamst  75  per  cent,  for  a  riveted  joint,  the  electric  welded  ship 


THE  HULL 


71 


construction.  The  special  cast  parts  are  welded  together  by  a 
special  process.  The  claim  is  made  that  the  cast  steel  ship  has 
twenty  per  cent,  less  metal  in  her  hull  and  is  stronger  than  a 
riveted  ship.  Such  a  ship  is  supposed  to  carry  from  five  to  six 
tons  of  cargo  for  each  ton  of  steel  in  the  hull. 

The  concrete  ship  was  pushed  to  the  fore  during  war  emer- 
gency times  and  some  successful  applications  of  this  form  of 
construction  were  launched.  But  the  general  opinion  seems  to 
be  against  concrete,  or  rather  ferro-concrete  for  such  craft  are 
heavily  reinforced  by  steel.  No  doubt  concrete,  in  special  cases, 
and  in  smaller  craft,  will  have  a  useful  appUcation,  but  it  does 
not  seem  to  be  the  best  material  for  deep  sea  service. 

The  composite  type  of  construction— metal  frames  and  top- 
sides  and  wooden  planking,  stiU  is  used  in  special  hulls.  When 
sheathed  with  copper,  on  the  under  water  body,  such  craft  are 
specially  valuable  for  tropic  service  away  from  docking  f aciUties. 

VI 

Wooden  Construction 

Shipbuilding  undoubtedly  began  with  wood,  at  least  with 
wooden  framing  and  probably  hide  or  bark  stretched  over  this. 
Down  through  the  ages  wood  has  remained  with  us  as  an  excel- 
lent material  for  the  construction  of  ships.  The  art  of  planking 
and  caulking  was  known  to  the  ancients.  "  Pitch  it  within  and 
without  with  pitch  "*  is  part  of  the  oldest  specification  remaining 
on  record.  Not  long  back  the  writer  remembers  reading  (in  a 
Sunday  supplement)  of  the  discovery  of  the  timbers  of  the  Ark 
on  top  of  Mount  Ararat,  giving  gopher  wood  the  record  for 
endurance. 

wiU  be  45  per  cent,  stronger  than  the  riveted  ship  for  exactly  the  same  weight, 
or  this  excess  may  be  set  up  against  any  fancied  weakness  in  the  welded  ship. 

"To  sum  up,  the  electric  welded  ship  wiU  contain  about  15  per  cent,  less 
steel,  will  take  40  per  cent,  less  labor,  wiU  take  25  per  cent,  less  time  for  con- 
struction, WiU  take  2  per  cent,  less  power  for  propulsion,  wiU  be  cheaper  to 
mamtain,  and  be  of  5  per  cent,  greater  capacity. 

"  The  outstanding  and  unquestionable  net  gain  of  such  a  welded  ship  over 
Its  counterpart  assembled  by  riveting  is  the  increase  in  cargo-carrying  capacity 
Of  more  than  500  tons,  which,  when  translated  into  earnings,  represents  little 
ess  than  a  revolution  in  shipbuUding  and  ship  transportation." 

*  Genesis,  6-14.  "^''''^  ^"^""^  '^^"'''^'  ^'  ^' 


\ 

!*  >  - 


^jji ^aHiiiiitJEia 


72 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


-;i 


THEiHULL 


73 


Wood  construction  brought  with  it  the  use  of  sails,  and  this 
combmation  of  wood  and  canvas  and  wind  has  stood  the  test  of 
ages  at  sea  under  all  conditions. 

Where  wood  is  abundant  and  of  the  right  kind,  it  will  always 
find  a  use  in  shipbuilding. 

Oak  framing  and  long  leaf  yellow  pine  planking,  decks  and 
floors,  is  a  combination  that  stands  stress  of  weather  and  is  partic- 
ularly fitted  for  the  construction  of  the  good-sized  schooners  and 
barkentines  now  coming  into  more  active  service  since  the  war. 

The  section  and  elevation  shown  are  typical  of  this  form  of 
construction.  Grown  knees  are  not  used  as  much  as  in  previous 
times,  heavy  ledges  taking  their  place  and  adding  a  large  measure 
of  longitudmal  strength  to  the  hull.  Steel  straps  in  the  wake 
of  rigging  and  across  the  beams,  add  greatly  to  the  resistance  of 
the  hull  to  sailing  stresses. 


Planki'ncf 


Oar  board  Sfrak^^ 
Rubbing  Keel- 


Kee/ 
False  Keel 


Cross  section  of  a  wooden  vessel 

High  keelsons,  forming  a  center  girder,  prevent  hogging. 
The  working  of  ship  tunber  to  size  by  means  of  machinery  per- 
mits of  better  joints  and  the  use  of  larger  members. 

Seamen  who  wish  to  gain  a  better  understanding  of  the  con- 
struction of  modern  American  wooden  vessels  are  advised  to 
consult  "  How  Wooden  Ships  Are  Built "  by  E.  Cole  Estep. 
This  is  a  shnple  practical  treatise  exceptionally  well  iUustrated 
by  photographs  showing  the  best  practice. 


CHAPTER  3 


ROPES— KNOTS— SPLICES 


Rope 

The  use  of  rope,  one  of  man's  most  valuable  tools,  reaches 
back  through  the  ages  beyond  the  earliest  records  of  history.  No 
doubt  our  monkey  ancestors  were  the  first  to  grasp,  both  men- 
taUy  and  physically,  the  utiHty  of  the  natural  ropes,  the  great 
vines  festooned  from  branch  to  branch  of  the  primeval  forest. 
By  the  use  of  rope  early  man  provided  himself  with  the  first 
means  of  applymg  force  through  distance.  The  discovery  of 
the  purchase,  doubling,  trebling  and  quadrupling  his  man  and 
animal  power  was  a  great  step  forward.  The  invention  of  the 
great  knots,  the  use  of  the  block  and  sheave,  perhaps  antedating 
the  invention  of  the  wheel,  all  brought  the  rope  mto  greater 
usefulness  to  man. 

Modern  ropes  may  be  classified  into  those  composed  .of 
vegetable  fibers,  and  those  composed  of  metallic  wires.  Hair 
and  hide  ropes  have  been  used ;  m  the  old  days  hide  tiller  ropes 
were  rove  but  today  these  ancient  things  are  no  more. 

At  sea,  under  sail,  rope,  and  rope  craft  of  all  kinds,  are  supreme. 
In  modern  steam  and  motor  vessels  rope  and  rope  fittings  still 
retain  their  vast  importance.  Cargo  gear  calls  into  play  the 
use  of  many  kinds  of  rope,  as  standing  rigging,  lifts,  guys,  whips, 
and  falls.  Boat  falls,  perhaps  the  most  important  of  all  ropes, 
are  generally  of  manila.  The  hawser,  of  manila  or  wire  for 
towing,  warping,  and  securing  vessels  in  their  berths,  has  grown 
larger  and  more  important  than  ever  before.  Small  stuff,  signal 
halyards,  lead  and  log  lines,  and  the  like,  are  more  numerous 
than  ever  and  finer  and  better  gear  is  being  made. 

Wherever  forces  are  to  be  transmitted  over  a  distance,  ships 
moved,  or  weights  lifted,  the  modern  seaman  must  use  and 
understand  the  properties  of  ropes;  it  is  a  facinating  subject. 

74 


ROPE— KNOTS— SPLICES 


75 


The  vegetable  fibers  used  in  rope  making  are  mainly  as 
follows : 

Manila  fibre  is  secured  from  the  wild  banana  plant  which 
grows  exclusively  in  the  Philippines,  a  most  important  product 
to  our  seafaring  community.  The  fibre  is  stripped  from  the  leaf 
stems  contained  in  the  trunk  and  is  prepared  by  hand  labor. 
Climatic  and  soil  conditions,  as  well  as  the  human  element 
determine  the  grade  of  the  manila  fibre. 

Undoubtedly  manila  is  the  most  important  rope  making  ma- 
terial now  in  use  so  far  as  vegetable  fibres  are  concerned. 

Sisal  hemp,  from  Yucatan,  is  used  to  a  great  extent  in  the 
manufacture  of  cheaper  grades  of  rope.  Sisal,  as  a  fibre,  is  a 
substitute  for  manila  but  is  not  so  strong  or  durable.  It  may  be 
of  interest  to  compare  the  physical  properties  of  these  two  kinds 
of  rope. 

Tensile  strength  Color 

Manila  30,000  lbs.  per  sq.  in.    Light  straw,  silky. 
Sisal     23,000    "     "     "    "     Yenow-white,  sometimes  tinge  of 

green. 

Manila  is  glossy,  with  a  brilliant  sheen,  smooth  and  pliable. 
Fibre,  round,  easily  separated,  very  light.  Length  of  fibre  six 
to  ten  feet. 

Sisal  lacks  gloss,  is  stiff  and  harsh,  and  is  easily  injured  by 
exposure  to  the  weather.    Length  of  fibre  two  to  four  feet. 

Rope  is  also  made  from  hemp  fibre  grown  in  the  United  States, 
Russia  and  Italy.  The  best  Italian  hemp  cordage,  untarred, 
is  manufactured  in  Norway.  It  is  very  costly  and  is  sometimes 
used  on  yachts  for  reeving  the  main  sheet  purchase,  and  other 
purchases  requiring  great  strength,  flexibility  when  wet,  and 
good  handling  properties.  This  rope  is  a  flat  white  in  color 
something  like  cotton. 

Coir  rope  is  useful  for  running  guess  warps.  It  is  very  buoy- 
ant, does  not  become  water  logged.  Coir  hawsers  are  specially 
useful  on  coal  and  cargo  lighters  knocking  about  a  harbor.  It 
is  about  one  half  as  strong  as  manila.  Coir  rope  is  of  a  reddish 
brown  color,  stretches  before  parting  and  is  always  left-handed. 

Other  hemp  used  in  rope  making  is  the  Phormium  hemp  of 
New  Zealand,  and  Sunn  hemp  of  the  East  Indies.    Many  other 


76 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


ROPE— KNOTS— SPLICES 


^ 


special  fibres  are  used,  but  the  commercial  manufacture  of  rope 
IS  generally  confined  to  the  above. 

It  wiU  not  be  necessary  to  go  into  the  detail  of  rope  making 
nor  would  space  permit,  but  in  a  brief  way  it  wiU  be  understood 
that  the  primary  object  in  twisting  fibres  together  in  a  rope  is 
that,  by  mutual  friction,  they  may  be  held  together  when  under 
stress  applied  to  the  rope  as  a  whole.  Hard  twisting  mcreases 
this  friction  and  has  the  further  advantage  of  compacting  the 
fibres  and  making  the  rope  less  liable  to  take  up  moisture 
But,  as  the  twist  is  increased,  the  yield  of  rope  from  a  given 
length  of  yarn  diminishes.  The  proper  degree  of  twist  given  to 
ropes  IS  generally  such  that  the  rope  is  from  three  fourths  to 
two  thirds  the  length  of  the  yarn  composing  it. 

A  rope  test  should  develop  its  working  value.  It  should  be 
an  endurance  test  rather  than  a  simple  breaking  test  on  new 
rope  This  suggestion  was  first  published  by  the  author  in  an 
article  m  The  Seafarer  of  January  192 1. 

Many  of  the  definitions  given  below  are  from  "  Plymouth 
Rope  and  The  Merchant  Marine  "  issued  by  the  Plymouth 
Cordage  Company  and  are  inserted  here  with  their  permission. 

Yarn  (or  thread)  A  number  of  fibers  twisted  together.  This 
^e  rl  IhSlt  '  ^""^  ''^''  ^^  ^^^*  ^^^  "  ^^  ""^^  ^^^^ 

in  ^IhT^'    ^^^  ^l  °^^^®  y^^  *^s*®^  together.    This  twist  is 
m  the  opposite  direction  to  the  twist  in  the  yarns. 

Note.  The  whole  principle  of  rope  making 
depends  upon  this  opposing  of  twists.  The 
yarn  tends  to  unlay,  but  as  it  is  layed  up  on  an 
opposite  twist  in  the  strand  the  two  tendencies 
counteract.  The  strand  is  given  an  extra  twist 
and  the  strands  composing  the  rope  are  laid  up 
with  an  opposite  twist  to  the  strands. 


77 


For  instance— Yarns  right  handed. 

Strands  left  handed. 
Rope  right  handed. 

Pl^m-laid  rope.  Three,  four,  or  six  strands 
twisted  together  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the 
twist  in  the  strands,  so  that  one  twist  offsets  the 
other,  making  the  strands  hold  together,  as 
explained  above. 
Cable  or  Water-laid  Rope.  Three,  sometimes  four,  plain-laid 
tnree  stranded  ropes  twisted  together  in  the  opposite  direction  to 


Plain  laid 


Cable  laid 


the  lay  of  the  ropes  composing  the  cable.  This 
rope  has  a  somewhat  less  tensile  strength  than  a 
plain-laid  rope  of  equal  diameter  but  is  more 
elastic,  strands  stand  greater  surface  wear,  and 
the  rope  is  therefore  superior  for  special  work, 
wrecking  jobs,  towing,  etc.* 

Cord.  A  term  indicating  two  or  three  yarns 
twisted  together,  additional  twist  being  put  in 
the  yarns  during  the  process  in  an  opposite  direc- 
tion to  the  turn  in  the  cord. 

Lay.  This  term  is  used  to  designate  the 
amount  (and  kind,  i.e.,  right  or  left),  of  twist 
put  into  a  rope;  i.e.,  the  angle  of  the  strands  in 
the  rope  and  the  threads  in  the  strands.  Usually 
expressed  as  hard-laid;  common  or  regular-laid, 

soft-laid,  holt  rope,  sailmakefs  lay.  Other 
variations  are  often  made  in  rope  required  for 
special  work.  Generally  speaking  the  softer 
the  lay,  the  stronger  the  rope.  A  hard-laid  rope 
has  greater  firmness  and  resistance  to  abbraisive 
wear.  In  soft  laid  rope  the  wearing  qualities 
are  sacrified  to  ease  in  handling,  whereas  in 
hajd-laid  rope  strength  is  often  sacrificed  to 
utility.  In  all  cases  the  use  of  a  rope  should 
govern  the  lay.  The  amount  of  twist  which  is 
put  into  the  strands  when  they  are  laid  into  the 
rope  is  sometimes  referred  to  as  "  long  jaw," 
meaning  a  soft-laid  rope — "  short  jaw  "  mean- 
ing a  hard-laid  rope.  The  "  jaw  "  is  the  dis- 
tance between  two  points  on  the  same  strand, 
and  measures  along  the  length  of  the  rope  in 
a  direct  line. 

Right-laid  rope.    Rope  in  which  the  strands 
are  twisted  together  in  the  opposite  direction 
to  the  movement  of  a  clock's  hands,  that  is  strands  are  left. 
rope  is  right-laid. 

Left-laid  rope.    Opposite  to  above. 

An  easy  way  to  teU  the  lay  of  a  rope  by  simply  looking  at  it 
as  follows:  Right-handed  rope,  strands  run  upward  to  the  right. 
Left-handed  rope,  strands  run  upward  to  the  left. 

Hawser.    Any  rope  5  inches  in  circumference,  and  above,  that 
IS  used  for  towing  is  designated  as  a  hawser.    It  may  be  plain- 
laid  or  hawser-laid. 
The  term  hawser-laid  is  used  to  describe  left-handed  rope. 
A  cable  is  designated  as  being  hawser-laid,  being  made  from 
three  right-laid  ropes.    It  is  always  long-laid  (soft). 

*  Water-laid  rope  is  made  by  wetting  the  fibres  in  spinning,  instead  of  us- 
ing oil  or  taUow.    Sueh  rope  is  seldom  made,  and  is  always  cable-liad. 


Four 

stranded. 

Plain  laid — 

with  heart 


i  i 


m: 


^ 


^^  STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 

Coil    Standard  length,  unless  otherwise  designated,  200  fath- 
oms, or  1,200  feet.    Half  coils  are  also  used,  being  half  of  above. 

Yardage  (of  rope).    Is  the  length  per  unit  of  weight. 

Bolt-rope,  A  special  word  may  be  said  of  bolt  rope.  This 
IS  the  name  now  given  to  rope  of  superior  quality  made  from  long 
selected  fibers.  Bolt  rope  was  originally  used  for  the  roping  of 
sails.  The  necessity  for  an  exceptionally  strong  and  serviceable 
rope  that  would  lay  dead  ahead  of  the  sailmaker  was  the  cause 
of  its  development.  Bolt  rope  is  made  from  manila  fiber  and 
from  tarred  Russian,  Italian  and  American  hemp.  Hemp  bolt 
rope  is  used  largely  on  sailing  yachts  (Russian  hemp  being  given 
the  preference  as  it  will  retain  the  tar  better  than  the  American 
hemp,  although  the  latter  is  somewhat  stronger).  For  general 
purposes  manila  bolt  rope  is  superior  and  is  most  commonly 
used.  Wire  bolt  rope  is  used  on  the  leeches  and  foot  of  large 
square  sails. 

Tarred  fittings  or  small  stuff  or  seizing  stuff.  Names  gen- 
erally given  to  marline,  houseline,  two  and  three  strand  spun- 
yam,  roundline  and  hambroline.  All  tarred  fittings  with  the 
exception  of  hambroline  are  made  from  yams  spun  right-handed 
and  the  angle  of  the  individual  yarns  is  left.  The  yarn  for 
hambroline  is  spun  left-handed  and  the  yarn  in  the  cord  is  right. 

Note:  Small  stuff  is  also  designated  by  the  number  of  threads 
as  6-thread,  15-thread,  18-thread  or  21-thread  stuff. 

Marline,  Is  made  from  yarns  spun  from  double  dressed 
American  hemp  and  tarred.  It  is  a  cord  made  of  two  yams 
and  is  used  for  worming,  serving,  and  small  seizing,  and  for 
general  use  on  shipboard.  Marline  is  ordered  by  weight  and 
runs  as  follows : 

Common  marline 222  feet  to  the  pound 

Medium        "       360  " 

Yacht  "       520  " 

Houseline,  Is  made  of  the  same  material  and  in  the  same 
manner  as  marline  except  that  the  cord  has  three  instead  of  two 
yarns.  It  is  used  for  the  same  purpose  as  marline.  Sometimes 
both  marline  and  houseline  are  made  untarred.  Houseline  runs 
about  160  feet  to  the  pound. 

Roundline,  Roimdline  is  a  cord  made  in  the  same  manner  as 
houseline  but  of  larger  size,  and  is  used  for  the  same  purpose. 
It  IS  used  for  wormmg  larger  ropes  where  the  cuntline  to  be 
filled  is  larger.    Roundline  nms  about  92  feet  to  the  pound. 

Hambroline.  Hambroline  is  a  cord  of  three  yarns  approx- 
imately the  same  size  as  and  yardage  as  roundline.  It  differs 
from  roundline  in  having  an  opposite  twist. 

Spunyarn,  While  spunyarn  is  made  of  the  same  materials  as 
the  other  tarred  fittings  its  method  of  manufacture  is  somewhat 


ROPE— KNOTS— SPLICES  79 

«f  S-nnff  .^  ?^/?^^  P^«d,^/^t  the  yarns  are  first  spun  and  then 
an  additional  twist  is  given  them  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the 
twist  of  the  product.  In  spunyarn  the  yarns  are  twisted  together 
with  no  additional  twist  being  put  into  them.     Spuny^n  lils 

f^r^J^^^"  *^'  'T^f  r^^"*  ^^  ^^^^  ^  close^ov^Sig  to 
the  rope  bemg  served  and  keeps  out  the  water.    It  is  also  used 

for  general  work  on  shipboard.  It  has  two,  three,  and  some- 
tunes  four  yarns.  *  wme 

Ratline.    Is  generally  made  from  tarred  American  hemo     It 
IS  an  especial  part  of  the  boatswain's  store  for  general  use  nn 

u&?f;«  ^"^'P,'  P'^'^P^  ^  ^^^«  "«"•  rattoeTv^fs  seldom 
used  for  Its  ongmal  purpose,  namely  the  "  ratlines  »  formine  &e 
rope  ladder  supported  by  the  shrouds.  It  is  tLee  ^d^ 
and  the  strands  are  given  a  medium  twist  wim^&lrSfs 
'Tk**?/?  "^'^  ***^'^"™  s°  *•»«  eyespUce  may  be  easUy  tTked 
rTtinel  ^  **"'  ""''"^  "'  *"  '"p'  ^^'^'^  "  »'  empfojed  as 
c„£=  s*®a^«rs  ratline  is  used  for  heavy  serving,  as  lashings  for 

It  S  four  i^^ilT^'i-    fry«'*>s  a'*  stiU  used  occasionaUy 

ckfuSerence  """  "''"  **"^  '^^  "  ^^  '"^^^^^  ^ 

Quartermaster's  stores.  These  are  generally  the  lot  line* 
signal  halyards,  lead  lines,  hand  and  deeo-sea  so  fl^  pffL  r^tl' 
equipment  of  the  vessel  is  concerned      *       '  *'  *^  "P* 

genL«?/v^.l*'r'^n  Tliree-strand  plain-laid,  untarred  hemp  is 
generally  used.    It  runs  m  the  following  sizes. 

Y*''i!^  ^^""^^ ■■■  ^^  *«tiio«»s  each 

1    m  coils 120  " 

1  Vs"  in  coils 120  « 

^?-   1 7/32"  in  diameter 

..    ,^ 9/32" 

*" 5/16"  " 

It  can  be  had  up  to  li/g"  in  diameter. 

Samson  cord*  (braided  cotton)  is  very  largev  used 

Trade  name, 
4 


;(    ^ 


80 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


ROPE— KNOTS— SPLICES 


81 


whips,  gantlines,  scaffold  slings,  etc.    It  is  generally  right- 
handed,  untarred.    Sizes  from  six-thread  to  10  inch. 

Four  strand  manila^  yarns  tallow  treated,  with  fiber  heart. 
Much  used  for  life  boat  falls.  Comes  in  sizes  from  ZVi  to  6 
inches  in  circumference. 

(Note :  rope  sizes,  as  used  at  sea,  refer  to  the  circumference, 
unless  otherwise  stated.) 

Towing  lines.  Should  be  made  of  the  best  bolt  rope  stock. 
These  lines  come  in  five-inch  sizes  and  upwards  in  standard 
coils  of  two  htmdred  fathoms. 

Any  rope  larger  than  ten  inches  may  be  furnished  in  coils  of 
two  hundred  and  fifty  fathoms.  , 

Manila  handling  lines.  These  lines  used  in  docking  and  m 
tieing  up  and  often  called  "  working  lines  "  come  m  the  regular 
sizes  above  five-inch.    They  should  be  of  the  best  quality. 

Wrecking  cable.  Hawser  laid,  averaging  from  14  to  16  inches 
in  circumference. 

Fishermen's  cables.  The  fishing  boat,  riding  to  a  long  scope 
in  deep  water,  still  holds  to  the  fiber  cable.  These  ropes  are 
hawser-laid,  and  of  great  strength,  usually  tarred.  The  sizes 
range  from  four  to  twelve  inches  in  circumference.  Coils  run 
60,  75,  90,  100  and  120  fathoms. 

Basis.  Manufacturers  in  quoting  the  price  of  rope  make  use 
of  a  basis  size.  Generally  for  manila  and  sisal  cordage,  rope 
2Vi  inch  (circum.)  is  taken  as  the  basis.  This  figure  is  then 
used  in  working  out  costs  as  follows : 

3-strand  rope,  2%  inch  and  larger,  basis  price. 

3-strand  rope,  2  inch,  1/2  cent  over  basis. 

3-strand  rope,  1^4, 11/2  and  1 V4  inch,  one  cent  over  basis. 

3-strand  rope,  l/g  inch,  IV2  cents  over  basis. 

3-strand  rope,  1  and  %  inch,  2  cents  over  basis. 

3-strand  rope,  9/16  inch,  2V2  cents  over  basis 

3-strand  rope,  8/16  inch,  3  cents  over  basis. 

4-strand  rope   1  cent  per  lb.  more  than  3  strand. 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  all  ropes  of  the  basis  size  or 
larger  are  figured  at  a  certain  price  per  pound.  The  smaller 
sizes  running  to  a  higher  figure  per  pound,  and  four  stranded 
rope  more  per  pound  than  three  stranded. 

Oakum  was  formerly  a  byproduct,  picked  from  junk  aboard 
the  long  voyage  sailer,  and  is  now  manufactured  ashore.  It 
comes  under  rope  lore  and  should  be  of  good  quality  as  it  is  used 
for  caulking  seams  of  wooden  vessels  and  wooden  decks  and  in 
some  cases  hatch  covers  are  caulked  before  battening  down  the 
tarpaulins  on  wet  rims  through  stormy  weather  with  cargoes 
subject  to  damage  by  water. 

Oakum  is  sold  in  fifty-pound  bales,  gross  weight.  Rope 
oakum  comes  in  coils  of  about  fifty  pounds. 


'^^®  ?ayy  specifications  contain  the  following  requirements  as 

Material  Oakum  shall  be  made  from  Italian,  Russian  or 
American  hemp  (Canabis  sativa),  line  or  tow,  or  from  any  No  1 
grade  Sunn,  or  No.  2  grade  Benaries,  or  North  Bengal  Sui^, 
or  from  any  combmation  of  these  fibers ;  and  shall  be  thorou^hlv 
carded  and  finished,  free  from  excessive  lumps,  dirt,  or  other 
extraneous  matter.  *  ^^ 

spinning.  Oakum  shall  be  spun  by  machme  into  slivers  or 
threads  m  the  form  of  balls  or  hanks  not  exceeding  5  pounds 
each;  It  shall  be  soft  and  uniform  in  texture,  strong  and  siS- 
fiaently  twisted  to  be  suitable  in  all  respects  for  calldng  seams 

1{  2ltf\J^^  '^r^r  *^^^^^  ^^^1  ^^^t^  not  le^ss  thTn 

^nilc!  \l  *  ®.  P'''''''^  ^^.  ""^^  "'^^^  *^^  75  feet  to  the  pound, 
unless  otherwise  required.  i'v""^, 

Ir^Pr^Qnation,    The  fibers  shall  be  thoroughly  impregnated 

:^?ghTof  ^t^e^fiVe^r  ^dTJ.^^*  ''  ^^^^^'  ''  '^'  ^^^^^  ''  '^'^'^ 
■  ^"v*'"/--.  Oakum  shaU  be  baled  in  regular  packages  contain- 
mg  about  50  pounds  each.  Bales  shall  be  compressed  no  more 
than  necessary  and  shall  be  securely  bound  with  laths^d 

Je^^lmlnts.      ^^        "^  ''^**^^''  ^^^  """"^^  «•">"*  ^^^^ 

n 

Notes  on  the  Care  of  Rope 
To  open  a  coil  of  rope,  loosen  the  burlap  cover,  lay  the  coU 
on  the  flat  side  with  the  inside  end  nearest  the  deck.  Then 
reach  down  through  the  center  of  the  coil  and  draw  the  rope  up 
and  out  of  the  coil.  Do  not  uncoil  from  the  outside  as  extra 
turns  are  put  in  the  rope  and  kinks  are  apt  to  form 

» J"  ^^Z'^^'^t"* '  "'^^'  '='*"  '^"^  *8:*^«*  the  lay,  bring  lower 
end  up  through  center  of  coU  and  coil  down  with  the  layf  This 

con  small;  if  few  turns,  coU  large. 

fret"  ^mTnTl""  IJ5"  ''^'°  ^"  ^""  ^"*  «"*'^  »'  o^'  "Pe 

«.y  o7^fJ^%^^  *""'  ""*  "'  ^^  '^^'^e  P'^t  °f  »  boom 
^I'tt  ^^^PP"'^  l^t'  »'  «  brace,  coil  down  left-handed  (for 
nght-handed  rope)  that  is,  against  the  hands  of  a  clock,  be^ig 

tt  out  ll'J   T'  '^^  '^'^  '^'  '""^  """"^  through  the  coil,  pullinf 

toect'ion^?'.?'  ""''^^  P"*'""*'  *^  »'«**»«•  These  are  definite 
<Ju-ections  on  the  method  of  thoroughfooting  a  rope. 


82 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


ROPE— KNOTS— SPLICES 


aa 


i 


Use  on  capstan  and  windlass.  The  principle  of  the  contrary 
turn  in  rope  making  must  be  considered  in  the  care  of  rope  used 
on  a  capstan  or  windlass.  If  the  rope  is  thrown  on  always  in  the 
same  direction  the  "  afterturn  "  will  be  continually  thrown  out, 
and  the  rope  will  be  injured.  When  usmg  rope  on  winch  heads 
at  each  end  of  a  shaft,  care  must  be  taken  when  the  winch  is 
running  and  no  strain  on  either  one  of  the  ropes,  that  the  turns 
on  the  idle  head  do  not  chafe. 

Taut  dry  ropes  should  be  immediately  slacked  off  when  wet 
by  rain.  This  is  specially  important  with  long  ropes  rove  as 
running  rigging.  The  contraction  of  untarred  rope,  manila  in 
particular,  when  wet,  is  well  understood.  Signal  halyards 
should  belay  in  such  fashion  that  they  will  give  enough  to  allow 
for  this  when  doused  by  rain. 

Lashings,  as  for  rafts,  and  at  shear  heads,  or  when  lashing 
the  garland  on  a  heavy  mast  or  spar,  are  hove  taught  dry.  When 
wet,  by  bemg  put  overboard  or  by  dashing  water  over  them, 
great  tightness  is  obtained. 

Acid  is  very  detrimental  to  the  life  of  a  rope  and  dangerous 
to  those  using  it.  Great  care  must  always  be  taken  to  keep 
rope  away  from  any  possible  contact  with  acid,  or  with  strong 
acid  fumes.  Damp  rope  will  absorb  such  fumes  and  will  be 
acted  upon  very  rapidly. 

Although  a  wet  rope  gives  an  increased  breaking  strength  if 
the  rope  is  new,  and  though  manila  rope  deteriorates  very  little 
from  wetting,  rope  should  never  be  put  away  while  wet  or  damp. 
After  use,  rope  should  be  cleaned  and  dried,  and  coiled  down  in  a 
loose  coU.  Small  ropes  and  tackles  should  be  hung  up,  large 
ropes  should  be  coUed,  or  faked,  on  gratings  raised  from  the 
deck  to  insure  the  circulation  of  air  and  freedom  from  wet  by 
water  running  on  the  deck. 

Rope  should  be  stored  in  dry,  well-ventilated  places.  The 
fore  and  after  peak  storerooms  of  the  average  vessel  are  far 
from  ideal.  Whenever  possible  these  places  should  be  cleaned 
out  and  all  rope  stores  roused  up  on  deck  and  given  a  sun  bath. 
Dry  rot  in  rope  is  little  understood,  but  it  is  the  source  of  a 
great  deal  of  loss  in  the  life  and  strength  of  rope. 

Boat  falls  and  running  rigging,  always  under  some  tension, 
dry  out  quickly.    Care  should  be  taken  of  the  hauling  parts  of 


boat  falls.  These  are  coiled  in  tubs,  to  conform  with  the  regu- 
lations of  the  United  States  Steamboat-Inspection  Service. 
These  ends,  generally  not  properly  ventilated,  deteriorate 
rapidly.  Many  officers  turn  boat  falls  end-for-endy  placing  the 
partly  rotted,  but  larger  looking  rope  at  the  davit  heads  and  the 
long-jawed  weU-preserved  stuff  in  the  tubs.  Boat  falls  should 
never  be  turned.  When  no  longer  Al,  these  ropes  should  be 
shifted  to  less  important  use,  and  new  ones  rove. 

Hawser  and  mooring  lines  should  be  hoisted  clear  of  the  deck 
in  loose  coils  and  thoroughly  dried  out  before  stowing  below. 
When  wet  with  salt  water,  it  is  advisable  to  get  them  up  in  a  good 
rain  and  wash  out  the  salt,  or  use  a  hose  if  fresh  water  is  avail- 
able. The  salt  crystals  make  the  rope  highly  hygroscopic  and 
if  stowed  below  for  a  time  it  will  become  damp. 

Sand  or  grit  of  any  kind  cuts  away  the  fibres  of  a  rope  and 
causes  rapid  deterioration.  Ropes  brought  on  deck,  especially 
handling  lines  coiled  aft  under  the  cinders  from  the  funnel, 
should  be  covered  with  tarpaulms  when  not  in  use.  The  ends 
of  all  mooring  lines  should  be  similarly  protected  when  possible. 
Generally  vessels  in  port  take  little  care  of  these  important  lines.* 
Large  ropes  do  not  rot  out  as  rapidly  as  small  ones. 
The  working  loads  for  various  sizes  and  kinds  of  rope  will  be 
found  in  the  Rope  Tables  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 

*  In  a  paper  presented  in  1917  before  the  Engineers  Society  of  Westren 
Pennsylvania,  J.  MelviUe  AUson,  of  Manchester,  England,  dwelt  upon  the 

K    Ir^®  ""^  ^°^®  "^^^  "^  *®  "^""^^  °^  machinery.    Among  many  cases  cited 
by  Mr.  Alison  the  following  may  be  of  interest  to  seamen: 

"A  remarkable  case  of  longevity  may  be  mentioned  of  24  cotton  ropes 
1  4  in.  m  diameter,  employed  to  transmit  820  hp.  in  a  Lancashire  cotton  mill 
and  nmnmg  at  a  velocity  of  4,396  ft.  per  minute  directly  from  the  engine 
flywheel,  which  is  28  ft.  in  diameter.  These  were  fixed  in  September,  1878, 
and  are  stiU  running  in  24  hours  a  day  service,  a  period  of  over  38  years. 
Another  set  has  been  working  28  years  on  an  average  of  20  hours  per  day  and 
appears  Uttle  the  worse  for  wear." 

Undoubtedly  intelUgent  care  of  the  ropes  of  a  ship,  whether  a  sailer  or  a 
steamer,  must  m  the  long  run  pay  a  handsome  return  in  economy. 


84 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Before  closing  the  section  on  rope  mention  should  be  made  of 
re-made  rope.  Certain  manufacturers  buy  up  old  junk  and 
taking  out  the  best  paits  re-make  it  into  surprisingly  good  looking 
rope.  This  rope  is  made  up  of  strands  spun  with  the  old  cover 
yams  placed  in  the  heart  and  the  clean  inside  yarns  outside. 
A  re-made  rope  can  be  detected  by  opening  up  the  strands, 
revealing  the  soiled  or  uneven  inside  strands.  It  is  also  liable 
to  have  a  very  "  bilgy  "  smell,  due  to  former  voyaging  in  the 
fore  or  after  peaks.    It  is  about  half  as  strong  as  new  rope. 

In  purchasing  rope  from  imknown  dealers  test  it  carefully 
to  be  certain  that  it  is  genuine  manila.  Manila  rope,  because  of 
certain  natural  oils  inherent  to  the  manila  fibre,  will  not  suffer 
from  wetting  by  salt  water.  All  sisal  yarns  are  weakened  by 
being  wet.  To  test  fibre  immerse  the  yams  in  a  bucket  of  salt 
water  for  about  two  days.  Pure  manila  will  come  out  fine  and 
strong.  Sisal  will  be  stringy  and  will  comb  apart.  Some  kinds 
of  sisal  when  dry  is  as  strong  and  even  stronger  than  manila 
and  much  of  it  looks  very  fine  in  a  new  rope.  Wetting  at  once 
causes  it  to  deteriorate. 

Ropes  were  formerly  all  made  in  a  rope  walk,  now  the  very 
best  kind  of  rope  is  also  made  by  machinery.  Some  old  timers, 
however,  seem  to  prefer  the  walk-laid  rope  because  of  their  belief 
that  the  strands  of  such  rope  will  all  be  of  absolutely  the  same 
length  throughout.  When  the  rope  is  under  stress  all  strands 
should  bear  an  equal  part  of  the  load,  so  the  wear  will  be  even. 
Much  of  the  re-made  rope  on  the  market  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
often  two  strands  of  a  rope  will  wear  out  while  a  third  strand 
seems  to  be  almost  perfect  showing  that  the  rope,  in  the  first 
place,  was  not  properly  made,  or  was  grossly  mishandled.  The 
"  good  "  strand  is  used  to  form  the  basis  for  the  inferior  rope 
resulting  from  re-making. 

In  purchasing  rope  the  reputation  and  standing  of  the  maker 
is  a  safeguard.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  safety  of  life  often  depends 
upon  the  integrity  of  rope  the  Government  will  not  permit  a  rope 
maker  to  brand  his  product  as  "  Manila  Rope  "  unless  it  is  the 
genuine  article  made  from  new  yarns. 

The  largest  cable-laid  rope  made  up  to  the  present  time  is  a 
24"  hawser  laid  rope. 

Plain-laid,  three  stranded  rope,  has  been  made  as  large  as  25". 
Twelve  inch,  plain-laid  three  stranded  rope  is  about  the  largest 
size  in  general  use. 


n 


ROPE— KNOTS— SPLICES  85 

in 

Knots,  Hitches,  Bends;  etc. 

A  great  many  knots  have  come  down  to  us  from  our  seafaring 
ancestors  and  in  most  instances  their  origiin  is  lost  in  the  dim 

distance  of  the  unrecorded  past.  But  with  the 
modern  seaman  most  of  these  formations  now 
only  possess  an  academic  interest.  The  sheep- 
shanky  for  instance,  is  used  about  as  often  as 
the  crossbow.  In  Standard  Seamanship  we 
will  picture  many  knots,  bends,  and  hitches,  and 
explain  the  formation  and  use  of  those  em- 
ployed on  board  ship. 

The  bowline.  King  of  knots.  Nothing  can  jamb 
it;  it  will  never  slip  (/"properly  made.  The  bow- 
line, with  gear  of  moderate  size,  is  made  as  fol- 
lows. Take  the  bight  of  the  rope  in  the  left  hand, 
the  end  in  the  right  hand  both  pahns  up.  Stand- 
ing part  and  end  leading  away  from  body. 
Place  the  end  over  the  bight,  above  the  index 

Sheepshank     finger  of  the  left  hand.    Place  the  index  finger 
of  the  right  hand  on  top  of  this  end,  crossing 


l^h 


Bowline  with   loop  passed  over 
bight  forming  a  running  bowline. 


Bowline 
Back  view  of  a  bowline.  Knots  very 
often   look   quite    different    when 
viewed  from  different  sides. 


86 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


the  bight,  and  the  thumb  of  the  right  hand  under  the  bight; 
turn  the  right  wrist,  outboard  (i.e.,  to  the  right)  and  you  will 
form  a  loop  in  the  bight  of  the  line  and  will  have  placed 
the  end  of  the  rope  through  this  loop  in  one  motion.  This  loop 
is  the  goose  neck.  Now  finish  the  knot  by  carrying  the  end 
back  around  the  standing  part  of  the  rope,  on  the  right  side,  and 
down  around  standing  part  on  the  left  side,  back  again  through 
the  goose  neck.  This  is  the  sailor's  way  of  casting  a  bowline  in 
a  piece  of  gear  of  moderate  size.  You  may  have  to  get  someone 
to  show  you  how  it  is  done,  for  the  art  of  knotting  and  splicing 
can  not  be  learned  entirely  from  books. 

The  bowline  is  useful  in  many  ways.  If  you  wish  to  attach 
a  painter  to  a  ring,  pass  end  through  and  form  the  bowline,  and 
you  are  safe  from  everything  but  chafe  or  parting  under  too  great 
a  stress.  It  is  used  in  sending  men  over  the  side,  in  forming 
temporary  eyes  in  large  ropes  and  in  small  ones.  It  has  a 
thousand  applications. 

French  bowline.  When  sending  a  man  over  the  side  on 
hazardous  work,  into  a  smoke-filled  hold,  or  anjrwhere  where  he 
may  become  unconscious,  or  loose  his  grip,  and  where  he  may 
have  to  use  both  hands ,  make  use  of  the  French  bowline.  The 
writer  has  not  seen  this  form  of  the  bowline  illustrated  in  any 
work  on  seamanship.  It  was  brought  to  his  attention  in  1897 
by  Victor  Mathes,  of  Dunkirk,  able  seaman  on  the  American  three 
skysail  yarder  A.  J.  Fuller^  when  on  a  voyage  around  the  Horn.* 
Seaman  Mathes  saw  it  used  in  the  French  Navy.  The  bowline 
is  formed  in  the  same  fashion  as  the  regular  bowline,  except 
that  the  end  (D),  instead  of  going  about  the  standing  part  (E) 

*  "  Our  work  under  the  fo*s*sle  head  got  all  hands  started  and  during 
many  a  dismal  wet  dog  watch  we  practiced  the  forming  of  every  knot  from  the 
bowline  down,  Peter,  the  boy,  and  myself  trying  to  outdo  each  other  in  the 
variety  of  our  achievements.  Frenchy  taught  us  a  new  way  to  form  that 
*  king  of  knots  *  the  bowline^  in  which  the  loop  is  passed  through  the  goose- 
neck twice,  forming  a  double  loop,  a  most  useful  knot  employed  in  the  French 
navy.  When  a  man  is  to  be  lowered  over  side,  he  sits  in  one  of  the  loops  and 
the  other  is  passed  tmder  his  arm  pits,  the  gooseneck  coming  against  his 
chest.  His  weight  tautens  the  part  imder  his  arms.  It  is  impossible  for  a 
man  to  drop  out  of  this  bowline,  even  though  he  becomes  tmconscious." 

— Under  Sail,  page  125. 


ROPE— KNOTS— SPLICES 


87 


at  once,  is  given  a  round  turn  about  the  bight  of  the  goose  neck 
(A),  and  then  the  knot  is  finished  off  as  before. 

This  leaves  two  loops  that  are  loosely  connected  through  the 
goose  neck.  The  loops  are  made  so  that  a  man  can  sit  in  one  (B) 
while  the  other  (C)  goes  under  his  arm  pits,  the  knot  being  at  his 
breast.  The  weight  of  the  man  hauls  the  arm  pit  loop  taut,  he 
is  safe  against  falling  out  and  is  held  upright  if  unconscious. 


French  bowline 

This  little-known  knot  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most  useful 
applications  of  the  bowline. 

The  bowline  on  a  bight,  is  well  known,  though  of  slight  utility. 
It  is  formed  as  in  the  ordinary  way,  using  the  bight  instead  of  the 
end,  the  parts  being  double.  When  the  bight  is  up  through  the 
goose  neck,  it  is  passed  around  the  standing  part  by  dipping  it 
down  and  lifting  the  loop  through  it.  The  drawings  show  this 
better  than  words. 


88 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


Spanish  bowline.     Not  much  use  for  this. 


Bowline  on  a  bight 


Spanish  bowline 


Reef  or  Square  Knot.  The  knot  is 
shown  open.  It  should  be  hauled  tight, 
the  lower  ends  go  around  the  yard.  The 
artist,  never  having  been  on  a  yard,  did 
not  get  this  exactly  right. 


The  reef  knot,  or  square  knot,  as  its  name  implies,  is  used  to 
tie  the  reef  points.    Where  the  reef  points  are  on  both  sides  of 
the  sail  the  knot  is  tied  as 
shown  in  figure. 

Where  reefing  jackstays 
are  fitted,  both  reef  points 
are  forward  of  the  sail 
they  are  then  passed  over 
the  jackstay  from  forward 
aft,  under  it  from  aft  for- 
ward, and  the  reef  knot  is 
made  on  top  of  their  standing  parts. 

The  knot  is  useful  in  many  ways  though  not  any  too  re- 
liable unless  the  ends  are  stopped  down.  It  should  not  be 
used  to  bend  together  ropes  for  hauling.    It  is  a  good  knot 

for  tjring  up  things,  packages 
and  the  like.  When  the  reef 
knot  is  made  correctly  both 
parts  come  up  together  at 
each  side  of  the  knot,  other- 
wise, when  one  is  up  and  the 
other  down  we  have  the 
granny.  Youngsters  will  always  remember  how  easy  it  is  to 
make  a  granny. 


Granny  knot — one  end  up,  one 
end  down 


ROPE— KNOTS— SPLICES 


89 


A  study  of  this  knot  wUl  show  that  it  is  closely  aUied  to  the 
overhand  knot  of  classic  uselessness.  The  double  overhand 
knot  is  also  seldom  used. 


Overhand  knot 


Double  overhand 


The  figure-of-eight  knot  fits  in  about  here  and  brings  forth 
memones  of  "pieces  of  eight."  Sometimes  it  is  useful  to 
prevent  the  end  of  an  extended  f aU  from  running  out  through  the 
hauhng  block.  Sailors  regard  it  with  tolerance  and  tailors  find 
It  useful  m  decorating  ladies  dresses  and  military  uniforms,  as 
Keats  wrote  "  A  thing  of  beauty  is  a  joy  forever,'^  so  the  figure- 
of-eight  knot  has  a  valid  reason  for  its  being. 


fcrttTT'^wrj'^ 


Figure-of-eight  knot 


Bag  knot 


But  when  we  get  into  the  realm  of  these  compUcations  we 
ana  the  bag  knot  or  the  hackamore  to  confuse  us.  Any  able 
seaman  should  be  able  to  make  it. 


^^ 


"  "■'^  ~  "ill"  K » >  M  TTrTji 


Half  hitch 


Two  half  hitches 


arJnftif'-^  '"^*'*  ""** '"'"  ^"V  hitches  are  very  useful  knots  and 
are  often  employed  to  make  fast  lines  of  moderate  size. 


MM* 


90 


STANDARD    SEAMANSHIP 


A  round  turn  and  two  half  hitches,  are  very  much  used  on 
board  ship.  The  latter  with  the  end  stopped  down  is  used 
in  securing  mooring  lines  to  posts  where  no  eye  is  fitted. 


Round  turn  and  two  half  hitches 

The  clove  hitch  is  really  two  half  hitches  about  a  spar,  or  rail, 
or  the  standing  part  of  another  rope.  The  clove  hitch  is  very 
useful.  It  is  used  in  hitching  ratlines  to  the  shrouds  other 
than  the  swifter  and  after  leg. 


Clove  hitch 


Rolling  hitch 


Sheet  bend 


The  rolling  hitch  is  very  effective  when  a  pull  is  to  be  resisted 
along  the  length  of  a  spar.  It 
is  only  effective  however  for  a 
steady  pull,  slacking  and  jerking 
is  liable  to  loosen  it.  The  double 
turn  jambs  under  the  hauling 
part  and  holds  it  from  slipping. 

The  timber  hitchy  and  timber 
and  half  hitch  are  useful  when 

towing  spars.  Timber  hitch 


ROPE— KNOTS— SPLICES 


91 


The  sheet  bendy  sometimes  called   becket  or  signal  halyard 

bend  is  used  as  the  name  im- 
plies, in  bending  flags  where 
snap  hooks  are  not  fitted.    It 
is  also  used  in  securing  the 
standing  part  of  small  tackles 
to  the  becket  in  one  of  the 
blocks. 
The  double  sheet  bend  is  more  secure  and  serves  very  well 
for  bending  ropes  together  when  they  are  not  too  large.    If  the 
ends  are  stopped  to  the  standing  parts  it  is  very  reliable. 


Timber  and  half  hitch 


5>  ^^^rr.r:  li;  ui^r  r 


open  carrick  bend 

The  carrick  bend  and  double  carrick  bend  are  used  in  bending 
together  hawsers.  The  last  gives  an  easy  connection  distributing 
the  stress  along  the  fibres  of  the  rope. 


Double  sheet  bend      Double  carrick  bend 


Carrick  bend 


The  open  carrick  bend,     A  good  bend  for  heavy  lines. 

Note:  Ends  are  alwayslashed  to  standing  partsof  carrick  bends. 

The  reeving  line  bend  is  useful  where  the  lines  must  be 
payed  out  through  a  hawse  pipe  or  a  smaU  towing  chock.  It 
IS  not  as  elastic  as  the  carrick  bend.  Two  bowlines  are  some- 
tmies  used  in  connecting  hawsers  the  short  nip  at  the  loops 
IS  a  disadvantage  under  heavy  and  continuous  stress. 


2  STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 

The  caVs  paw  is  used  when  it  is  necessary  to  clap 
a  tackle  on  a  rope,  or  a  handy  billy  on  the  hauling 
part  of  a  larger  purchase.  It  can  be  made  any- 
where on  the  bight  of  a  rope  of  moderate  size  and 
affords  a  sure  hold  fora  steady  pull. 

The    blackwall   hitch 
and    double    blackwall 
hitch  are  seldom  used. 
Their  purpose  is  to  se- 
cure a  rope  to  the  hook 
of  a  block.    It  is  gener- 
ally better  to   form   a 
bowline  and  hook  into 
the   loop,  unless   there 
is  very  little  end  when 
the  above  hitches  come 
into  play.    Teach  these 
to  the  ship's  boys  for 
few  of  them  nowadays 
know  how  to  make  them. 
The       midshipman^  s 
hitch.    Lift  the  end  out 
over   the    bill   of    the 
hook. 
The  fishermen^ s  bend  is  useful  for  securing  a  rope 
to  a  buoy,  or  a  hawser  to  a  kedge  anchor. 


CaVs  paw 


Single  Double 

Blackwall  hitches 


Midshipman* s  hitch 


ROPE— KNOTS— SPLICES 


93 


The  stunsne   tack  bend  is  very  handy  when   you  set  the 
stunsUs.    So  is  the  stuns'le  halyard  bend. 


Fishermen* s  bend 


Stuns'le  tack  bend 


StunsUe  halyard  bend 
The  Stevedore^s  knot.    Used  to  prevent  a  fall  from  run- 
nmg  through  the  large  swallow  of  a  cargp  block. 

Crabber^s  eye  knot.  A  running  eye  with  extra 
friction. 

Masthead  knot.  A  knot  that  can  be  formed  at  the 
head  of  a  jury  mast.  The  knot  is  formed  on  the 
middle  of  a  rope,  the  two  ends  lead  aft  as  backstays, 
the  forward  loop  provides  for  the  hooking  or  bending 
of  a  fore  stay,  and  the  side  loops  for  shrouds.  When 
the  knot  is  formed  and  set  up,  these  loops  are  sup- 
posed to  lie  close  to  ' 

the  mast  head. 
Stevedore* s        ,   ^ 

knot.  Japanese      knot. 

Upper,  com- Another  fancv  one. 
Marling       hitch. 
Used     in     lashing 
hammocks.         Use 
seven    hitches    be- 
tween the  ends.    The  marling  hitch  is  speciaUy  use- 
ful.    It  is  used  for  marling  the  wire  bolt  ropes  to 
large  sails,  and  for  making  selvagee  strops.     Note 
that  the  parts  come  out  from  under  the  hitch,  in  that 
way  helpmg  to  jamb  the  turns.    Used  with  marling 

iZVst)    ^^'^^  *^  ^^^^^  *^^t  t^^^s  of  a  lashing  or  in  clapping 
jambed    on  seizings. 


Crabber*s  eye  knot 


*/ 


94 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Mast  head  knot 


!■■ 


Japanese  knot 


Marling  hitch 


Selvagee  strop.  This  is  a  strop  made  of  many  turns  of  spun 
yarn,  rope  yarn,  or  other  small  stuff.  Where  a  large  strop  is 
made  sixteen  or  twenty-one  thread  stuff  may  be  used.    It  is 


ij 


Selvagee  strop        Hooking  a  "  Handy  Billy  "     Hooking  on  a  spar 

on  a  large  rope 


ROPE— KNOTS  -SPLICES 


95 


formed  by  passing  the  parts,  with  equal  tension,  around  two 
large  spikes  on  a  board,  and  then  marling  the  parts  together, 
with  marline.  It  is  one  of  the  safest  strops  for  hooking  a  tak  le 
to  a  stay,  or  spar.  The  iUustrations  show  several  methods  of 
using  this  strop. 

Knotting  a  rope  yarn.    Very  many  men  at  sea  nowadays  do 
not  know  how  to  knot  a  rope  yarn.    In  making  a  selvagee  strop 


"-Rope  Yarn ''' 

Knotting  a  rope  yarn 

this  must  be  done,  where  rope  yarn  is  used.  The  parts  shown  in 
the  drawing  are  hauled  tight.  The  rope  yarn  will  then  be 
secured  without  give. 

Lashings  are  a  particularly  necessary  and  useful  part  of  sea- 
manship on  any  vessel.  They  are  passed  and  hove  taut,  and 
the  ends  are  often  frapped  about  the  standing  parts.  Trapping 
turns  are  the  turns  at  right  angles  to  the  main  turns  of  a  lashing 
and  serve  to  bring  the  parts  together  and  to  make  the  lashing 
stm  more  secure.  To  heave  a  lashing  tight,  form  a  marling 
hitch,  and  heave  on  it  with  the  point  of  a  spike,  or  if  you  have  a 
large  lashing,  use  a  small  heaver,  or  a  bar. 

The  Marling  hitch  gives  the  marling  spike  its  name  (often 
caUed  marUne  spike).  The  marling  hitch  is  formed  by  crossing 
the  bight  over  the  point  of  the  spike  and  sticking  spike  through 
as  shown.  A  twist  of  the  wrist  does  it.  Someone  must  show 
you  this. 

Rose  lashing.    Useful  in  securing  the  foot  rope  to  a  yard. 


Marling  hitch 


Rose  lashing 


I 


96 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


,!'  I 


Seizings  are  of  great  importance  in  the  rigging  on  board  ships 
Care  should  be  taken  in  clapping  on  seizings,  as  the  method  of 
procedure  is  very  clearly  laid  down.  Seizings,  of  course,  are 
used  in  many  places  on  board  steamers,  and  are  often  very 
poorly  done. 

Racking  seizing.  Used  to  rack,  or  hold  together 
two  parts  of  a  fall,  or  rigging  when  being  set  up.  If 
you  wish  to  shift  the  hauling  part  of  a  heavy  boom 
topping  lift  from  one  cleat  to 
another  on  the  mast  table,  boom 
topped  up,  rack  the  fall  to  the 
one  next  to  it,  cast  off  and  shift. 
Where  this  is  done  often,  have 
a  stopper  with  a  hook,  and  use 
this,  if  falls  are  too  far  apart  for 
racking. 

Plain  or  round  seizing.    The 
Stopper     drawing  shows  the  beginning, 
with  a  hook  the   turns   passed,   end   under 
last  turn,  and  the  frapping  turns,  which  are  knotted. 

Middle  seizing.    This  is  a  round  seizing  passed  about  the 
bights  of  two  pieces  of  gear  that  are  required  to  lie  close  to  each 


Racking  seizing 


ROPE— KNOTS— SPLICES 

Other.  The  drawing  shows  the  manner  of  knot- 
ting the  frapping  turns.  Where  stays  are  turned 
up  around  dead  eyes  or  thimbles,  the  upper  seiz- 
ings are  of  this  kind. 

Eye  seizings  are  those  formed  at  the  neck  of 
an  eye,  and  are  usually  found  under  a  thimble 
(a  round  or  pear-shaped  ring  of  metal  fitting  in 
an  eye  to  take  the  chafe). 

Riding  turns,  are  the  turns  put  over  the  first 
turns  in  a  seizing,  or  lashing.    These  should 
not  be  hove  too  taut.    They  ride  in  the  spaces  ^^^l^  seizing 
between  the  parts  underneath. 


97 


Seizing  with  riding  turns 

A  study  of  seizings  will  show  that  they  are  simply  smaU 
lashings. 


Plain  or  round  seizing 


Another  method  of  making  an  eye  or  throat  seizing 


98 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


ROPE— KNOTS— SPLICES 


99 


i 

n 


The  Spanish  windlass  is  a  combination  of  a  bar,  a  rope  and 

two  heavers.  Used  to  apply 
power  for  bringing  the  parts  of  a 
rope  together.  The  heavy  throat 
seizing  at  the  eyes  of  the  rigging, 
is  often  passed  after  the  shrouds 
have  been  brought  together  by  a 
Spanish  windlass.  This  method 
of  applying  power  dates  back 
beyond  the  caravels  of  Colum- 
bus. It  is  still  a  very  useful 
thing. 

Throat  seizings y  aside  from  the  throat  seizings  under  the  eyes 
of  the  rigging,  the  seizings  made  where  two  ropes  cross  are 


Spanish  windlass 


Throat  seizings 

also  called  by  that  name.    The  drawings  show  two  methods  of 
forming  this  seizing. 

Clinches  are  formed  by  seizing  an  eye  in  the  bight  of  a  rope 
near  the  end,  the  eye  passing  around  the  standing  part  of  the 
rope  forming  a  running  eye,  the 
bight  or  standing  part  running 
through  the  loop  formed  by 
the  clinch.  When  the  eye  of 
the  clinch  is  formed  so  that 
the  end  of  the  rope  is  next  to 
the  running  loop,  it  is  called 
an  inside  clinch.  When  the 
end  is  away  from  it  it  is  called 
an  outside  clinch.  Clinches  are  used  to  secure  the  buntlines 
to  the  foot  of  a  sail  when  they  are  not  rigged  as  spilling  lines. 


Outside  clinch 


Inside  clinch 


To  bend  a  rope  cable  to  an  anchor  use  an  inside  clinch.  See 
ground  tackle. 

Shroud  knot.  Used  in  joining  a  rope  stay  that  has  been 
carried  away  when  there  is  very  little  end  left  for  splicing  or 
knotting.  Come  up  on  the  lanyard,  and  unlay  the  strands  for  a 
short  distance  back  from  the  break.    Bring  the  rope  together, 


Shroud  knot 

forking  the  strands.  Form  a  wall  knot  on  each  rope  with' the 
strands  of  the  other.  Ends  may  be  fayed  down  and  served  on 
each  side  of  knot. 

Wall  knot.  Unlay  rope,  pass  the  strands  around  from  left  to 
right  up  underneath  of  the  strand  next  to  the  right,  as  shown  in 
illustration,  then  form  the  knot  and  pull  the  strands  through  taut. 

Double  wall.  Follow  around  the  strands  of  a  single  wall, 
opening  up  the  lay  of  the  knot  with  a  spike,  the  three  strands 
again  coming  up  through  the  center.  Also  called  a  stopper 
knot. 


i 


1 


100 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


A  Crown  is  formed  by  bending  the  strands  of  a  rope  over  each 
other,  tucking  the  third  one  as  shown  in  the  Single  Mathew 
Walker  and  crown. 


Wall  knot 

Single  Mathew  Walker,    Form  as  a  wall  knot  but  pass  strands 
around  to  right  under  two  strands  and  up  behind  its  own  part. 


Single  Mathew  Walker  and  crown 

Double  Mathew  Walker.  Pass  strands  around  from  left  to 
right  under  all  parts  and  up  through  its  own  bight. 

Manrope  knot.  Form  a  wall,  and  crown  it.  Then  follow 
strands  of  wall  around  again  and  then  form  the  crown.  A  very 
good  knot  at  the  end  of  manropes  leading  down  the  side  ladders. 
If  someone  should  slip  overboard  in  a  tideway  there  is  some- 
thing to  catch  hold  of. 

Many  of  the  knots  shown  may  seem  useless.  In  fact  they 
are  mainly  ornamental.  On  the  other  hand  they  are  amusing 
and  when  sailors  busy  themselves  with  these  things  they  are 


ROPE— KNOTS— SPLICES 


101 


gaining  the  fine  points  of  a  handicraft  that  has  its  origin  in  the 
remotest  times.    Also,  many  men  are  going  to  sea  nowadays 


Double  Mathew  Walker 

who  would  profit  by  a  closer  attention  to  the  fundamental  things 
in  seamanship.  Sailors  have  been  getting  soft.  Riggers  do 
their  work  while  the  vessel  is  in  port,  and  when  disaster  comes, 


Manrope  knot 

all  they  can  do  is  to  sit  around  and  wait  for  someone  to  pick 
them  up.  Jury  rigs  call  for  the  highest  skill  in  seamanship  and 
many  a  craft  has  been  saved  through  the  skill  and  seamanship  of 
her  crew  in  lashing,  knotting  and  splicing. 


i 


102 


STANDARD    SEAMANSHIP 


IV 


splices 

Splicing  Manila  and  Hemp 

Splicing  is  strictly  a  sailor  art  and  no  man  worth  his  salt  will 
be  satisfied  imtil  he  has  mastered  all  details  of  this  part  of  rope 
lore. 

The  principal  splices  are : 

Eye  splice 

Sailmaker's  eye  splice 

Short  splice 

Long  splice 

Mariner's  splice 

Cut  splice 

Chain  splice 

Back  splice 
The  following  are  closely  allied  to  splicing: 

The  grommet 

The  cringle 

In  splicing  manila  and  hemp  ropes, 
a  fid  is  used.  This  is  a  pointed 
wooden  spike,  larger  than  a  marling 


Afid 


spike.  Made  oilignum-vitae^  hickory  or  other  hard  wood. 

We  will  now  attempt  to  describe  the  manner  of  making  the 
above  splices,  etc.  The  young  seaman  must  understand  how- 
ever that  the  art  can  only  be  mastered  by  practice  and  by  ob- 
servation, watching  seamen  and  riggers  at 
work  and  picking  up  the  little  wrinkles  nec- 
essary to  completeness  and  finish. 

Eye  splice.  Unlay  the  rope  for  a  suflScient 
distance,  depending  upon  its  size,  and  leave 
end  enough  in  the  strands  to  tuck  three  times. 
In  a  large  rope  it  is  well  to  whip  the  ends  of 
the  strands,  though  a  careful  workman  will 
not  have  to  do  this. 

Decide  upon  the  size  of  the  eye  required, 
then  bring  down  the  crotch  of  the  strands 
(also  whipped,  if  a  large  rope)  and  lay  them 
in    this    fashion.    Middle    strand    up,    and  pig,  A 


Fig.B 


ROPE— KNOTS— SPLICES  103 

strands  lying  on  either  side.  Have  the  bight 
of  the  rope  away  from  you,  the  eye  toward 
the  body.    Tuck  as  follows  (Fig.  A) : 

Middle  strand  under  strand  immediately 
below  it. 

Left-hand  strand,  over  the  strand  under 
which  the  first  strand  was  tucked  and  imder 
the  next  (Fig.  B). 

Then  turn  the  splice  over,  give  the  last 
strand  an  extra  twist  with  the  lay,  and  tuck 
it  under  the  remaining  strand  in  the  bight 
of  the  rope.  All  strands  are  tucked  from 
right  to  left  (in  a  right-handed  rope)  (Fig.  C). 
Then  tuck  over  and  under  twice  more. 
If  splice  is  to  be  finished  off  and  served,  cut 
out  a  third  of  the  strands,  underneath,  at  the 
last  two  tucks. 

Note:  The  strands  in  figures  are  loose  to 
show  method  of  tucking. 

Sailmakefs  eye  splice.  Tuck  as  in  the 
ordinary  eye  splice,  then  instead  of  tucking 
over  and  under,  let  each  strand  follow  round 
and  round  the  strands  of  the  bight.    This 

preserves  the 
lay  of  the  rope 
and  makes  it 

easier  to  rope  a  sail,  as  the  rop- 
ing twine  and  canvas  can  follow 
the  lay  of  the  rope. 
Where  two  ropes  of  unequal 
size  are  spliced  together,  the  splice  is  called  a  sailmakefs 
splice.    This  is  seldom  done  at  present. 

An  eye  splice  in  four  stranded  rope  is  made  by  tucking  left 
strand  under  two  next  (to  right)  under  one,  and  remaining 
strands  each  under  one.    All  tucks  from  right  to  left. 

Short  splice.  Unlay  the  strands  at  the  end  of  the  ropes  to  be 
joined.  Crotch  the  ends.  In  a  large  rope  stop  down  the  ends 
on  one  side  against  the  bight  and  tuck  the  others  over  and  under, 
then  turn  around  and  tuck  the  other  ends  over  and  imder,  from 


Sailmaker^s  eye  splice 


104 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


ROPE— KNOTS— SPLICES 


105 


Eye  splice  in  four 
stranded  rope 


right  to  left  (with  right-handed  rope).  Tuck 
whole  twice,  then  cut  out  strands  for  neat- 
ness if  required  and  tuck  twice  again  on  each 
side. 

Some  sailors  make  this  splice  very  handily 
by  first  taking  half  turns  with  the  strands 
as  they  are  crotched.  It  will  be  found  that 
one  tuck  is  put  in  this  way  and  the  ropes  are 
kept  close  together.  In  splicing  ropes  of  mod- 
erate size  this  is  always  done  as  it  saves 
time. 

The  long  splice.  The  long  splice,  next  to 
the  eye  splice,  is  the  most  important  of  the 
splices.  It  should  be  carefully  made,  and 
will  not  increase  the  diame- 
ter of  the  rope,  nor  mar  its 
strength  to  any  great  extent. 
In  the  illustration  the  unlay- 
ing of  one  strand  and  follow- 
ing it  with  another  strand 
from  the  rope  to  be  ioined  to 
it  is  clearly  shown. 

To  begin  the  splice  care- 
fully unlay  at  least  six  times 
the  circtmiference  of  the  rope 
(if  the  rope  is  to  run  over  a 
shieve  double  this).  Crotch 
the  strands,  hold  them  in  close 
contact  and  carefully  unlay  a 
strand  back  from  the  crotch, 
following  it  with  a  strand  of 
the  rope  to  be  joined.  The 
two  strands  remaining  at  the 
crotch  are  of  course  ready  for 
tucking. 

Tuck  once  and  then  cut  out 
from  under  the  strands  and  tuck  as  in  a  sailmaker's  eye  splice. 
The  tucks  should  be  whipped  with  sail  twine. 

The  marinefs  splice.     This  is  a  splice  in  cable-laid  rope. 


A  short  splice 


Proceed  as  in  a  long  splice.  Then  instead  of  tucking  the 
"  strands  "  these  are  in  turn  spliced  as  above.  It  is  a  regular 
sailor's  job  to  long  splice  a  cable-laid  rope. 


Long  splice 

Chain  splice.  This  is  used  where  a 
rope  tail  is  to  be  spliced  into  a  chain. 
Used  where  chain  sheets  are  fitted  to 
lower  topsails. 


Chain  splice 


■cc^^C 


3 


Back  splice 


Back  splice.  Crown  the  strands  and 
splice  back  into  the  lay  of  the  rope,  as  in 
a  short  splice.  Useful  at  the  end  of  falls, 
when  a  whipping  cannot  be  put  on. 


106 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


ROPE— KNOTS— SPLICES 


107 


)l 


Cut  splice 

Cut  splice.  This  splice  is  formed  in  the  same  manner  as  an 
eye  spUce.  There  are  two  separate  tuckings,  forming  an  eye  in 
the  bight  of  a  rope.  This  splice  comes  in  handy  where  shrouds 
are  fitted  over  the  head  of  a  mast  in  a  small  boat. 

The  grommet.  This  is  a  ring 
of  rope  formed  from  one  strand, 
the    ends    coming    together    and 

being  tucked  as  in 
a  long  splice.  Used 
for  strapping  small 
blocks.         Saloon 
deckmen   exercise 
their    seamanship 
in   making   grom- 
Finished  grommet  mets   for   passen- 
gers to  toss  over 
pegs,  showing  that  seamanship  has 
many  useful  applications. 

The  cringle.  This  is  an  eye 
spliced  into  the  head  or  leech  of 
a  sail.  Formed  with  a  single 
strand  as  the  grommet  is  formed. 

The  iUustration  are  self-explanatory.    To  turn  in  a  cringle  in  stiff 
four-stranded  hemp  bolt  rope  is  a  real  test  of  a  man»s  seamanship. 


Grommet 


Turning  in  a  cringle  on  the  leech  of  a  sail. 


Turning  in  a  cringle  on  the  bight  of  another  rope.     Used  on  nets,  etc. 
Usually  worked  over  a  round  thimble 

Aside  from  knotting  and  splicing  many  things  are  to  be  met 
with  in  handling  rope. 

Worming  is  the  la3iing  of  a  smaller  rope,  or  worm  along  the 
lay  of  a  larger  rope  to  bring  the  surface  of  the  rope  more  nearly 
round  for  the  purpose  of  serving. 


Sermq 
I  Mam 


Worming^  Parcelling^  Serving 

Parcelling  is  the  covering  of  a  rope,  previously  wormed,  with  a 
continuous  strip  of  overlapping  canvas. 

Serving  is  the  winding  round  of  small  stuff,  marline,  and  the 
like,  heaving  it  close  and  tight  by  means  of  a  serving  mallet  or 
serving  board.  The  latter  being  used  near  the  end  of  work  and 
on  eye  splices  where  the  larger  tool  cannot  be  used  unless  the 


fra 


ID 


Serving  board 


Serving  mdllet 


108 


11 


I' 

I 


I 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


service  is  led  over  the  end  of  the  mallet  (you  must  see  this  done ; 
any  rigger  will  show  you). 


Working  with  a  serving  hoard 

The  rule  is:  Worm  and  parcel  with  the  lay,  then  turn  and 
serve  the  other  way.  In  other  words,  a  right-handed  rope  is 
served  left-handed. 


^^rrrrr 


iHiHHiininiiiMiimiMiimoiiuiiMMiEl^-^  *'*'••.;. 

^tiHIII.IIiHtiUiillliliM'tHHmtir'^ 


Served  grommet 


Grommet  French-whipped 


Service  is  used  in  many  ways.  Grommets  are  often  served 
as  shown. 

French  whipping^  is  a  form  of  service,  put  on 
with  a  spike  where  each  turn  is  hitched,  the  hitches 
forming  a  continuous  ridge  around  the  whipping 
as  shown. 

Plain  whipping.  A  short  length  of  service,  or  a 
short  end  seizing  at  the  end  of  a  rope  to  prevent  it 
from  unlaying.  This  is  usually  made  with  twine 
and  where  the  twine  is  carried  over  the  whipping 
along  the  lay  of  the  rope  and  stitched  through  the 
rope  above  and  below  the  whipping  it  is  a  sailmak- 
er^s  whipping. 

To  put  on  an  ordinary  whipping,  without  a  nee- 


Plain 
whipping 


ROPE— KNOTS— SPLICES 


109 


iiitdllltiiitiHI 


die,  heave  all  turns  taut  over 
the  end,  leave  a  few  turns 
loose,  tuck  the  finishing  end 
back  under  these,  then  heave 
them  taut  and  pull  the  end  up 
under  them  cutting  it  off.  K 
both  beginning  end  and  finishing 
end  are  brought  up  between 
the  same  turns,  the  whipping  ||0  i^\ 
can  be  made  very  secure  by 
square  knotting  them  and  push- 
ing the  knot  under  the  turns. 

In  making  knots,  hitches, 
bends,  splices,  etc.,  know  just 
what  the  knot  or  splice  is  ex- 
pected to  do.  A  rolling  hitch  is 
only  satisfactory  when  the  pull 
is  one  particular  way.  Many  f(©  ^{ 
other  rope  formations  are  the 
same.  Use  rope  with  knowl- 
edge and  understanding  as  to 
its  limitations  and  strength.  A 
few  years  on  a  sailer  are  of 
great  educational  value  in  this 
respect.* 

V 
Wire  Rope 

Many  kinds  of  wire  rope  are  now  being  manufactured,  the 
art  having  reached  a  high  state  of  perfection.!  On  shipboard 
wire  rope  is  used  in  many  places,  all  standing  rigging  is  ot  wire, 
many  mooring  lines  and  hawsers  are  of  wire,  and  the  use  of 
hemp  clad  flexible  wire  rope  for  cargo  whips  has  become  standard 
practice.  Definite  knowledge  of  the  construction  and  uses  of 
wire  rope  should  be  a  part  of  the  equipment  of  the  seaman  who 
is  up  in  his  profession. 

*  A  very  handy  and  complete  folder  called  Knots  the  Sailors  Use,  is  issued 
by  The  Whitlock  Cordage  Co.,  of  46  South  St.,  New  York.  This  is  very  use- 
ful for  the  youngster  on  board  ^ip  to  carry  in  his  pocket  while  learning  the 
art  of  knotting  and  splicing. 

t  Stranded  bronze-wire  ropes  were  found  in  the  Pompeian  ruins.  Modem 
wire  ropes  are  a  development  of  the  nineteenth  century. 


A  Jacobs  Ladder 


no 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


ROPE— KNOTS— SPLICES 


111 


Hawsers  and  mooring  lines 


Wire  rope  is  generally  of  six  strands  and  differs  in  the  number 
of  wires  in  each  strand. 

Wire  rope  designed  for  use  as  standing  rigging  is  less  flexible, 
is  generally  galvanized  and  consists  of  larger  wires. 

Six  strands,  seven  to 
twelve  wires  to  a  strand, 
and  hemp  core,  is  the  usual 
construction. 

Wire  rope  used  for  haw- 
Standing  rigging  s^T^s  ^^^  mooring  lines    is 

six  stranded,  twelve  or  more 
wires  to  a  strand,  hemp  core  in  each  strand  and  in  the  center 
of  the  strands. 

Deep  sea  towing  hawsers 
are  designed  with  six  strands 
and  thirty  seven  wires  to  each 
strand  with  no  hemp  core  in 
the  strands  but  with  the  usual 
hemp  center  core. 

Wire  running  rope  is  designed  with  the  usual  number  of 

strands,  each  strand  consist- 
ing of  a  circle  of  twelve  wires 
about  a  large  hemp  core, 
and  with  a  large  hemp  core 
in  the  center. 

Very  many  special  types  of 
wire  rope  are  made  but  the 
principle  of  flexibility  through  looser  construction,  or  strength 
through  the  reverse  where 
wire  is  to  be  stationary,  is 
seen  in  all  of  them.  Only  a 
few  t3rpical  sections  of  wire 
rope  can  be  shown. 

Armored  wire  rope  consists 
of  flat  wise  wound  around  the 
individual  strands.    It  is  used  extensively  in  wrecking  and  other 
similar  operations. 

Special  types  of  wire  rope  with  metal  heart  wires  of  flat  or 
triangular  section  are  used,  but  these  types  do  not  specially 


Deep  sea  towing  hawsers 


Wire  running  rope 


commend  themselves  to  use  on  board  ship.    Some  of  these  are 
five  stranded. 


Armored  wire  rope  Tiller  or  hand  rope 

Wire  rope  is  made  of  the  following  materials: 

Wrought  iron relative  strength  1 

Crucible  steel "  "        2 

Plow  steel •  •      "  "        2.5 

Monitor  steel "  "       ^ 

Wire  rope,  because  of  its  great  strength,  and  lack  of  stretching 
power,  is  to  be  used  with  great  care.  When  mooring  with  wire 
it  is  very  essential  that  all  parts  of  the  rope  bear  an  equal  stress. 
The  writer  has  in  mmd  the  case  of  an  eighteen  thousand  ton 
(displacement)  steamer  moored  to  a  wharf  in  San  Francisco 
some  years  back.  At  the  full  strength  of  the  tide,  running  ebb, 
with  stern  sticking  some  hundred  feet  out  beyond  the  bulkhead, 
the  ship  was  pulled  ofif  from  her  wharf.  The  breast  lines  aft 
were  under  high  tension— the  parts  leadmg  back  around  the 
posts  on  the  wharf  were  not  taking  their  full  load,  and  the  stand- 
ing part  snapped.  Then  the  rest  of  the  breast  lines  snapped  or 
unshipped,  the  stress  was  taken  up  by  the  springs,  they  snapped, 
and  in  less  than  five  minutes  the  ship,  seemingly  secure  with 
heavy  wires,  was  cross  ways  in  the  slip,  her  starboard  quarter 
against  the  cluster  piles  on  the  next  wharf — luckily  there  was 
nothing  in  between  to  be  crushed.  What  happened  when  we 
breasted  her  back,  against  the  tide,  using  a  ten-inch  manila  line, 
and  a  drunken  fireman,  returning  at  midnight,  insisted  upon 
boarding  the  ship  upon  this  line,  stretching  some  fifty  feet  to 
the  wharf,  is  another  story  and  finds  no  place  in  a  book  on 
"  seamanship." 

Wire  hawsers  are  excellent  things  however  when  handled  with 
care  and  understanding.  The  first  thing  to  beware  of  in  hand- 
ling lines  is  the  constant  danger  of  kinks.    In  uncoiling  a  wire 

5 


I 


112 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


great  care  must  be  taken  in  this  respect.    Also  when  hauling  on  a 
line,  and  then  slacking  up,  to  shift  the  end,  a  large  bight  may 


ri 


Correct  way  to  uncoil  a  wire  rope 

run  out,  drop  on  a  string  piece  and  kink  before  the  winches  or 
capstans  are  started  again.  Always  look  out  for  this  when  using 
wires. 


I 


i 


Wrong  way  to  uncoil  a  wire  rope 

Wire  ropes  for  deck  use  are  generally  stowed  on  stationary 
reels  fitted  with  handles  and  gears  for  winding.  This  is  the 
only  way  to  properly  take  care  of  such  ropes.    The  wires  should 


ROPE— KNOTS— SPLICES 


113 


be  oiled  and  protected  from  the  wet  by  waterproof  tarpaulin 

covers.    Galvanizing  is  the  best  method  of  protection,  however, 

and  even  such  ropes  should  be  coated  when  dry  with  a  certain 

amount  of    raw  linseed    oil. 

Greasy  oils  are  worse   than 

useless    on    ship    ropes.     Do 

not  grease  your  lines;  we  all 

know  they  are  hard  enough  to 

handle  as  it  is.    Linseed  oil 

dries  and  gives  a  better  hold, 

and  also  protects. 

The  hemp  core  in  wire  ropes 
serves  as  a  reservoir  for  oil 
and  helps  in  the  lubrication. 

Wire  rope  on  shipboard  is 
seldom  used  over  sheaves,  ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  heavy  pur- 
chases where  the  falls  are  of 
wire.  Care  should  be  taken 
to  use  large  blocks,  and  where 
possible  avoid  all  short  nips  in 
the  rope. 

In  using  wire  rope  falls  for 
heavy  weights  go  very  slowly, 
also  the  hauling  part  of  the 
rope  should  be  taken  around 
the  drum  of  a  heavy  winch  and 
end  secured.  Never  lead  such 
hauling  parts  to  a  capstan  un- 
less the  end  of  the  rope  is  in 
turn  secured  to  a  stout  new 
manila  messenger  and  this,  in 
turn,  led  to  a  second  winch  or 
capstan  always  under  stress. 
If  no  second  winch  can  be  used  take  in  the  slack  around  a 
heavy  bollard,  keeping  a  sufficient  number  of  turns  at  all 
times. 


I 


Wrong  way  to  take  out  a  kink 


^ 


114 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


ROPE— KNOTS— SPLICES 


115 


The  Correct  Way  to  Remove  Kinks  from  Wire  Rope 
Here  is  the  way  to  straighten  out  a  kink  that  has  not  been 
made  permanent  by  pulling  it  into  the  rope,  or  "pulling  the 
kink  through,"  as  rope  users  sometimes  call  it. 


I 


As  soon  as  a  loop — always  the  beginning  of  a  kink — ^is  noticed, 
it  should  be  "  taken  in  hand  "  at  once.    By  all  means  prevent 


tension  on  the  rope,  or  the  result  wiU  be  permanent  injury  to  the 


rope. 


Having  secured  your  kink  while  still  in  the  formative  stage, 
reverse  the  process  that  produced  it.  To  do  this,  uncross  the 
ends  by  pushing  them  apart,  as  shown  in  photographs.  The 
small  arrows  show  the  directions  in  which  the  hands  should 


move. 

Now  turn  the  rope  over  and  place  the  bent  portion  above  the 
knee,  then  push  downward  until  the  rope  appears  as  in  last  cut. 

From  this  point  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  straighten  out  the 
remaining  bend  by  laying  the  rope  on  a  board  and  pounding  with 
a  wooden  mallet,  or  anything  else  handy  that  won't  injure  the 

wires. 

With  a  very  stiff  rope,  or  one  of  large  diameter,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  do  the  first  part  of  the  operation  on  something  more 
substantial  than  the  human  leg.  Two  people,  even,  may  be 
required  to  do  the  work.  But  the  small  amount  of  energy  and 
time  expended  in  removing  a  kink  properly  will  invariably  pay 
in  lengthening  the  life — and  final  cost — of  wire  rope. 

Hemp  covered  wire  rope.  This  type  of  wire  rope  is  of  such 
special  use  in  the  handling  of  cargo  and  has  proven  so  durable 
and  effective  that  some  additional  mention  should  be  made  of  it 
in  a  book  on  merchant  service  seamanship. 

It  has  many  of  the  advantages  of  manila,  is  much  smaller  and 
easier  to  handle  about  a  hatch,  does  not  suffer  damage  readily 
when  drafts  of  cargo  are  hauled  out  of  a  between  deck,  the  fall 
scraping  under  the  hatch  coaming. 

It  is  from  three  to  five  times  as  strong  as  manila  of  equal  size, 
and  is  half  as  heavy  as  manila  of  equal  strength.  / 

It  resists  rust  because  of  the  tar  and  oil  in  the  hemp  service 
covering  the  strands. 

When  wires  break  and  stick  through  the  hemp  covering,  dis- 
card the  fall  at  once. 

Boat  falls  are  being  rove  off  with  hemp-covered  rope.  This 
latter  practice  is  to  be  looked  upon  with  some  consideration.  On 
a  very  cold  night  this  is  not  the  easiest  stuff  in  the  world  to 
handle. 

The  following  rules  for  the  use  of  wire  rope  are  given  by  the 
Navy  Department: 


diJ 


it 


! 


} 


^^^  STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 

Operation  of  wire  rope.  The  principal  causes  of  deterioration 
of  we  rope  are  heavy  abrasion,  overstrain,  bending,  and  cor- 
rosion. Evidence  of  abrasion  is  shown  by  the  outside  wires 
wearing  thin  in  a  short  time.  If  the  wires  are  Uttle  worn,  break 
off  squarely,  sticking  out  all  over  the  rope,  there  is  evidence  of 
an  overload  or  severe  bending. 

Size  of  sheave.  The  diameter  of  the  sheave  should  be  greater 
than  fifteen  times  the  diameter  of  the  rope,  and  for  inflexible 
rope  a  still  larger  diameter  of  sheave  must  be  used.  Ordinary 
commercial  practice  allows  1  foot  diameter  of  sheave  for  3Z-inch 
diameter  of  the  rope. 

Factor  of  safety,  A  factor  of  safety  of  five  is  recommended. 
For  cranes  and  falls  upon  which  there  is  sudden  and  repeated 
stress.  It  IS  safer  to  figure  a  factor  of  safety  upon  the  elastic 
limit  of  the  material  rather  than  upon  the  tensile  strength. 

Wire  rope  is  generally  designated  by  its  diameter*  and  this 
should  be  measured  as  shown  in  the  sketch,  but  seamen  usually 
speak  of  wire  rope  by  its  circumference,  as  in  the  case  of  fibre 
ropes.  Running  wire  rope  should  be  discarded  when  the  outside 
wires  are  reduced  one  half  of  their  original  diameter. 

Wire  rope  consists  of  wires  running  the  full  length  of  the 
rope,  each  one  carefully  inspected  before  use.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  reUable  forms  of  rope,  and  barring  kinks,  and  mishand- 
ling, is  not  liable  to  fail  in  an  emergency. 

In  ordering  wire  rope  from  the  manufacturer,  or  in  speci- 
fying it  for  ship^s  use,  state  clearly  what  use  is  to  be  made  of  it. 
Standing  rigging,  mooring  lines,  or  towing,  etc. 

When  wire  rope  is  cut,  a  whipping  should  be  clapped  on  each 
side  of  the  place  where  the  division  is  to  be  made,  to  prevent  the 
rope  from  unlaying.    Use  a  sharp  hacksaw  to  make  the  cut. 

*  It  may  be  of  interest  to  note  the  size  of  the  great  wire  rope  cables  in 
use  on  the  foUowing  bridges  over  the  East  River,  New  York.  Each  bridge  is 
suspended  on  four  cables. 

Brooklyn      Williamsburg    Manhattan 
Bridge  Bridge  Bridge 

Diameter  of  cable 15.5"  18.75"  20.75" 

Number  of  wires 5,358  7,696  9,472 

Length  of  cable 3,577'  2,900  3,234 

Weight  of  each  cable :    818  tons        1,086  tons        1,527  tons 

River  span 1,595.5'  1,600'  1,470' 

Width  of  bridge 85'  ng'  120' 

All  of  these  cables  were  made  by  the  John  A.  Roebling»s  Sons  Co.  of  Tren- 
ton, N.  J.  The  wires  are  not  twisted,  but  are  held  together  by  steel  bands, 
and  heavy  service. 


(11 
d 


ROPE— KNOTS— SPLICES 


VI 


117 


Splicing  Wire  Rope 
The  most  important  splice  used  aboard  ship  when  working 
wire  is  the  eye  spUce.  The  short  splice  may  be  used  when 
wire  is  to  remain  standing  and  only  a  moderate  amount  is  to  be 
expended  in  making  the  spUce.  The  long  splice  is  not  made 
very  often,  except  perhaps  in  piecmg  out  wire  ridge  ropes,  and 
the  like.  Large  handUng  lines  are  seldom  spliced.  The  long 
spUce  finds  its  greatest  application  in  the  joining  of  ends  in  wire 
transmission  lines  ashore  and  the  mstructions  for  making  this 
splice  given  by  many  of  the  wire  rope  manufacturers  have  this 

use  in  mind. 

Wire  splicing  is  an  art  that  calls  for  a  great  deal  of  gumption. 
The  successful  splicer  of  wire  uses  his  head  first  and  his  "  beef  " 
afterwards.  One  of  the  best  sailor  men  the  writer  ever  was 
shipmates  with,  a  slight  young  chap,  walked  on  board  his  ship  not 
long  ago  after  many  years  had  passed.  He  was  in  charge  of 
the  wire  rope  department  of  a  large  manufacturing  plant,  having 
gained  the  job  through  his  ability  to  splice  wire. 


i— "  T "  shaped  splicing  pins.  2— Round  splicing  pins.  3— Taper 
spike.  4~Knife.  5— Wire  cutters.  6— Wooden  mallets.  7— Hemp  rope 
strap.    8 — Hickory  stick. 

Tools  shown  in  the  picture  are  used  by  the  John  A.  Roeb- 
ling's  Sons  Co.  in  splicing  wire. 


118 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


ROPE— KNOTS— SPLICES 


119 


ii  - 


ri  J?it  i  M  T^""  ^^  'P"*=^«  "«  '"POrtant  and  should  be 
r^«y  handled.  Li  splicing  stiff  rope  a  rigging  screw  is  needed! 
or  better  stm  a  vise.    A  sharp  cold  chisel,  a  hammer  and  a 

rs:  sXirsr  "^  ^^^-  -^  «^-^«>  «--"- 

"  T  »\wV^°,'^  ^  *'  aiustration  are  used  as  foUows:  The 

T     shaped  sphcmgpms  for  opening  the  lay  of  rope.  The  round 

sphcmg  pms  for  working  in  between  strands.    The  taner  soik« 

for  cuttmg  the  hemp  core.    Wire  cutters  for  cuttmg  off  ends  of 
strands     Wooden  mallets  to  hammer  down  any  uneven  stSaces 

tef^Zt^j^r. ''''}''''  ''^  ^*"p  -^  hickory  sr; 

used  to  untwist  the  strands,  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 

Many  rope  splicers  prefer  the  «  T  "  shaped  spUcing  pin  to  the 
taper  spike  for  openmg  strands.  ^ 

tacaS^fo'S!'  °^"°'*  '^^  "*  '""'*  *^"  ^""^  ''»°<'y  "iUy 
tacMes  to  use  as  jiggers,  in  rousing  through  strands  when 

tuckmg,  are  useful.    A  small  steel  chain  and  hook,  to  useTs  a 
s^ap,  IS  also  handy.    Where  possible  it  is  easier  to  work  the 

^L      *  T"  '  "'  '""•=^"  "^"'^l^-    Also  have  some  slush 
to  lubricate  the  strands  when  puUing  through 

of  fhr«,r  Si'  ""*  V  ^*'"**  '*""*  ^*^PP^« '«  ""^ "  »t  both  sides 
wilr!  .>  .  ^"^  ?''^«  ^°'  *  ^P"''^  '»«^«  «»«  'ope  whipped 
7^Z  I  .  '^*?;  ^  *^'  •=*'"  ''^  » 'o-^g  ^P««=e  this  whipping  is 
removed  when  following  through  the  strands.  In  making  L  fye 
sphce  It  can  remain  in  place  while  the  splice  is  being  t^ked 
Ma  ttumble  is  to  be  fitted  the  whipping  will  cut  out  thenlxe 

S^^spllce  *°  ''''  '^''  *^''*  ''  "  "^^  i"**  •«  *  -««t 

TAe  eye  5>?ice  is  most  often  used  on  board  ship.    Expert 

nsers  favor  the  foUowing  method  of  turning  m  this  splice. 
1st.  Clap  on  a  stout  whipping  from  one  to  four  feet  from  end 

of  wu-e  rope,  depending  upon  its  size. 

lav  L^^  T  '"J*  "^  ^^'^  ^^"^^  ^*^  ^*™°S  s«i'  twine.     Un- 
lay the  strands  and  cut  out  heart  of  rope  (not  of  strands). 

ill.?i«^        '"''  ^  'f '^«  '"'^  "'  ''^«  ^  position  shown  by 
Illustration,  eye  away  from  you,  bight  of  rope  under  your  right 

4th.  Untwist  rope,  using  heaver  as  shown  m  by  cut  on  page  121 . 


The  eye  is  lying  flat,  and  the  strands  to  be  tucked  lie  against 
the  bight  on  the  right  side,  that  is,  on  the  side  away  from  you. 
5th.  Open  a  way  through  the  middle  of  the  bight, 

spike  horizontal,  pointing  away  from  you.    This  is  3 — "3 ^ 

easy  when  enough  turn  has  been  taken  out  of  the 
bight  by  the  heaver. 

6th.  Take  top  one  of  strands  to  be  tucked,  and 
shove  it  through  the  middle  of  rope,  following  the 
spike  which  may  be  withdrawn  as  tucking  strand 
goes  through.  When  through,  tuck  this  strand, 
around  the  strand  of  bight  lying  above  it. 

7th.  Take  next  strand,  down  through  middle, 
having  opened  the  way  again,  but  only  under  two  a  rigging  screw 
strands,  and  around  the  strand  Ijring  just  above  it. 

8th.  Take  next  strand* 
down  through  middle  open- 
ing, but  only  under  and 
around  one  strand. 

9th.  Now  take  next  strand, 
(fourth),  and  tuck  it  over  and 
around  the  next  strand  to 
right. 

10th.  Take  next  one  over 
and  arotmd  the  next. 

11th.  Take  last  strand  over 
and    around    the    last    un- 
touched strand  on  the  bight. 
Note:    All     strands     are 
tucked  arotmd  in  Ithe  same 
direction  that  the  wires  run 
in  the  strand.      Strands  are 
then     tucked     once     more, 
around    and     around,     sail- 
A  rigger^ s  vise,  which  is  of  great    maker  fashion,  then  heart  is 
service  in  splicing  eyes,  etc.  taken  out  of  strands  and  half 

of  the  wires  are  cut  out  and 
the  splice  is  tucked  twice  more. 

Finish  the  splice  by  parcelling  with  tarred  canvas  and  serve 
over  all  with  hambroline.    The  thimble  is  usually  poimded  into 


s_ 


120 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


the  eye  after  it  is  formed,  sometimes  after  the  first  tuck  is  made, 
the  strands  being  hauled  close  with  a  jigger,  or  by  use  of  the 
pipe  heaver. 


Eye  splice  served 

Shortsplice.     1st.  Clap  on  a  good  seizing  two  or  three  feet 
from  each  end. 

2d.  Unlay  the  strands  and  take  out  the  hemp  heart. 
3d.  Marry  the  ends,  interlocking  the  twelve  strands. 


Eye  formed  ivith  clamps 
Always  have  nuts  on  side  of  standing  part,  as  shown 

4th.  Stop  down  the  ends  on  one  side  and  proceed  to  tuck  the 
other  into  the  rope  over  one  and  under  two  strands  opening  the 
rope  with  the  flat-ended  spike.  Push  spike  in  far  enough  to  get 
the  strands  through  before  withdrawing  it.  Tuck  twice  whole 
strand,  once  one  half,  and  once  one  quarter.  Then  take  ofif 
the  stop  and  repeat  with  the  other  set  of  strands. 
It  is  well  to  parcel  and  serve  this  splice. 
Long  splice,  1st.  Clap  on  seizings  from  eight  to  ten  feet 
from  the  end  of  each  rope,  eight  for  an  inch  and  a  half  rope  and 
longer  for  larger  sizes. 

2d.  Unlay  the  strands  to  the  seizings.  Cut  out  the  center 
heart  (not  the  heart  of  the  strands  as  in  the  other  splices). 

3d.  Marry  the  ropes,  mterlocking  the  strands.  Follow  the 
strands  along  to  each  side  of  the  joint,  stopping  them  in  place 
at  about  four  foot  intervals,  and  cut  off  the  strands  about  a  foot 
and  a  half  from  the  rope. 

4th.  Starting  with  the  left-hand  pair,  unlay  the  rope  with  the 
heaving  stick  applied  as  shown,  pick  out  the  hemp  heart  for  a 


ROPE— KNOTS— SPLICES 


.Heart 


121 


•^ib^  Y>^^^^'^'^'^'^'^' 


Method  of  making  long  splice 


■ 
li 


1 

1 

^^^^^^^B  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^V^^^ 

"^^ 

I 

opening  strands  before  tucking 
Wrap  the  endless  piece  of  manila  rope  around  the  wire  rope  as  shown  in 
plate  and  insert  stick  in  loop.    Pull  the  end  of  the  stick  so  that  the  wire 
rope  will  be  untwisted  between  the  vise  and  the  stick. 


122 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


ROPE— KNOTS— SPLICES 


123 


» 


foot  each  way,  cutting  it  with  a  sharp  knife.  Measure  the 
strand  to  be  tucked  and  cut  off  leaving  a  length  equal  to  half  of 
the  heart  removed.  Shove  the  strand  down  into  the  center  of 
the  rope  in  place  of  the  heart;  untwist  the  heavers.  Do  this 
with  each  strand,  dipping  down  one  along  side  of  the  other. 


To  tuck  strand 
Insert  spike  so  that  it  will  be  over  the  projecting  end  and  under  the  next 
two  strands  of  the  rope.  Pull  the  spike  toward  yourself.  This  will  cause  it 
to  travel  along  the  rope,  leaving  an  opening  in  front.  While  one  hand  is 
employed  in  moving  the  spike,  the  other  hand  holding  the  end  of  the  strand 
should  lay  this  end  in  the  opening,  as  indicated  in  the  picture, 

5th.  Repeat  this  operation  with  each  of  the  six  pairs  of  strands. 

This  completes  the  splice.    It  can  hardly  been  seen.    The 

lay  of  the  rope,  when  under  pressure  grips  the  strands  lodged  in 

the  center  in  place  of  the  heart  and  the 
splice  is  practically  as  strong  as  the  rope 
itself.  It  is  a  mistake  to  make  the  splice 
too  short. 

Tucking  the  strands  as  in  a  rope  splice 
is  not  recommended  as  it  tends  to  weaken 
the  rope  on  accotmt  of  the  nip. 

It  is  very  good  practice  to  let  the  young- 
sters  on  board   ship  try  a  hand,  at  wire 
splicing.     Very  often  the  ability  to  turn  in  a  neat  and  strong 
splice  in  wire  is  of  the  utmost  utility. 


Open  and  closed 
sockets 


Sockets  are  secured  by  passing  end  of  rope  through  socket  after 
wires  have  been  cleaned.  The  best  practice  is  to  tin  the  wires. 
Molten  zinc  is  then  poured  into  the  head  of  the  socket,  the  lower 
end  being  stopped  with  clay. 

Bad  practice  is  to  turn  over  the  ends  of  the  wires  (not  tinned) 
and  to  use  babbit  metal  which  melts  at  a  lower  temperature 

than  zinc. 
Before  pouring  zinc  heat  socket  and  wires  with  a  blow  torch. 

VII 
Rope  Tables  ' 
Approximate  Weight  and  Strength  Best  Manila  Rope 


Diameter, 
Inches 

Circum- 
ference in 
Inches 

No.  of  Feet 
in  I  Lb. 

Weight  of 

ijooo  Feet, 

Lbs. 

Coils 

strength  of 

Length,  Feet  Weight,  Lbs. 

New  Manila 
Rope,  Lbs. 

A 

6  thd.fine 

75    feet 

14 

2,280 

30 

500 

i 

6     " 

55 

20 

2,600 

50 

620 

^ 

9    " 

41 

30 

1,870 

55 

1,000 

t 

12     " 

26        " 

42 

1,690 

65 

1,275 

1^ 

If 

19         " 

50 

1,500 

75 

1,875 

h 

U 

13^       " 

75 

1,350 

90 

2,400 

9 
1  ft 

U 

10         " 

105 

1,200 

125 

3,300 

f 

2 

7|       " 

130 

1,200 

155 

4,000 

3 

4 

21 

6        " 

159 

1,200 

190 

4,700 

H 

2h 

5 

196 

1,200 

235 

5,600 

I 

2f 

4         " 

225 

1,200 

272 

6,500 

1 

3 

3i       " 

297 

1,200 

325 

7,500 

1^ 

3i 

21      " 

317 

1,200 

380 

8,900 

u 

3^ 

2i       " 

363 

1,200 

435 

10,500 

n 

31 

2k       " 

421 

1,200 

505 

12,500 

If 

4 

ifV    " 

475 

1,200 

570  ^ 

14,000 

H 

^ 

li    " 

596 

1,200 

715 

17,000 

If 

5 

U     " 

738 

1,200 

885 

20,000 

If 

5^ 

1     " 

888 

1,200 

1,065 

25,000 

2 

6 

10    inches 

1,063 

1,200 

1,275 

30,000 

2| 

6^ 

8f       " 

1,250 

1,200 

1,500 

33,000 

2i 

7 

7t       " 

1,455 

1,200 

1,745 

37,000 

2| 

n 

6i       " 

1,667 

1,200 

2,000 

43,000 

2f 

8 

5f       " 

1,900 

1,200 

2,280 

50,000 

2| 

8| 

5        " 

2,142 

1,200 

2,570 

56,000 

3 

9 

^      " 

2,405 

1,200 

2,885 

62,000 

3i 

n 

4         " 

2,671 

1,200 

3,205 

68,000 

H 

10 

31       " 

2,984 

1,200 

3,580 

75,000 

The  relative  strength  of  Manila  to  Sisal  is  about  as  7  is  to  5.  Manila, 
Sisal  and  Jute  ropes  weigh  (about)  alike.  Tarred  Hemp  Cordage  will  weigh 
(about)  one  fourth  more. 


ll< 


il 


124 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


Comparison  of  Strength  between  Wire  Rope  and  Manila  Rope 

Approximate  Breaking  Stress  Calculated  in  Tons  of  2,000  Pounds 


Wire  Transmission  Rope.    One 

Hemp  Core  Surroimded  by  Six 

Strands  of  Seven  Wires  Each 

Wire  Hoisting  Rope.    One  Hemp  Core 

Surrounded  by  Six  Strands  of  Nineteen 

Wires  Each 

Diame- 
ter in 
Inches 

Iron 

Cruci- 
ble 
Cast 
Steel 

Extra 
Strong 
Cruci- 
ble 
Cast 
Steel 

Plow 
steel 

Iron 

Crucible 
Cast 
Steel 

Extra 
Strong 
Cruci- 
ble 
Cast 
Steel 

Plow 
Steel 

Average 
Quality 

New 
Manila 

Rope 

21 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 
111 

92 

72 

55 

44 

38 

33 

28 

22.8 

18.6 

14.5 

11.8 
8.5 
6 

4.7 
3.9 
2.9 
2.4 
1.5 

Tons 

211 

170 

133 

106 

85 

72 

64 

56 

47 

38 

30 

23 

17.5 

12.5 

10 
8.4 
6.5 
4.8 
3.1 

Tons 
243 
200 
160 
123 

99 

83 

73 

64 

53 

43 

34 

26 

20.2 

14 

11.2 
9.2 
7.25 
5.30 
3.50 

Tons 
275 
229 
186 
140 
112 

94 

82 

72 

58 

47 

38 

29 

23 

15.5 

12.3 

10 
8 

5.75 
3.8 

Tons 

26 

2h 

2U 

2i 

184 

2 

*> 

*'3 

15 

If 

I2h 

If 

10 

If 
U 
U 
1 

t 

t 

32 

28 

23 

19 

15 

12 
8.8 
6 

4.8 
3.7 
2.6 
2.2 
1.7 
1.2 

63 

53 

46 

37 

31 

24 

18.6 

13 

10 
7.7 
5.5 
4.6 
3.5 
2.5 

73 

63 

54 

43 

35 

28 

21 

14.5 

11 

8.85 
6.25 
5.25 
3.95 
2.95 

82 

72 

60 

47 

38 

31 

23 

16 

12 

10 
7 

5.9 
4.4 
3.4 

6i 

5i 
4 

3i 
2i 
2 

U 
1- 

3 

4 
1 
3 

1 

TB 

i.i 

2.2 

2.43 

2.65 

\ 

— ^Waterbury  Co. 


Stowage  Space  Required  For  Rope  of  Various  Sizes 

CoUs  of  1,200  Feet  or  200  Fathoms  365.76  Meters 


Size 

Coil  Dimensions 

Cubic 
Feet 

Size 

Coil  Dimensions 

Cubic 
Feet 

6thd.  fine 

8"  X  ir'  X  11" 

.56 

41/4  in. 

27"  X  37"  X  37" 

21.39 

6thd. 

9"  X  12"  X  12" 

.75 

41/2  " 

29"  X  38"  X  38" 

24.23 

9thd. 

10"  X  14"  X  14" 

1.13 

43/4  " 

30"  X  41"  X  41" 

29.18 

12thd. 

11"  X  15"  X  15" 

1.43 

5       " 

30"  X  43"  X  43" 

32.10 

15thd. 

12"  X  16"  X  16" 

1.77 

51/4  " 

31"  X  45"  X  45" 

36.32 

18thd. 

13"  X  17"  X  17" 

2.17 

5V2    " 

33"  X  47"  X  47" 

42.18 

11/2  in. 

15"  X  18"  X  18" 

2.81 

53/4  " 

32"  X  48"  X  48" 

42.66 

13/4    " 

15"  X  21"  X  21" 

3.82 

6       " 

33"  X  48"  X  48" 

44. 

2       " 

17"  X  22"  X  22" 

4.76 

6V2  " 

33"  X  53"  X  53" 

53.64 

21/4  " 

17"  X  26"  X  26" 

6.65 

7       " 

35"  X  55"  X  55" 

61.27 

21/2  " 

19"  X  25"  X  25" 

6.87 

71/2  " 

36"  X  59"  X  59" 

72.52 

23/4    " 

20"  X  29"  X  29" 

9.73 

8       " 

37"  X  61"  X  61" 

79.67 

3       " 

22"  X  30"  X  30" 

11.46 

8y2 " 

48"  X  59"  X  59" 

96.69 

3'/4    " 

24"  X  31"  X  31" 

13.34 

9    " 

45"  X  62"  X  62" 

100.10 

31/2 " 

25"  X  34"  X  34" 

16.72 

91/2 " 

46"  X  64"  X  64" 

109.03 

33/4 " 

25"  X  35"  X  35" 

17.72 

10    " 

46"  X  67"  X  67" 

119.50 

4       " 

27"  X  36"  X  36" 

20.25 

— Pljrmouth  Cord 

age  Co. 

ROPE— KNOTS— SPLICES 

Approximate  Comparison  of  Strength 
{Manila  and  Hemp  Covered  Wire) 


125 


Manila  Rope 

Crescent  Hemp  Clad  Wire  Rope- 
Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Diameter 

Approximate 
Breaking  Strain 

Iron 

Crucible 
Steel 

Extra 

Strong 

Crucible 

Steel 

Plough 
Steel 

«    \ 

9 

Y 

1 

4 

if 
1 
1 

u 
u 

If 

1^ 

If 

If 
2 

2i 

2 

2 

2f 

2i 

3 

31 

3f 

2,250 

3,000 

4,000 

5,000 

5,800 

7,000 

8,000 

9,200 

11,000 

12,000 

13,500 

15,500 

17,000 

19,000 

23,500 

27,000 

31,500 

37,000 

42,000 

48,000 

54,000 

61,000 

67,000 

75,000 

1 

4 

H 

2 

2| 
2| 
2i 
3 

9  1. 

1 

1 

4 

i 

^ 

i 

h 

A 

7 

1 

3} 
31 

4 

4i 
4i 
4f 
5 

1 

5. 

8 

f 

^ 

3 
4 

........ 

11 

4 

■  '  ■  ■  5  "  ' 

8 

3 

4 

""i" 

6 

5. 

8 

1 

7 

n 

8 

sh 

9 

9h 
10 

f 
........ 

"1 

U 

1 

1 

4 

If 

1 
.  .  .^.^.  .  .  . 

i 
*  1 

— Geo.  C.  Moon  Co.,  Inc. 
Wire  Rope  Tables  (U.  S.  Navy) 

Navy  Standard  Mooring  Hawsers  / 

Composed  of  6  strands  with  a  hemp  core,  each  strand  consisting  of  14  wires 
and  a  center  of  hemp  or  jute  yam.  Large  eye  splicefitted  at  one  end  and 
thimble  in  opposite  end  to  attach  to  reel. 


Diameter 


H-inch 
1  -inch 
1  |-inch 
Ij-inch 
liV-inch 
1  |-inch 


Approxi- 

Weight 

mate  Cir- 

per 

cumference 

Fathom 

• 

2|-inch 

3  -inch 

3|-inch 

4  -inch 

4|-inch 

5  -inch 

Weight 
per  Coil, 
100  Fms. 


Pounds 

447 

644 

830 

1,080 

1,377 

1,750 


Breaking 
Stress 


Use 


Pounds 
28,400 
41,500 
53,740 
69,380 
87,000 

113,700 


Note  that  Navy  standard 
mooring  hawsers  may 
be  made  in  the  follow- 
ing lengtiis:  If -inch, 
640  fathoms;  U-inch, 
490  fathoms;  1^-inch, 
375  fathoms;  l|-inch, 
300  fathoms. 


-HMW 


126 


STANDARD    SEAMANSHIP 


Wire  Rope  Tables  (U.  S.  Navy) 

Galvanized  Steel  Wire  Rope. 

Composed  of  6  strands,  with  a  hemp  core,  19  wires  to  a  strand;  or  18  wires 
with  a  center  of  jute,  cotton,  or  hemp  twine. 


Diameter 


Approx- 
imate Cir- 
cumference 


Inches 

i 


I 

4 
13. 
16 

i 

1 

lA 

H 

if 
if 


Inches 
1 

U 
U 

ll 

2 
21 

2\ 

n 

3 
3i 

3^ 
31 

4 

4i 
4§ 
4f 


Weight 

per 
Fathom 


Pounds 
0.90 
1.27 
1.71 

2.23 
2.80 
3.60 
5.07 
5.94 
6.88 
9.00 

10.80 

11.60 

13.00 

14.48 

17.30 

18.80 

20.38 

23.23 


Weight 
per  Coil, 
loo  Fms. 


Pounds 
90 
127 
171 

223 
280 
360 
507 
594 
688 
900 

1,080 

1,160 

1,300 

1,448 

1,730 

1,880 

2,038 

2,323 


Breaking 
Stress 


Pounds 

6,170 

8,740 

11,760 

15,230 

19,150 

24,680 

34,980 

40,800 

47,040 

60,960 

70,550 

78,730 

87,320 

98,720 

118,450 

128,980 

139,960 

160,230 


Use 


Standing  rigging. 

Guys. 

Boat  slings,  running  rig- 
ging j^-inch  and  less. 

Topping  lifts. 

(For  coaling  booms.) 

Wheel  ropes. 

i^-inch  and  under.) 


Galvanized  Steel  Wire  Rope. 

Composed  of  6  strands,  with  a  hemp  core,  each  strand  consisting  of  37 
wires,  or  36  wires  with  a  hemp,  jute,  or  cotton  center. 


Diameter 


I -inch 

^-inch 

^-inch 

^-inch 

f-inch 

f-inch 

I -inch 

1  -inch 

1  |-inch 

li-inch 

1  f-inch 

1 5-inch 

1  f-inch 

1  f-inch 

2  -inch 
2f-inch 


Approx- 
imate Cir- 
cumference 


Weight 

per 
Fathom 


1  |-inch 
If-inch 
1 5-inch 

1  |-inch 

2  -inch 
2i-inch 

2  f-inch 

3  -inch 
35-inch 

4  -inch 
4i-inch 

4  f-inch 

5  -inch 
55-inch 
6f-inch 
7  f-inch 


Pounds 
1.32 
1.80 
2.34 
3.00 
3.72 
5.34 
7.20 
9.48 

12.00 

14.70 

18.00 

21.30 

24.90 

29.10 

37.80 

48.00 


Weight 
per  Coil, 
100  Fms. 


Breaking 
Stress 


Use 


Pounds 
132 
180 
234 
300 
372 
534 
720 
948 

1,200 

1,470 

1,800 

2,130 

2,490 

2,910 

3,780 

4,800 


Pounds 
8,460 
11,520 
16,330 
19,040 
23,520 
35,730 
46,150 
60,170 
76,200 
94,000 
113,800 
131,690 
154,880 
184,300 
240,760 
299,100 


Towing  hawsers;  crane 
falls;  bridles,  large  and 
small ;  tiller  ropes ;  tiller 
ropes  on  ships'  boats; 
cat  and  fish  pendants; 
clear  hawse  pendants; 
dip  ropes;  torpedo 
slings,  and  slings  for 
general  hoisting. 


ROPE— KNOTS— SPLICES  127 

Wire  Rope  Tables  (U.  S.  Navy) 

Plow  steel  Wire  Rope. 

Composed  of  6  strands,  with  a  hemp  core,  19  wires  to  a  strand;  or  18 
wires,  with  a  center  of  jute,  cotton,  or  hemp  twine. 


Approx- 

Weight 

Weight 

Breaking 
Stress 

Diameter 

imate  Cir- 
cumference 

per 
Fathom 

per  Coil, 
100  Fms. 

Use 

Inches 

Inches 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

^ 

u 

1.27 

127 

10,340 

• 

U 

2.23 

223 

18,000 

■ 

2 

3.60 

360 

29,160 

. . 

21 

5.07 

507 

41,350 

. . 

2f 

6.88 

688 

55,640 

1 

3 

9.00 

900 

72,040 

11 

31 

11.60 

1,160 

93,040 

u 

4 

14.48 

1,448 

116,690 

lA 

4i 

18.80 

1,880 

152,430 

Composed  of  6  strands,  with  a  hemp  core,  each  strand  consisting  of  37 
wires,  or  36  wires  with  a  hemp,  jute,  or  cotton  center. 


, 

Approx- 

Weight 

Weight 

Breaking 

Diameter 

imate  Cir- 

per 

per  Coil, 

Use 

cumference 

Fathom 

100  Fms. 

btress 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

f-inch 

1  f-inch 

1.32 

132 

10,000 

5-inch 

1 5-inch 

2.34 

234 

19,300 

Transmission     rope     for 

f-inch 

2  -inch 

3.72 

372 

27,790 

steering    gear;       boat 

f-inch 

2f-inch 

5.34 

534 

40,000 

crane  falls;  crane  falls. 

f-inch 

2  f-inch 

7.20 

720 

54,400 

afloat  and  ashore;  haw- 

1 -inch 

3  -inch 

9.48 

948 

71,100 

sers,       where       great 

1  f-inch 

3|-inch 

12.00 

1,200 

90,000 

strength    is    required. 

1  f-inch 

5  -inch 

24.90 

2,490 

183,000 

relieving  tackles. 

2  -inch 

6  f-inch 

37.80 

3,780 

284,500 

/          • 

128 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


Rough  Rules  for  Getting  the  Strength  of  Ropes 

An  officer  may  want  to  make  a  quick  lift  and  not  have  tables 
handy.    It  is  well  to  memorize  these  rules. 

To  get  size  of  manila  rope  suitable  for  a  given  load.  Mul- 
tiply load  in  tons  by  7.  The  square  root  of  this  will  be  the  size 
of  the  rope  in  inches  (circumference). 

A.  Five  ton  load. 

5X7  =  35. 

V35  =  5.9,  say  6". 

The  table  gives  six-inch  manila  as  having  a  strength  of  30,000 
lbs.;  this  would  give  us  a  factor  of  safety  of  3. 

B.  Two  ton  load. 

2  X_7  =  14. 

Vl4  =  3.7,  say  3^' 


'  n 


The  table  gives  three  and  three  quarter  inch  manila  a  strength 
of  12,500  lbs.,  or  a  little  better  than  3  for  a  factor  of  safety. 

To  work  the  rule  backward  the  safe  working  load  for  any  rope 
is  found  by  squaring  the  circumference  and  dividing  by  seven. 

For  working  purposes  wire  rope  may  be  considered  three 
times  the  strength  of  manila  rope,  of  the  same  size. 

When  tables  are  handy  the  safe  working  load  of  rope  may  be 
taken  as  about  one  sixth  of  the  tabulated  ultimate  strength, 
Manila  rope  may  be  stressed  to  a  greater  degree,  say  one  third 
of  its  ultimate  strength  when  the  load  is  only  to  be  applied  for  a 
short  period  and  without  jerks. 

These  are  very  loose  rules.  Never  overestimate  the  strength 
of  a  piece  of  gear.  Err  on  the  safe  side,  but  of  course  use  judg- 
ment, and  this  comes  with  familiarity  in  using  rope. 


lowo 


1.. 


Right 


How  to  measure  wire  rope 


Wrong 


CHAPTER  4 
BLOCKS  AND  TACKLES 


Blocks 

Blocks  are  among  the  most  important  fittmgs  on  board  ship 
and  their  construction  and  use  should  be  understood  by  all  sea- 
men. The  blocks  used  on  lifeboat  davits,  and  the  blocks  at  the 
lower  end  of  lifeboat  falls  are  of  the  utmost  importance.  These 
will  be  specially  treated  in  the  chapter  devoted  to  lifeboats. 

Blocks  are  usually  single,  double,  treble,  or  fourfold,  etc. 
The  number  of  sheaves  mdicating  the  name  of  the  block. 

A  block  primarily  consists  of  the  shell,  the  strap,  the  sheave, 
or  sheaves,  and  the  pin,  the  hook  or  shackle,  and  some  are 
fitted  with  a  becket  for  attachmg  a  stationary  part  of  the  faU. 

Blocks  are  usually  strapped  with  steel,  or  have  mterior  straps, 
leading  down  from  the  hook.  Formerly  blocks  were  strapped 
with  rope. 

Sheaves  are  bushed  with  metal  and  are  sometimes  fitted  with 
rollers  or  self-lubricating  bearings,  special  metal  filled  with 
graphite  plugs.  . 

Bushings  are  the  bearing  a  sheave  has  upon  the.pm.  me 
three  styles  shown  are  those  most  commonly  used. 


Plain 


Roller 
Bushings 


Self-lubricating 


In  a  Plain  Bushed  sheave  the  bearing  is  simply  a  hole  drilled 
in  cast  iron.    These,  are  most  commonly  used. 

129 


-^mat 


130 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


BLOCKS  AND  TACKLES 


131 


ni 


ih' 


'?. ' 


,;rSteef  Siraps 
■Swa/fows. 


If- Upper  Block 

^-Wood  Shell 


Roller  Bushed  sheaves  bear  on  rollers  that  in  turn  bear  on  the 
pin.  These  run  with  less  friction  than  the  common  sheave,  and 
on  this  account  are  generally  the  favorite  where  hand  power  is 
used  for  hoisting.    Also  referred  to  as  Patent  bushings. 

Self-lubricating  sheaves  are  made  with  a  perforated  bronze 
bushing,  the  holes  being  filled  with  a  special  lubricant.    As  the 

bearing  wears,  the  lubricant  is 
distributed,  thus  the  name  "self- 
lubricating."  On  account  of 
their  construction,  these  sheaves 
are  the  most  durable,  and  are 
generally  used  in  wire  rope 
blocks. 

Use  no  oil  on  self-lubricating 
sheaves. 

Sheaves  are  made  of  metal  or 
of  lignum  vitae. 

The  parts  of  a  block  are  best 
shown  by  a  drawing. 

Special  blocks.  Blocks  often 
take  their  names  from  the  posi- 
tion and  use  to  which  they  are 
put.  This  is  specially  so  in  sail- 
ing craft. 

Cargo    blocks.    Usually    the 
block  at  the  boom  end.    Large 
^--'Sfeei strap  metal  blocks,  often  with  wooden 

""-lashing  or  Hooking  Eye  cheeks.      Wide    swallow,    and 
Farts  of  a  block  mounted  with  swivel  neck,  and 

shackle,  or  moused  hook. 
A  whip  is  rove  through  the  cargo  block. 
Snatch  blocks.    Blocks  fitted  with  hinged  shell,  or 
hook  so  that  a  rope  may  be  snatched  on  the  bight. 
Used  as  lead  blocks  in  warping,  and  in  leading  boat 
falls  to  winches,  or  in  leading  topping  lifts  to  winches. 
Snatch  blocks  are  among  the  most  useful  of  the  loose 
blocks   carried  by  a  vessel.      In  hooking  a   snatch 
block  do  so  with  the  point  of  the  hook  up,  so  that 
when  the  load  comes  off  the  block  it  will  not  unhook    Snatch 
as  it  slams  down  on  the  deck.  block 


^^^'' Breech 
,^'Becket 

,'' Lower  Block 


—  Bushing 


—  WoodShell 


'-'Swallow 


Gin  block 


Lead  blocks.  Blocks  siting  to  the  mast  table  under  the  booms, 
and  giving  a  fair  lead  to  the  cargo  whips  from  the  cargo  block 
down  to  the  drum  of  the  winch.  Of  course  there  are  many  other 
blocks  that  may  be  styled  lead  blocks. 

Gin  blocks.  Metal  blocks  with  open  metal  shell 
or  frame.  Usually  the  shell  merely  consists  of  a 
guard  to  keep  the  rope  from  running  off  the  score 

of  the  sheave. 

Fish  block.  The  lower  block  of  a  fish  tackle, 
fitted  with  a  fish  hook,  used  in  fishing  an  old 
fashioned  anchor.    See  Chapter  on  ground  tackle 

(Chap.  17). 

Cat  block.    Used  where  anchors  are  catted,  the 
upper  sheaves  of  the  cat  fall  being  rove  through 
the  cat  head,  the  lower  through  the  cat  block,  fitted  with  the  cat 
hook.    Ancient  lore  but  still  in  service  at  sea  on  many  craft. 

Fish  and  cat  blocks  are  always  double  and  sometimes  treble 

blocks.  . 

Sister  blocks.    Two  sheaves  one  above  other  m  same  sheU 

fitted  to  lead  their  falls  in  opposite  directions. 

A  secret  block,  is  a  single  block  with  closed  sheU,  two  holes 
in  lower  part  admit  passage  of  fall.  Used  to  prevent  foulmg  by 
other  gear,  or  saUs.    Used  on  bunt  jigger. 

Fiddle  block,  a  double  block,  sheaves  in  same  position  with 
relation  to  each  other  as  in  a  sister  block  but  falls  lead  the  same 
way.  Used  under  the  eyes  of  the  rigging  where  a  double  block 
may  be  needed  but  there  is  only  room  for  a  single  width  of  shell. 
Clump  block.  A  small  egg-shaped  block  with  rounded  shell. 
Very  strong.  Used  at  the  end  of  staysail  pendants  for  hauling 
easily  over  the  stays  next  aft. 

Cheek  block,  A  half  shell  covering  a  sheave  on  the  side  of  a 
mast  or  other  spar.    Used  on  gaffs  and  booms. 

Jeer  blocks  are  large  blocks  used  in  sending  up  and  down  lower 
yards.  Jeer  blocks  are  often  a  permanent  part  of  the  slings, 
a  slip  hook  being  fitted  between  them. 

Dasher  block.  The  small  signal  halyard  block  at  the  end 
of  the  spanker  or  monkey  gaff.  (Monkey  gaff  is  the  small  signal 
gaff  sometimes  fitted  on  the  after  mast  of  sailing  craft ;  it  carries 
no  sail  and  is  supported  by  an  eye  under  the  topgallant  mast 
head,  and  is  steadied  by  vangs  to  the  horns  of  the  cross  trees.) 


132 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


BLOCKS  AND  TACKLES 


133 


Sheave- 


Swallow- 


Seizing -- 
Thimble-" 


Rope.    Strapped  block 


\ 


Tye  blocks.  Large  steel  blocks  on  the  topsail  and  topgallant 
yards.  The  topsail  tye  reeves  through  the  former,  and  top- 
gallant tyle  through  the  latter.     Only  used  with  heavy  yards. 

Tail  block.  Handy  block  fitted 
with  a  tail  for  clapping  on  gear,  etc. 
A  small  tail  snatch  block  is  handy 
for  hauling  in  the  deep  sea  lead 
line  when  this  is  used. 

Quarter  blocks,  clew  line  blocks, 
hanging  blocks,  sheet  blocks,  hal- 
yard blocks,  brace  blocks,  brail 
blocks,  gantline  blocks,  downhaul  blocks,  etc.,  take  their  names 
from  the  gear  that  is  rove  through  them,  from  their  position,  etc. 
These  will  be  easily  identified  by  a  study  of  the 
rigging. 

Blocks  are  hooked  or  shackled.  Hooks  should 
always  be  moused  when  there  is  danger  of 
them  unhooking.  Mousing  a  hook  with  serving 
wire  or  with  a  small  shackle  strengthens  it  to  a 
considerable  extent. 

Lead  blocks  are  sometimes  fitted  with  swivel 
connections,  and  various  other  devices,  such  as 
ball  and  sockets.  These  fancy  things  are  usu- 
ally to  be  found  on  yachts  rather  than  commer- 
cial vessels. 

Extra  heavy  blocks  for  wire  rope.  Sheaves 
from  16  to  30  inches  diameter.  Capacity  from 
20  to  100  tons. 

Weighted  blocks  for  wire  rope.    These  blocks 
are  made  with  overhauling  weights  running  from  100  to  500 
pounds. 

Standardizing  Tackle  Blocks* 

Heavy  steel  blocks  for  lifting  large  weights  are  of  special 
interest.  The  following  notes  on  the  design  of  heavy  metal 
blocks  may  be  of  interest  to  those  who  like  to  go  deeper  into 
the  subject  of  blocks. 

*  Data  supplied  by  the  Engineering  Department  of  the  Parish  Supply  and 
Manufacturing  Company,  Chicago,  HI. 


Hook  moused 
with  wire  or 
marline,  etc. 


For  some  time,  naval  architects,  engineers  and  draftsmen,  as 
weU  as  the  owners  and  operators  of  various  types  of  ships,  have 
recognized  the  fact  that  there  has  been  a  sad  lack  of  data  m 
reeard  to  the  tackle  blocks  used  in  their  riggmg  equipments. 
TWs  has  been  especially  true  of  the  malleable  iron  shell  and 
steel  shell  blocks  used  for  heavy  loads. 

It  is  true  that  tackle-block  manufacturers  have  had  certam 
standards  of  construction,  and  that  it  has  been  possible  m  some 
cases  to  secure  from  them  dimensions  of  various  parts  and 
fittings.    How   these    dimensions   were   arrived   at,   however, 
could  not  be  determined,  and  it  has  been  only 
through  the  wasteful  process  of  repeated  failure 
in  actual  service  that  tackle-block  users  have  de- 
termined what  sizes  and  types  of  blocks  might 
be  used  for  specific  purposes. 

Because  of  these  conditions,  the  Emergency 
Fleet  Corporation  was  placed  at  a  great  disad- 
vantage dvuring  the  war.  Efforts  were  made  to 
obtain  adequate  data  from  the  block  manufac- 
turers, but  because  of  their  inability  to  secure  the 
complete  information  required  it  was  necessary 
for  their  draftsmen  to  do  the  best  they  could  with 
the  material  available.  The  extreme  wasteful- 
ness of  this  method  has  been  amply  proven  m 
the  breaking  and  binding  of  the  specification 
blocks  when  the  ships  were  loading,  and  in  the 
heartbreaking  delays,  due  to  the  necessity  of  se- 
curing blocks  for  replacement. 

This  state  of  affairs  is  known  to  all  shipbuilders,  and  has 
often  been  deplored.  To  a  lesser  extent  they,  too,  have  had  to 
learn  by  bitter  experience,  and  the  standards  arriyed  at  in  then: 
specifications  are  based  almost  entirely  on  observation  and  a 
knowledge  of  working  conditions. 

An  effort  has  been  made  by  block  manufacturers  to  remedy 
this  lack  of  information,  and  tackle  block  users  may  now  secure 
scientifically  determined  data  in  regard  to  every  detail  and  speci- 
fication. Engineers  have  completed  numerous  experiments  and 
tests,  which  have  proved  that  in  the  design  of  a  tackle  block  the 
stresses  in  various  parts  of  the  block,  resulting  from  the  load 
carried,  may  be  determined  with  a  considerable  degree  of 
accuracy.  This  information  may  be  used  in  properly  designing 
the  various  parts. 

Typical  Calculations  for  Tackle  Block  Design 

As  a  typical  example  of  the  methods  employed,  a  triple,  heavy- 
pattern,  diamond-shell  block.  Fig.  1  may  be  taken.    This  block 


Hook  mouse 
with  a  shackle 


.  :j.»" 


134 


if'*' 


I. 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


has  12-inch  sheaves  designed  to  carry  a  load  of  7  tons.  The 
hook  for  the  hoist  is  a  number  13  Williams-Vulcan  hook  with  a 
shank  diameter  of  1^^  inches. 


[a- 
li. 


T^t:tr 


Q.) 


Li 

I 

2rL 


<-B 


4 6 


Fig,l 


The  strap  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  center  pin  has  a  diameter 
of  cf  =  11/2  inches.  The  important  factor  in  the  design  of  the 
pin  is  the  bearing  pressure  of  the  bronze  bushings  in  the  hubs 
of  the  sheaves,  per  square  inch  of  projected  area.    This  is 


i>  = 


_      Q     _     14,000 


=  7,920  pounds  per  square  inch, 


where:  Q 

Z' 

d 


Z'Xd     47/8X11/2 

total  load  on  block, 

combined  length  of  hubs  of  sheaves, 

diameter  of  pin. 


if. 


1 1 


— > 


<-j-> 


<-b 


< 


The  resultant  pressure  is  comparatively  low  because  the  more 
or  less  intermittent  use  of  a  tackle  block  permits  much  higher 

pressures,  especially  in  the  case  of  a  high- 
->l  c  |<-  grade  bronze  block.  The  pin  may  then  be 
checked  for  bending  stresses,  considering  it 
as  a  beam  supported  at  both  ends  and  car- 
rying a  uniformly  distributed  load  of  14,000 
pounds.  However,  the  pin  receives  consid- 
erable support  from  the  cheek  plates  be- 
tween the  sheaves,  which  reduce  the  result- 
ant stresses  very  considerably;  the  amount 
of  this  reduction  it  is,  however,  impossible 
Fig.  2  to  calculate  with  any  degree  of  accuracy. 

The  sides  of  the  strap  are  in  tension,  the 
weakest  section  being  at  the  center  pin.  This  section  is  shown 
in  Fig.  3.    The  load  is  0/2,  so  that  we  have  the  equation 

|  =  (a-£/)&S„ 


-> 


<- 


BLOCKS  AND  TACKLES 


135 


in  which  St  is  the  safe  tensile  stress  of  the  material.  A  factorof 
safety  of  4  or  5  may  be  used,  which  will  give  a  value  of  12,000 
to  16,000  for  mild  steel.    We  can  now  assume  a  value  for  either 


r- 


:-d  ->| 


I 


Fig.  3 


Fig.  4 


a  0Tb  and  calculate  the  other  dimension.    Taking  b  at  %  inch, 
and  St  at  12,000,  the  equation  becomes; 

^^  =  (a  -  iy2)  X  5/8  X  12,000. 

Solving  this  for  a,  the  result  is  a  =  2.44  inches,  which  for  reasons 
of  construction  is  increased  to  3  inches.  ^   ,    ^  xu 

The  crown  of  the  strap  is  treated  as  a  beam  supported  at  the 
center  and  carrying  a  load,  <?/2  at  each  end.  The  dangerous 
section.  Fig.  4,  is  at  the  center.  The  bending  moment  at  this 
section  is; 

4 
We  therefore  have  the  equation; 

in  which  Sb  is  the  safe  bending  stress  and  Z  is  the  section 
modulus,  which  for  this  section  is  1/6  (c  -  1%)/^.  The  equa- 
tion thus  becomes 

^  =  1/6  (c  -  13/4)  S5. 
4 

A  value  of  c  is  now  assumed,  say  4  inches,  and  Si  is  taken  at 
16,000.    Solving  the  equation  for  /  the  result  is 

IM??  X  7  =  1/6  (4  -  1%)P  X  16,000. 


andf=     /     6  X  14,000  X  7       ^2  inches. 

^       \4  (4  -  13/4)  X  16,000 

The  following  calculation,  from  the  same  source,  is  most 
important. 


|y^ 


136 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


BLOCKS  AND  TACKLES 


137 


III:: 


%' 


Determining  the  Stresses  in  Wire  Rope 

It  may  be  well  to  calculate  the  stress  in  the  wire  rope  which 
is  %-inch  diameter,  the  usual  6  strand,  19  wire  per  strand 
hoisting  rope.  A  very  important  factor,  frequently  neglected, 
is  the  stress  produced  in  wire  rope  due  to  its  being  bent  over  a 
sheave  of  comparatively  small  diameter.  This  stress  must  be 
added  to  the  tensile  stress  produced  by  the  load  carried. 

According  to  Bach  the  stress  due  to  bending  a  wire  rope  over  a 
sheave  is 

Sb  =  %E-^y 

in  which  E  is  the  modulus  of  elasticity  (30,000,000  for  steel), 
h  is  the  diameter  of  the  individual  wires  of  the  rope,  and  D  is 
the  sheave  diameter.  For  a  pair  of  triple  blocks,  each  rope  will 
carry  1/6  of  the  total  load  of  2,400  pounds.  The  diameter  of  the 
wire  is  approximately  1/15  of  the  rope  diameter,  or  0.05  inch. 
Then 

•Sfc  =  %  X  30,000,000  X  ^  =  47,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 
The  stress  due  to  the  load  St  is 

where  A  is  the  sectional  area  of  each  wire,  and  n  is  the  number 
of  wires  in  the  rope,  so  that 


St  = 


2,400 


119  X  0.00196 
The  total  stress  is 


=  10,300  pounds  per  square  inch. 


S  =  Sb-{-  St  =  57,300  pounds  per  square  inch. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  bending  stress  in  this  case  is  by  far  the 
most  important.  For  high-grade  plow  steel  rope  the  factor  of 
safety  is  about  3,  which  is  not  too  low  for  such  material. 

Ordering  Blocks 

When  ordering  blocks  from  the  maker,  state  the  following: 
Size  of  block  (length  in  inches),  measuring  shell,  not  hook  and 
becket);  number  of  sheaves;  kind  of  connection,  i.e.,  hook, 
shackle,  ring,  sister  hooks,  swivel,  stiff,  etc. ;  whether  becket  is 
required,  or  not;  kind  of  shell,  ash,  lignum  vitae,  steel;  kind 
of  sheave,  plain,  roller  bushed   (sailors  call  them   **  patent 


sheaves,"  or  self-lubricating.    Also  material,  i.e.,  galvanized 
kon,  or  composition,  or  lignum  vitae. 
It  is  also  well  to  mention  the  use  that  is  to  be  made  of  the  block. 

n 

Tackles  and  Purchases 

Any  mechanical  advantage  which  increases  the  force  as 
applied  through  rope  and  blocks  is  a  purchase.  And  a  tackle,  as 
generally  understood,  is  the  same  thing.  The  tackle  may  be  of 
different  kinds  and  still  only  have  the  same  purchase. 

Also,  purchases  are  referred  to  when  we  consider  the  handlmg, 
or  purchasing^  of  heavy  weights. 

The  following  concise  table,  mserted  here  by  permission  of 
Merriman  Brothers,  of  Boston,  sums  up  the  theoretical  and  actual 
purchase  of  certain  practical  combinations  of  blocks,  rope,  and 
bushings.  This  is  a  very  valuable  table  resultmg  from  careful 
experiments. 

Table  Showing  Theoretical  Purchase  of  Various  Combinations  of  Blocks, 
together  witii  Approximate  Efficiency  and  Actual  Purchase 


Combination 


Movable  Block         Bushing 


Theoretical 
Purchase 


For  Manila  Rope. 

Two  Single, 

6  in. 

Single  and 
Double,  6  in. 

Two  Double, 

6  in. 

Two  Double, 
Sin. 

Double  and 
Triple,  6  in. 


Double  and 
Triple,  12  in.  1 

For  Wire  Rope. 
Single  and 
Double,  10  in. 
Double  and 
Triple,  10  in. 


Single, 
without  Becket 

Single, 

with  Becket 

Double, 
without  Becket 

Double, 
without  Becket 

Double, 

with  Becket 

Double, 

with  Becket 


Single, 

with  Becket 
Double, 

with  Becket 


Common 

Self-Lub. 

Patent 

Common 

Self-Lub. 

Patent 

Common 

Self-Lub. 

Patent 

Common 

Self-Lub. 

Patent 

Conmion 

Self-Lub. 

Patent 

Common 

Self-Lub. 

Patent 


Self-Lub. 
Self-Lub. 


Times 
2 
2 
2 
3 
3 
3 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 


3 
5 


Efficiency 


Per  Cent 
81 
«7 
90 
60 
73 
78 
48 
61 
70 
58 
68 
75 
41 
52 
64 
63 
68 
72 

91 
86 


Actual 
Purchase 


Times 
1.62 
1.74 
1.8 
1.8 
2.19 
2.34 
1.92 
2.44 
2.8 
2.32 
2.72 
3 

2.05 
2.6 
3.2 
3.15 
3.4 
3.6 


2.73 
4.3 


138 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Theoretical  and  Actual  Purchase  and  Efficiency 

Theoretically  the  purchase  of  a  pair  of  blocks  is  equal  to  the 
number  of  parts  of  rope  that  go  to  the  movable  block.  Thus,  in 
the  combination  of  two  single  blocks,  the  single  without  becket 
being  the  movable  block,  the  theoretical  purchase  is  two  times; 
in  the  combination  of  a  double  and  single  block,  the  single  block 
with  becket  being  the  movable  block,  the  theoretical  purchase 
is  three  times,  etc.  In  practice,  however,  we  find  this  theoretical 
purchase  considerably  reduced  by  the  friction  of  the  sheaves 
and  rope,  so  that  the  actual  purchase  is  always  materially  less 
than  the  theoretical  purchase. 

Jf  N  =  the  number  of  parts  of  rope  leading  to  the  movable 

block,  then  Efficiency  =  -j;/^^^% 

Experiments  in  determining  the  efficiency  of  various  combi- 
nations of  blocks  show  considerable  variation  in  result,  de- 
pending not  only  upon  the  accuracy  with  which  the  blocks  are 
made,  but  also  upon  the  size  and  kind  of  rope.  The  results 
shown  in  the  table  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  average. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  with  the  same  number  of  sheaves  in  a 
purchase  there  is  a  marked  increase  in  efficiency  when  large 
sheaves  are  used. 

It  is  customary  to  figure  that  working  hand-over-hand,  a  man 
will  pull  about  half  his  own  weight.  Given  number  of  men 
available,  weight  to  be  lifted,  the  amount  of  purchase  can  be 
calculated. 

Next  to  knowing  what  combination  of  rope  and  blocks,  to  use 
the  most  important  thing  to  consider  is  the  size  of  rope,  and  the 
size  of  block  to  go  with  it.  The  tables  following,  also  prepared 
by  Merriman  Brothers,  are  most  useful.  Such  tables  are  of  great 
utility  to  the  ship's  officer  when  he  is  rigging  for  heavy  weights, 
and  are  also  of  great  assistance  to  the  designer  who  lays  out  cargo 
and  other  ship's  gear. 

Standard  blocks  will,  as  a  rule,  not  carry  as  much  weight  as  the 
new  rope  that  can  be  used  in  them.  This  is  specially  so  of  blocks 
with  hook  connection.  Shackles  are  much  stronger  and  should 
always  be  used  for  heavy  lifts. 


BLOCKS  AND  TACKLES 

Suitable  Working  Load  for  Blocks 
Regular  Tackle  Blocks  with  Loose  Hooks 


139 


Size 
Block 

Diameter 
Manila  Rope 

Two  Singles 

or  Single 
and  Double 

Two  Doubles 
or  Double 
and  Triple 

Two  Triples 

Inches 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 
10 
12 
14 

Inches 

t 
1 

I 
1 

11 

n 

Pounds 

250 

400 

600 

800 

1,400 

2,000 

4,000 

6,000 

Pounds 

350 

600 

800 

1,400 

2,000 

3,500 

5,500 

7,500 

Pounds 
500 
800 
1,200 
2,000 
3,200 
5,000 
7,000 
9,000 

Wide  Mortise  Tackle  Blocks  with  Loose  Hooks 
(With  shackles  one  and  one-half  times  the  following  load  may  be  carried) 


Two  Singles 

Two  Doubles 

Two  Triples 

Size 

Diameter 

or  Single 

or  Double 

or  Triple 

Block 

Manila  Rope 

and  Double 

and  Triple 

and  Quadruple 

Inches 

Inches 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

8 

1 

i 

11 

2 

10 

U 

2 

2h 

31 

12 

lA 

31 

4| 

6 

14 

If 

41 

6 

7 

16 

H 

7 

8 

10 

Extra  Heavy  Wide  Mortise  Blocks  with  Lashing  Shackles 


Two  Doubles 

Two  Triples 

Size 

Diameter 

or  Double 

or  Triple 

Two  Quadruples 

Block 

Manila  Rope 

and  Triple 

and  Quadruple 

Inches 

Inches 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

18 

2 

20 

25 

30 

20 

2\ 

30 

35 

40 

22 

2i 

35 

45 

55 

24 

3 

50 

65 

75 

Wire  Rope  Blocks  with  Shackles 
(With  hooks  not  more  than  one-half  the  following  load  should  be  carried) 


Diameter 
Sheave 

Diameter 
Wire  Rope 

Two  Singles 

or  Single 
and  Double 

Two  Doubles 
or  Double 
and  Triple 

Two  Triples 

or  Triple  and 

Quadruple 

Inches 
10 
12 
14 
16 
18 

Inches 
lor  f 

f  "  f 
f  "  \ 

1 

1 

Tons 

5 

7 

9 
12 
15 

Tons 
7 
10 
12 
17 
22 

Tons 
9 
12 
15 
22 
30 

140 


f 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


BLOCKS  AND  TACKLES 


141 


The  relation  of  the  length  of  shell,  diameter  of  rope  to  be 
used  and  the  diameter  of  the  sheave  is  shown  in  the  following 
Merriman  table  of  vessel  blocks: 

Vessel  Blocks 

Galvanized  Iron  or  Lignum-vitae  Sheaves 


Size  of  Sheave 

Diameter  of 
Rope 

Length  of 
Shell 

Size  of  Sheave 

Diameter  of 
Rope 

Length  of 
SheU 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

If  X    1  X  f 

1 

3 

9    X  U  X    f 

If 

13 

2i  X    1  X  t 

i 

4 

91  X  If  X    1 

1; 

14 

3    X    f  X  1 

9 
16 

5 

10    X  If  X    i 

1: 

15 

3|  X  1    Xh 

forf 

6 

11    X  If  X    1 

If 

16 

4i  X  1     X  ^ 

3 

4 

7 

12    X2fXlf 

2i 

18 

4|  XliX  1 

1 

8 

13^  X2|  X  li 

2h 

20 

51  X1|X  f 

i 

9 

14i  X  3f  X  U 

3 

22 

6i  X  U  X  f 

1 

10 

m  x3i  X  u 

H 

24 

7i  X  U  X  f 

1 

11 

14    X4|  X  If 

4 

26 

8    X  If  X  f 

u 

12 

Note:  The  sheave  dimensions  are  diameter  of  sheave,  width  of  sheave 
and  diameter  of  pin. 

Size  of  Rope,    There  should  be  a  good  allowance  between 
the  diameter  of  the  rope  and  the  thickness  of  the  sheave.    You 

will  save  trouble  if  you  do  not  use  larger 
rope  than  shown  in  table. 

Tackles 

Various  combinations  of  rope  and  blocks 
are  shown  and  named  in  the  following  il- 
lustrations. The  rope  rove  through  a  series 
of  blocks  is  called  a  fall. 

Single  whip.  Used  for  greater  conveni- 
ence. Block  stationary,  no  power  gained. 
The  cargo  block  and  whip  used  for  ordi- 
nary lifts  on  board  ship  illustrates  this 
combination. 

Runner,    Standing  part  made  fast,  and 

Gun  tackle  Luff  tackle    fall  rove  through  a  movable  block.    Power 

doubled    (neglecting   friction).     The   tye 

block  on  a  yard  is  an  illustration  of  this.    The  halyard  purchase 

is  shackled  to  the  tye  after  it  passes  up  over  the  masthead 

sheave. 


Gun  tackle.  Two  smgle  blocks.  Standing  part  of  fall  to 
becket  in  fixed  block.    Power  doubled  (neglecting  friction). 

Luff  or  watch  tackle.  This  is  one  of  the  handiest  and  most 
usefiU  purchases  on  board  ship.  Double  block  stationary,  or 
movable,  depending  on  how  used.    Standing  part  of  fall  to 


P=-i]NoFricHon 
f^^f^]wifhFricNon 


^=^}NoFnchon 
£  =  B\wifhFndion 


Luff 


Twofold 


~y/~3)  Friction 
W  '30  ifricfion 


Spanish  burton 


<j 


P.=   f}NoFr/cf/on 
W      J  ) 


[WJ 
Single  whip 


hon 


^^\With  Friction 


I.  :.IZ\With  Friction 
VY    20) 


becket  in  smgle  block.  Power  three  or  four,  dependmg  on 
which  block  is  moving.  Here  it  might  be  well  to  say  that 
the  power,  less  friction,  is  found  by  counting  the  parts  of  the 
fall  at  the  movable  block,  or  blocks.  Also  power  is  always 
gained  at  the  expense  of  time.  The  greater  the  purchase  the 
more  rope  must  be  hauled  through  the  blocks. 

This  purchase  is  used  for  many  things  on  board  ship,  but  finds 
its  greatest  use  as  a  general  utility  tackle.  The  small  watch 
tackle  is  called  a  handy  billy. 

Twofold  tackle.  Two  double  blocks.  Power  four  or  five, 
depending  upon  which  is  the  movable  block.  Friction  increases 
with  the  number  of  sheaves. 

Combinations  of  double  and  triple  blocks,  and  of  two  triple 


142 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


BLOCKS  AND  TACKLES 


143 


blocks  are  used  for  heavy  lifts.    Fourfold  purchases  may  be  used. 

When  making  these  heavy  purchases  the  falls  are  crossed,  so 
that  the  hauling  part  reeves  through  a  middle  sheave.  This  is 
done  so  that  the  blocks,  which  are  quite  wide,  will  not  cant  over 
while  hauling.    Heavy  boat  falls  should  be  rove  this  way. 

Boat  falls,  with  continuous  falls,  non-tipping  blocks,  and  auto- 
matic releasing  gear  are  treated  in  the  chapter  on  Boats. 

Spanish  burton.  Seldom  used— a  relic  of  the  past.  Power 
three  (neglecting  friction). 

Double  Spanish  burton.  So  ancient  that  authorities  begm 
to  dififer.  Combination  of  a  double  and  two  single  blocks.  I 
have  never  seen  a  Spanish  burton  rigged  and  cannot  see  why  it 
should  ever  be  rigged  in  the  present  day. 

The  following  tackles  are  described  and  are  generally  either 
gun  tackle  or  luff  tackle  purchases. 

Rolling  tackles,  hooked  from  quarter  of  lower  yards  to  mast, 
to  prevent  undue  strains  on  truss  and  parrel,  during  heavy 
weather. 

Boom  tackle,  used  to  guy  out  the  booms  of  a  fore  and  after 
when  sailing  before  the  wind,  leads  forward. 
Rudder  tackle  hooks  to  rudder  pendants.  An  emergency  gear. 
Relieving  tackle,  a  combination  of  double  and  single  blocks 
securing  to  tiUer.  Works  with  an  endless  fall  and  relieves  the 
regular  tiller  tackles  of  the  severe  kick  of  the  rudder  in  heavy 
weather.  Also  may  be  rigged  to  steer  with  m  the  case  of  rudder 
tackles  parting.    A  sailing  ship  rig. 

Burton,  a  tackle  hooked  to  a  pendant  near  the  mast  head. 
Useful  for  heavy  lifts,  etc.,  on  the  deck  or  up  and  down  the  mast. 
Yard  tackle,  used  to  hoist  out  over  the  side. 
Stay  tackle  made  fast  to  a  stay,  usually  over  a  hatch,  where 
no  boom  is  handy. 

The  combination  of  yard  and  stay  is  found  in  the  present 
hatch  and  side  booms,  for  discharging  or  loading  by  deck  winch. 
Jiggers,  used  aloft  as  in  lifting  sails  up  on  the  yards. 
Luff  upon  luff,  a  luff  tackle  clapped  on  to  the  hauling  part  of 
another  luff.  Theoretical  power  gained  12  times  (neglecting 
friction),  where  the  double  block  of  the  first  luff  is  fixed.  Where 
the  double  blocks  of  both  luffs  move,  the  power  would  be  16. 

A  tackle  is  "  two  blocks  "  when  the  blocks  are  jambed  to- 
gether and  fall  cannot  be  hauled  through  any  more. 


To  make  up  a  deck  tackle.  Haul  through  the  .fall  until  the 
blocks  are  about  three  feet  apart.  Place  blocks  down,  points  o 
hooks  up  (hooks  should  always  pomt  the  same  way)  and  coi 
fhe  fil^ound  the  blocks.  Then  clove  hitch  the  end  of  the  fall 
Sound  the  whole  tackle  between  the  blocks.  The  tackle  can 
Sen  be  stowed,  carted  about,  and  still  it  can  be  cast  loose  a^^^^ 
neeted  or  overhauled,  without  danger  of  jambmg.  All  tackles 
should  be  made  up  so  and  hung  in  the  boson's  locker. 

Remember  the  caVspaw  in  hooking  a  tackle  onto  a  rope- 
it  is  the  most  secure  and  handy  method.     (See  page  92.) 

When  blocks  capsize,  be  careful  in  taking  out  the  turns  m  the 
fall  This  appUes  to  hanging  tackles  particularly,  as  the  lower 
block  is  always  liable  to  turn  over  when  roundmg  up  ^e  fall. 

When  hoisting  a  heavy  weight,  have  a  stopper  beforehand, 
that  is  near  the  pin  or  cleat  and  ready  to  clap  on  t^e  hauhng  part 
so  that  when  the  order  is  given,  "  Come  up  behmd!  and  the 
men  let  go  the  fall,  it  can  be  belayed  without  loosing  anythmg. 
Where  there  is  not  too  much  weight  on  the  fall,  a  few  hands 
hang  on  beforehand  while  the  haulmg  part  is  taken  around  the 
pm  When  possible  the  block  from  which  the  hauUng  part  leads 
should  always  be  hooked  to  the  weight  or  object  to  be  moved. 
In  hauUng  the  greatest  tension  comes  on  the  hauling  part.  In 
slacking  away  it  comes  on  the  standing  part  of  the  fall. 

Watch  seamen  at  work— study  their  way  of  doing  things, 
their  way  of  saying  things.    Remember  "  tackle  "  is  not  pro- 
nounced like  "fishing  tackle."    Sailors  always  refer  to  it  as  a 
"  TAYKLE  "  the  "  A  "  as  in  pay.    You  see  it  "  takes  hold 
of  things.    Only  a  lubber  calls  it  anything  else. 

Hauling  upon  tackles,  "  smging  "  a  rope,  and  the  pleasant 
"  click  "  of  the  "  PA  YTENT  "  sheaves,  is  something  to  be 
remembered  for  many  a  day.  The  chanties  are  almost  gone, 
but  here  and  there  in  the  newer  sailing  craft  old  tunes  remam, 
and  sailors,  even  in  steam,  wiU  call  as  a  rope  is  swigged  up. 
This  is  a  song  without  words,  a  sort  of  plaintive  cry.  Scandi- 
navian seamen  are  great  at  this. 

"I  hear  them  hilly  hollying  upon  the  weather  brace  is 
the  way  Masefield  expresses  it. 

Before  leaving  this  Uttle  dissertation  on  tackles,  let  me  say  a 
word  about  "  foreign  seamen."    The  lad  who  goes  to  sea  with 

6 


144 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


BLOCKS  AND  TACKLES 


145 


I 


foreign  seamen  is  liable  to  be  fortunate,  if  he  keeps  his  eyes 
open  and  don't  start  off  with  narrow-minded  prejudices.  The 
more  foreigners  he  meets  at  sea,  the  more  he  will  know  in  the 
end.  The  writer  shipped  around  Cape  Horn  in  a  three  skysail 
yarder,  as  a  lad,  just  to  top  off  his  schoolship  training.  There 
were  eighteen  hands  before  the  mast  (ship  2,500  D.W.)  and  these 
included  twelve  different  nationalities.  Much  sailor  lore  was 
passed  about  during  the  dog  and  night  watches. 

m 

Mechanics  on  Board  Ship 

Officers  on  board  ship  are  constantly  dealing  with  large  forces. 
This  is  specially  so  in  the  seamanship  division  where  the  vessel 
itself,  through  its  ground  tackle,  mooring  lines,  and  propeller,  is 
moved  about  and  handled.  It  is  necessary  that  the  officer  in 
charge  have  some  definite  idea  of  the  forces  he  is  handling. 
Many  men,  of  course,  are  fully  conversant  with  these  forces  and 
their  practical  action  and  reaction-,  but  the  fundamental  facts 
may  be  unknown  to  them.  The  following  short  definitions  may 
be  of  use  in  clearing  up  this  part  of  a  deep  subject. 

Mass  is  the  scientific  word  for  weight.  It  is  the  result  of 
weighing  by  a  balance  scale.  Weight  by  a  spring  scale  may  be 
quite  different,  depending  upon  the  force  acting  on  a  body. 
Weight  in  that  case  will  be  different  at  the  poles  and  at  the  equa- 
tor. 

Acceleration  is  the  rate  of  change  of  the  velocity  of  a  body. 

Force  is  the  product  of  the  Mass  times  the  Acceleration, 
Force  can  be  measured  by  a  spring  scale.  Dynamometers  are 
usually  built  on  this  principle. 

The  forces  met  with  in  the  handling  of  cargo  are  largely 
dynamic,  that  is  they  are  the  forces  of  motion,  of  moving  loads. 

Force  =  Mass  X  Acceleration. 

That  is,  if  the  velocity  is  uniform,  and  there  is  no  acceleration, 
the  force  is  simply  equal  to  the  weight  so  long  as  no  attempt  is 
made  to  check  or  increase  the  velocity. 

In  figuring  force  we  use  the  following  units : 


Force  (in  pounds)  =  Mass  (in  pounds)  X  Acceleration  (feet 
per  sec.2) 

Impulse  or  momentum  is  the  product  of  force  and  time  (foot/ 

sec.) 

Work  is  the  product  of  force  over  distance  (foot  pound). 

In  order  to  do  work,  certain  machines  are  used. 

The  lever.  The  principle  of  thejever  is  so  simple  and  useful 
that  it  will  merely  be  mentioned  here  in  passing.  This  principle 
is  employed  on  board  ship  in  the  lever  and  brake  beam  of  the 
hand  windlass.  The  point  about  which  a  lever  moves  is  called 
the  fulcrum. 

When  heavy  freight  cars  are  to  be  moved  along  a  track,  as 
often  happens  when  alongside  a  railroad  siding,  this  use  of  the 
lever  is  very  handy.  Get  two  pinch  bars,  place  the  ends  tmder 
the  rear  wheels  of  the  car  and  come  down  on  the  handles;  the 
leverage  here  is  one  inch  to  four  feet.  Two  men  on  a  bar  can 
easily  lift  under  the  wheel  with  a  force  of  four  tons  (48  times 
200  lbs.)  and  with  this  on  two  wheels  the  most  stubborn  car  will 
move.  The  Japanese  on  the  sugar  wharves  in  Honolulu  move 
the  laden  cars  about  in  this  manner  with  surprising  ease.  It  is  a 
good  wrinkle  to  employ. 

The  wedge.  This  form  of  applied  power,  the  wedge  being 
one  of  the  simple  machines,*  is  very  useful  in  setting  up  lashings, 
etc.,  and  in  battening  hatches.  The  forces  resolve  themselves 
according  to  the  angle  of  the  point  of  the  wedge,  following  the 
principles  of  the  composition  and  resolution  of  forces. 

Chain  Heists 

Chain  hoists  have  become  an  important  part  of  all  ship  equip- 
ment. In  the  engine  room  these  find  constant  use  in  lifting 
heavy  machinery  parts,  in  slinging  oil  barrels  and  in  a  number  of 
different  operations.  On  deck  they  are  very  useful  in  many 
ways  and  the  ship's  officer  should  make  himself  familiar  with 
their  application. 

Many  different  designs  are  on  the  market. 

Chain  hoists  are  a  combination  of  an  endless  chain,  or  chains, 
two  or  more  blocks,  and  certain  gears  for  the  application  of 

*  The  simple  machines  are  the  lever,  the  pulley  (block),  the  wheel  and 
axle,  the  wedge,  and  the  screw. 


I 


146 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


BLOCKS  jAND   TACKLES 


147 


power,  usually  applied  by  a  secondary  hauling  chain  of  endless 
construction  transmitting  the  hand  power  to  the  upper  block. 


J> 


Differential  hoist 


Screw  hoist 


Planetary  hoist 


In  the  differential  purchase  the  haulmg  part  is  part  of  the 
chain  carrying  the  weight,  an  endless  chain  taken  over  two 
sheaves  of  different  diameters  or  of  the  same  diameter,  and  led 
around  a  lower  sheave  to  which  is  attached  the  lifting  hook. 

The  planetary  is  somewhat  more  complicated  and  depends 
upon  a  combination  of  gears  within  the  upper  block,  these  gears 
being  worked  by  the  hand  chain.  Very  heavy  weights  can  be 
lifted  by  such  hoists.  The  heaviest  special  chain  hoists  are 
designed  to  lift  as  high  as  forty  tons. 

For  a  twenty  ton  lift  140  lbs.  of  pull  are  required  on  the  hand 
chain  and  for  each  foot  of  lift  the  hand  chain  must  be  hauled 
210  feet.  Other  lifts  are  in  proportion,  the  twenty  ton  hoist 
being  about  the  limit  on  board  ship. 


The  screw  chain  hoist  is  of  somewhat  different  construction, 
an  endless  screw  working  on  a  worm  is  its  essential  feature. 


A  useful  application  of  chain  hoists— unshipping  a  damaged  rudder. 

Screw  hoists 

Before  operating  a  chain  hoist  be  sure  it  is  in  good  condition, 
that  the  blocks  are  most  favorably  placed  for  the  lift,  that  the 
full  lift  can  be  made,  and  be  careful  to  avoid  "  gagging  "  of 
the  chain. 

As  in  all  hoisting  operations  with  heavy  weights,  take  your 
time,  know  just  what  you  intend  to  do,  then  go  ahead  slowly. 


I 


148 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


4  Tons  or4  Miles  per  Hour 
4- 1 H 


The  Composition  and  Resolution  of  Forces 

In  staying  masts,  plumbing  booms,  and  in  guying  booms,  an 
understanding  of  the  composition  and  resolution  of  forces  is  of 

the  utmost  value.  Most 
men  know  these  things  in- 
stinctively. A  straight  pull 
is  the  best  pull,  etc.  But 
the  proper  position  of 
working  cargo  gear  de- 
pends upon  a  clear  under- 
standing of  the  parallelo- 
gram of  forces. 

The     composition     and 
resolution    of  forces  and 
Resultant  of  two  forces  or  velocities  acting    ^^i^cities  may  be  done  by 

at  right  angles  to  each  other  ,     ,   .^.         .       i  .         xt. 

calculation,  mvolvmg   the 

elements  of  right  and  oblique  plane  triangles.  The  traverse 
tables  may  be  used  for  this 
purpose.  But  the  writer  be- 
lieves that  it  is  simpler  and 
quicker,  and  less  open  to  er- 
ror, if  the  position  of  masts 
and  booms  and  lifts  and  guys 
be  drawn  to  scale  and  the 
forces  determined  by  graphic 
methods,  setting  ofif  the  force, 
or  weight,  to  a  given  scale  and  measuring  the  resultant  pulls  and 
thrusts.      There  is  less  fiddling  with  figures,  which  sailors 

don't  as  a  rtile  care  for,  and  the  layout  can  be 
seen. 

To  find  the  stress  on  the  stays  or  shrouds, 
we  lay  off  the  tension  on  the  topping  lift  and 
resolve  this  along  the  line  of  the  mast  and 
shroud.  Thus  X  is  the  tension  on  the  topping 
lift,  set  off  to  any  convenient  scale,  then  Y  is  the 
tension  on  the  shroud,  while  Z  is  the  thrust 
transferred  to  the  mast.  The  dotted  lines  being  drawn  parallel 
to  the  lead  of  the  lift  and  the  angle  of  the  shroud. 


C  =  Resultants  of  A  and  B,  showing 
how  to  plot  a  parallelogram  of  forces 


BLOCKS  ANE  TACKLES 


149 


The  relation  between  booms, 
and  gear,  depends  upon  the  ma- 
terials at  hand  for  making  lifts, 
and  where  there  is  a  choice  in 
improvising  booms  and  masts, 
or  shears,  the  relative  strength  ^^__ 
of  the  spars  available  and  the  w 
rope  on  hand  will  determine 
how  best  to  utilize  your  re- 
sources. ^ 

The   stresses  in    masts   and  diagram  of  stresses  on  a  king  post 

booms   are    buckling  stresses. 

The  longer  the  spar  the  more  Uable  it  is  to  buckle  under  a 

load.    Where  a  long  sUght  boom  must  be  used  it  is  weU  to  guard 


\    Hafch       I- 


ft    t 


; 


^ 


,  1 


Mast  and  boom  same  length.     Thrust  or  boom  always  the  same  for  a 
given  load.    Note  increase  of  pull  on  topping  lift  as  boom  is  lowered. 


Showing  effect  of  the  same  weight  on  a  span  at  different  angles  with  the 
masts.    The  pull  is  double  on  the  flat  span. 


150 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


!i; 


against  this  by  fishing  it  at  the  .middle  with  one  or  two  shorter 
spars. 

This  method  of  strengthening  is  also  employed  when  a  boom 
or  yard  is  sprung.  The  fishes  should  be  of  the  best  material 
available  and  the  lashings  should  be  hove  down  with  a  strong 
heaver  and  the  best  wire  rope  employed.  Wedges  are  driven  in 
and  these  are  set  up  when  it  is  necessary  to  tighten  the  lashings, 
or  wolding  as  it  is  often  called. 


SECTION  THROUGH  A.B. 


The  above  illustration,  taken  from  Luce's  Seamanship,  shows 
the  fishing  of  the  main  yard  of  the  U.  S.  Frigate  Constitution, 
The  yard  was  lowered  and  the  break  hove  together  with  tackles. 
In  the  section  through  A,  B,  2  shows  the  six  fishes,  and  3  the 
chocking  pieces  in  between,  m,  is  the  chain  wolding.  The 
chocks  were  spaced  snugly  between  the  fishes,  nine  inches  apart. 
A  spare  gaff  was  used  on  the  after  side  of  the  yard  to  reinforce 
the  job.  Modem  seamen  may  learn  something  by  studjring 
this  job  done  by  Captain  Stanton  and  his  crew  at  sea  back  in 
1880.  (The  old  wooden  walls  had  a  habit  of  long  service.) 
When  the  ship  arrived  at  Hampton  roads  the  steam  launch  was 
hoisted  out  with  this  yard  and  no  sign  of  weakness  could  be 
detected. 


CHAPTER  5 

STEAMER  RIGGING— CARGO   GEAR 


Masts,  Booms,  Rigging— Heavy  Hoists 

In  the  steamer  and  motor  vessel  masts  have  lost  their  im- 
portance as  the  main  stem  of  motive  power— the  support  of  sails, 
but  on  the  other  hand  masts  are  more  important  than  ever  as 
supports  for  the  booms  necessary  in  the  handling  of  cargo. 

With  this  change  in  function  masts  have  undergone  a  con- 
siderable change  in  position  and  size.  Masts  are  lower,  are 
often  mere  posts  standing  without  stays,  then  called  King  Posts, 
and  are  now  often  stepped  in  pairs  abreast  of  each  other,  this 
practice  having  first  found  favor  abroad,  particularly  m  Scandi- 
navian vessels. 

The  functions  of  the  modern  mast  in  a  steam  or  motor  vessel 

may  be  summed  up  as  follows : 

Support  of  cargo  booms  and  gear. 

Support  of  radio  antenna. 

Support  of  signal  stays,  yards,  and  trucks. 

Support  of  masthead  and  other  lights. 

Support  of  crow's  nest  lookout. 
Masts,  to  a  very  limited  extent,  also  serve  as  a  support  for 
storm  staysails  and  storm  trysails,  this  function  becommg  less 
important  as  the  size  of  the  vessel  increases.  Still,  the  judicious 
use  of  these  sails  on  many  vessels,  serves  to  steady  them,  and 
in  a  strong  wind  sails  are  often  of  great  use  when  engines  are 

disabled. 

Masts  generally  are  stepped  on  the  keelson,  and  pass  up 
through  the  mast  holes  of  the  various  decks  between  the  partners, 
fore  and  aft  members  spanning  the  beams  and  closing  in  the 
mast  at  the  deck  openmgs.  The  masts  are  secured  at  the 
partners  and  mast  holes  by  the  mast  wedges,  and  on  the  weather 
deck,  the  mast  hole  is  made  watertight  by  the  mast  coat,  a 

151 


152 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


,'Bo/sfer 


Spreader, 


circular  canvas  apron  seized  to  the  mast  and  fitted  down  close 
over  the  wedges.  Its  lower  and  often  its  upper  parts  are  held  in 
place  by  metal  hoops  set  up  with  screws.  The  mast  coats  are 
of  No.  1  canvas  and  are  painted. 

The  part  of  the  mast  below  decks  is  generally  known  as  the 
housing. 

In  large  steam  and  motor  vessels  masts  seldom  go  all  the 
way  down  to  the  keelson. 
In  many  modern  vessels  masts  are  stepped  on  the  main  deck, 

and  are  held  upright  by  a 
structure  that  runs  up  the 
mast  and  is  called  a  taber- 
nacle. 

Steamer  masts  are  stayed 
against  cargo  loads,  these  be- 
ing the  greatest  loads  ever 
coming  upon  the  masts. 

The  stays  on  a  mast  are 
the  fore  and  aft  stay  leading 
from  the  masthead  down  for- 
ward and  taking  its  name 
from  the  mast,  as  fore  stay, 
main  stay,  mizzen  stay,  etc. 
The  shrouds  and  the  back- 
staysy  port  and  starboard, 
and  named  after  the  masts  as 
above. 

But  in  the  ultra  modem 
vessel,  the  topmast  has  de- 
generated into  a  mere  stump, 
the  shrouds  lead  forward  and  aft  of  the  masts  on  either  side  as 
far  as  is  possible  without  interference  with  the  working  of  cargo, 
and  the  fore  and  aft  stays  are  not  counted  upon  for  support 
in  heavy  lifts.    Back-stays  are  seldom  used. 

Above  decks  masts  have  taken  on  many  new  departures. 
Lower  masts  are  always  built  up  of  steel  plating,  generally 
circular.  About  eight  or  ten  feet  from  the  deck,  mast  tables 
are  fitted.  On  many  vessels  these  mast  tables  have  grown  of 
great  size.    On  some  vessels  a  combination  of  mast  table  and 


Lower  masthead  and  mast  table 


STEAMER  RIGGING— CARGO   GEAR 


153 


tabernacle  is  used.  On  other  vessels  the  mast  table  has  become 
a  small  raised  deck  about  the  mast,  supported  by  stout  columns 
and  braces.  These  are  the  winch  platforms j  lifting  the  cargo 
winches  clear  above  the  deck.  Mast  tables  are  then  fitted  above 
these  winch  platforms. 


Pole  foremast  with  winch  platform 

The  mast  table  serves  as  a  support  for  the  cargo  booms,  the 
goosenecks  upon  which  the  heel  of  the  boom  pivots  stepping  in 
sockets  let  into  the  tables.  The  booms  are  so  arranged  that  the 
outboard  booms,  step  directly  in  back  of  the  outboard  winches. 
Directly  under  these  booms  are  the  eyebolts  for  the  lead  blocks 
carrying  the  cargo  fall  down  the  boom  and  to  the  drum  of  the 
winch. 

At  the  mast  heads  we  often  find  a  smaller  cross  free  or  spread- 
ers of  steel,  carrying  the  supporting  eye  bolts  for  the  upper  blocks 
of  the  boom  topping  lifts.  On  some  masts  these  are  supported 
by  a  band  about  the  lower  mast  head. 

The  topmast  is  generally  of  wood.  A  topmast  carried  forward 
of  the  lower  mast,  resting  on  cheek  plates  or  trestle  trees  by 
means  of  a  fid  and  supported  by  the  lower  mast  capj  is  called  a 
fidded  topmast.  Where  the  lower  and  topmast  pass  each  other 
is  called  the  doubling  of  the  mast.  This  is  also  the  approved 
method  of  fitting  one  mast  above  another  in  sailing  craft. 


W 


154 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


STEAMER  RIGGING— CARGO   GEAR 


155 


o 

(3) 


^ 


Fidded  masts  are  easily  sent  down  on  deck,  where  vessels  are 
required  to  pass  under  bridges,  such  as  the  suspension  spans 
across  the  East  River,  New  York. 


Top  Mas  f — > 


.'Cap 


^,^''.'  Fid 

/,'TresHe  Trees 


■^  I  ""-  Hounds 

"  Lower  Masf 


HeelSfrapJ 

Fidded  topmast  doubling 


Most  topmasts  nowadays,  where  topmasts  are  fitted,  rise 
from  the  center  of  the  lower  mast.    When  the  topmast  lowered 


Tower  mast.    Four  posts  with  steel  braces.    No  stays  or  shrouds 

into  the  lower  mast  it  is  called  a  telescopic  topmast.  The  top- 
masts are  generally  of  pine.  The  whole  mast,  where  lower  and 
topmast  are  one,  is  called  a  pole  mast. 


4 


156 


'!'F 


i 


The  writer 


o 
o 

C  = 
»o  = 


as  the  masts. 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 

when  inspecting  a  "  standardized  ship "  was 
astonished  at  square  masts — an  upright  box 
column.  And  why  not?  Still,  where  time  in 
building  is  not  so  essential,  the  circular  cross 
section  is  best  for  the  varying  loads  and  vibra- 
tions to  be  met  with  in  cargo  work. 

Formerly  when  sailormen  went  aloft  they  al- 
ways clambered  up  the  shrouds  by  means  of 
the  ratlines;  now  these  things  have  been 
largely  done  away  with  on  steamers  and  men 
go  aloft  by  means  of  a  ladder  on  the  mast,  a 
ladder  consisting  of  bar  iron  steps.  In  some 
large  liners  the  crow's  nest  lookout  enters  the 
mast  below  decks,  and  climbs  up  inside  of 
the  mast  to  his  "  nest."  Further  progress  up- 
ward however  is  on  the  outside.  Where  speeds 
of  twenty  knots  and  over  are  being  made,  in 
stiff  weather  in  the  North  Atlantic,  in  winter, 
such  an  arrangement  is  essential.  The  writer 
remembers  a  time  on  the  old  American  Liner 
St,  Louis  when  the  weather  was  so  bad  the 
crow's  nest  lookout  could  not  be  relieved  dur- 
ing the  night.  When  the  man  was  brought 
down  at  daybreak  he  was  half  frozen  and  wan- 
dering in  his  mind;  an  inside  ladder  would 
have  been  a  great  thing  at  that  time. 

Booms 

Next  to  the  masts,  the  booms  are  the  spars 
of  most  importance  on  a  steamer.  Booms  (the 
English  call  them  derricks  while  we  use  the 
term  "  derrick "  for  the  combination  of  a 
mast  and  boom  fitted  on  a  pivot),  are  generally 
of  wood,  except  for  one  or  two  booms  carried 
for  special  lifts.  These  heavy  booms  are  made 
of  steel  and  are  sometimes  of  lattice  construc- 
tion though  the  most  common  practice  is  to 
form  them  of  circular  plates  in  the  same  fashion 
Booms  are  usually  shaped  with  a  slight  increase 


STEAMER  RIGGING— CARGO  GEAR 


157 


in   diameter  in  the  middle  where  the  bucMmg  stresses  are 

greatest. 

The  boom  fittings  consist  of  the  gooseneck  at  the  heel  and  the 
lift,  guy  and  cargo  bands  at  the  end.  These  bands  are  fitted 
with  links  for  the  topping  lift  block,  the  starboard  and  port  guy 
pendants,  and  the  cargo  block  through  which  is  rove  the  cargo 
fallf  generally  of  hemp  clad  wire  rope. 


A  study  in  cargo  boom  efficiency 
M  =  Masts 
K  =  King  posts 

Large  booms  are  fitted  with  two  or  more  lift  bands  when  extra 

lift  blocks  are  used. 

Large  steamers  have  three  booms,  at  a  hatch  the  starboard  and 
port  booms,  for  plumbing  over  the  side,  and  the  center  boom  for 
hoisting  in  and  out  of  the  hold.  Where  the  hatches  are  wide 
enough  four  booms  are  sometimes  fitted,  two  of  them  being 
center  booms  and  cargo  can  then  be  worked  over  both  sides 
from  the  same  hatch  at  the  same  time. 

The  booms  and  their  fittings,  and  the  position  of  the  cargo 
winches  must  all  be  carefully  considered.  Officers  working 
cargo  should  make  a  careful  study  of  these  details  as  many 
hatch  and  winch  men  will  work  to  a  disadvantage  through  lack 
of  proper  staying  of  the  booms. 

The  lead  block  at  the  heel  of  the  boom  should  be  triced  up, 
beckets  being  fitted  in  the  bottom  of  the  block  and  small  pendants 


fp^v 


^ 


158 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


led  to  the  boom.    It  is  usual  to  fit  a  small  eyebolt  in  the  under 

side  of  the  boom  some  four  or  five  feet  up 

from  the  gooseneck.    Tricing  up  this  block 

prevents  it  dropping  when  the  fall  is  slacked 

^■^    off.    Some  blocks  are  fitted  with  a  tricing 

S'g   bale  through  which  the  fall  runs  without 

j>^    touching. 

S  :§       Hea  vy  lifts.    When  heavy  lifts  are  to  be 

::iOQ    made  with  the  vessel's  own  gear,  careful 

preparation  should  be  made.    The  large 

steel  boom  fitted  at  the  number  two  hatch 

of  an  eight  to  ten  thousand  (D.W.)  steamer 

will  usually  pick  up  twenty  to  fifty  tons. 

Such  booms  are  built  up  of  curved  steel 

plates  in  the  same  manner  as  the  masts,  or 

may  be  of  box  or  lattice  construction. 

As  the  boom  will  have  to  be  swimg  from 

g    amidships  to  the  side,  with  the  weight  sus- 

J    pended  above  the  level  of  the  hatch  coam- 

.2J    "^g>  great  care  should  be  taken  in  stepping 

5    the  heel  of  the  boom,  preferably  on  deck 

*^    in  a  special  step  casting  securely  bolted 

to  the  deck,  and  under  deck  beams  shored 

up  if  the  weight  is  extreme.    This  step 

should  be  as  close  to  the  mast  as  possible 

and  directly  under  the  suspension  of  the 

boom  at  the  masthead  to  take  the  stress 

off  the  guy  tackles. 

The  topping  lift,  in  heavy  lifting,  is  usu- 
ally rove  off  in  wire,  with  threefold  steel 
blocks  at  masthead  and  boom.  See  that 
the  hauling  part,  leading  to  the  deck,  will 
not  interfere  with  the  necessary  movement 
of  the  boom. 

The  fall  is  usually  a  threefold  wire  pur- 
chase leading  to  a  midship  winch  in  double 
\      gear.    Great  care  should  be  taken  in  the 
placing  of  the  lead  block  close  to  the  step^ 
or  from  the  movable  block  of  the  fall  (next  to  the  weight  to  be 


1 1] 


I 


STEAMER  RIGGING— CARGO  GEAR 


159 


Good  Lead 
Sfayinq  Force  X 


lifted)  up  through  a  strong  lead  block  on  the  boom  to  the  mast- 
head just  below  the  topping  lift  block  and  thence  down  the  mast 

to  the  winch. 

The  lead  of  the  hauling  part  of  the  fall  is  most  important  lest 
excessive  stress  be  set  up  when  the  boom  is  swung  over  the  side. 
The  end  of  the  fall  should  be 
securely  stopped  on  the  winch 
drum. 

The  guy  tackles  should  be 
extra  stout  and  led  so  that 
the  pull  on  the  boom  end  will 
not  be  too  much  up  and  down. 
See  that  the  angle  with  the 
boom  is  as  near  a  right  an- 
gle as  possible  at  all  stages  of 
the  lift  and  swing  of  the  boom. 

With  extra  heavy  weights,  preventer  guys  should  be  rove, 
making  four  guys,  two  on  a  side.  Lead  the  main  guys  on  each 
side  to  winches,  the  others  to  bitts  on  deck. 


=^Masf 


Fb  or  Lead 
Sfayirtg  Force  Y 


The  lead  of  boom  guys 


A  heavy  steel  boom— five-fold  purchase  blocks 


m 


160 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


STEAMER  RIGGING— CARGO  GEAR 


161 


CO 


I 

s 


Preventer  stays.  Have  preventer  stays  hooked  to  the  extra 
bands  at  the  mast  head  and  led  out  to  take  the  pull  of  the  load 
from  amidship  to  over  side.  Set  up  with  strong  turnbuckles  and 
watch  the  standing  rigging  when  setting  these  up.  If  the  mast 
is  well  stayed  do  not  take  the  pull  off  the  shrouds  by  setting  up 
too  hard  on  the  preventers. 

If  the  ship  is  light,  be  certain  that  the  cargo  fall  is  long  enough 
to  drop  the  load  in  the  lighter  with  plenty  to  spare  on  the  winch 
drum.    Be  careful  in  winding  the  wire  on  the 
winch  that  it  runs  on  evenly  so  as  not  to  jamb, 
first  round  close  together  riding  turns  between 
ropes.    This  is  most  important  with  a  heavy  lift. 

Test  all  shackles,  bolts,  links,  and  blocks.  Ex- 
amine all  gear  carefully.  If  the  weight  is  to  be 
picked  up  in  a  roadstead  with  some  motion  to  the 
ship,  still  greater  care  should  be  taken. 

In  any  event  have  a  licensed  engineer  at  the 
winch  to  see  all  well,  steam  pressure  sufficient, 
etc. 

The  lashing  on  the  weights  should  be  of  new 
wire  rope  passed  through  a  large  lashing  eye  on 
the  lower  block  and  turns  about  sharp  corners 
protected  by  hard  wood  wedges  and  burlap,  all 
turns  hove  taut  with  a  handy  billy.  It  is  well  to 
put  stout  wire  frapping  turns  about  the  lashing 
near  the  block. 

Each  weight  is  different  and  requires  judgment 
in  the  passing  of  the  lashing.  A  locomotive  is 
simple,  a  boiler  fairly  so.  A  great  gun  requires 
special  care  in  balancing.  If  a  gun  has  to  be  up 
ended  to  come  out  the  utmost  care  is  needed  in 
passing  the  lashings  to  prevent  it  turning  over 
and  slipping  free. 

Avoid  the  use  of  chains  as  much  as  possible. 

Avoid  the  use  of  hooks  in  lifting  extra  heavy  weights. 

See  all  blocks  working  free,  bushing  smeared  with  oil  and 
graphite. 

Have  sluing  tackles  hooked  or  lashed  to  the  weight  at  suitable 
points  and  led  up  through  the  hatch  to  eye  bolts  on  deck,  or  in 


A  steel  wire 
sling  protected 
by  flexible  or' 
mor 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


STEAMER  RIGGING— CARGO  GEAR 


163 


the  'tween  deck  if  need  be  for  swinging  the  weight  clear  of  the 
hatch  coamings.    A  heavy  lift  may  cause  the  fall  to  twist. 

Have  three  or  four  heavy  manila  tackles  handy  with  wire 
straps,  or  chain  slings.    K  needed  they  must  be  got  at  quickly. 

Have  reliable  men  at  the  guys,  Second  Mate  and  Third  Mate. 
Have  boatswain  in  the  hold.  Engineer  at  winch.  Tend  hatch 
yourself  (Chief  Mate). 


Conventional  signals  for  working  heavy  derricks  or  booms 

Leave  nothing  to  chance ;  be  sure  the  weight  will  clear  hatch- 
coaming  bulwarks,  if  up.  Be  sure  the  boom  will  swing  out 
clear.  Be  sure  lighter  is  ready  with  bed,  or  that  dock  will  bear 
the  weight  with  proper  skids  in  place.  K  necessary  have  out- 
haul  tackles,  four  fold  new  manila,  on  dock  or  lighter,  for  hauling 
weight  out  from  ship's  side.  If  weight  is  going  on  a  lighter  it 
may  be  very  important  to  place  it  just  in  the  center. 

Take  your  time.  It  takes  a  long  while  to  clear  away  a  wreck, 
far  longer  than  to  prevent  it. 

All  being  ready — 

"  Heave  easy — stand  by  guys — round  in  sluing  tackles.^* 

If  the  boom  has  been  placed  properly  it  will  not  be  necessary 


164 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


STEAMER  RIGGING— CARGO  GEAR 


165 


to  lower  it;  it  is  advisable  not  to  do  so.    Lowering  a  boom  may 
cause  step  to  move. 


I 


A  pair  of  shore  shears 

Where  several  heavy  weights  are  to  be  lifted,  have  a  suf- 
ficiently heavy  overhauling  weight  handy  to  hook  on  the  extended 


fall  so  that  it  can  be  rounded  in  and  lowered  into  hold  without 
jambing.  For  heavy  lifting  gear  this  will  have  to  be  a  consider- 
able weight.    Otherwise  rig  an  overhauling  whip. 

Most  vessels  are  now  fitted  with  well-designed  masts  and 
booms,  but  often  it  will  be  necessary  to  lift  weights  in  parts  of 
the  vessel  other  than  the  cargo  hatches.  Boilers  have  to  be 
lifted,  in  the  event  of  stranding  and  the  buckling  of  plates,  etc. 
Donkey  boilers  may  have  to  be  lifted  in  and  out,  etc.  In  such 
cases  the  use  of  shears  may  be  called  for. 

Shears  consist  of  two  spars  lashed  near  their  heads  and  lifted 
by  tackles.  Shears  are  sustained  in  position  by  guys,  their  legs 
are  spread  and  the  heels  placed  in  saucers^  and  secured  by  heel 
lashings  to  suitable  deck  fittings.  Sometimes  special  shears  are 
used,  working  from  the  shore.  The  illustration  gives  a  general 
idea  of  the  use  and  parts  of  a  pair  of  shore  shears. 

Where  other  means  are  not  available,  the  shear  legs  are 
parbuckled  on  board. 

One  of  the  favorite  old  time  questions  of  seamanship  was, 
"  You  are  lying  in  the  stream,  with  spars  along  side,  get  your 
shear  legs  on  board,  rig  shears,  and  take  in  your  masts  and 
step  them." 

Parbuckles  are  ropes  with  ends  secured  at  the  rail,  or  upper 
part  of  lift,  led  down  under  a  spar,  or  barrel,  or  object  that  can 
roll,  and  let  up  outside  of  it.  The  parbuckle  then  rolls  up  the 
spar,  revolving  as  it  comes  in  over  the  side. 

(See  next  chapter  for  further  details  on  shears  aboard  ship.) 

Most  heavy  weights,  however  are  lifted  when  alongside  of 
wharves,  or  when  the  vessel  is  in  dock,  and  nowadays  heavy 
cranes  are  generally  available  for  these  lifts.  Floating  cranes 
are  also  provided  to  serve  vessels  lying  at  places  not  fitted  with 
shore  cranes.  In  the  building  and  repair  yards,  heavy  gantry 
cranes,  hammerhead  cranes,  and  cantilever  cranes  are  always 

available. 

Many  short  lifts,  as  in  the  engine  room,  holds,  etc.,  are  made 
by  means  of  the  chain  hoists,  blocking  up  under  the  weights  as 
they  come  up  from  their  beds. 

Hydraulic  and  screw  jacks  are  also  used  to  lift  weights  for 
passing  the  lashings,  and  for  wedging  and  securing  them  against 
rolling  in  the  holds. 


■B 


166 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


STEAMER  RIGGING— CARGO   GEAR 


167 


.  4 


n 

Cargo  Gear 

The  development  of  modern  cargo  gear  is  shown  m  the 
accompanjring  sketches.  It  is  well  to  learn  the  different  kinds 
of  gear  in  use  and  their  special  applications. 


Heart 


Flush  head         Reverse 
screw  key 

Shackles 


Oval  pin 


Eye 
screw 


Blocks,  Special  cargo  blocks  with  wide  swallow  and  sheave 
and  with  curved  lips  and  lignum  vitae  shell  pieces  are  now 
generally  fitted  at  the  boom  end  and  as  lead  blocks  under  the 
goose  neck. 

Guys  generally  consist  of  wire  pendants  and  twofold  manila 
purchases. 

Topping  lifts.  Usually  of  four  or  five  inch  manila,  rove  two- 
fold, or  rove  through  two  blocks  on  the  boom  as  follows : 

Single  block  on  outrigger  at  mast  head,  standing  part  hooked 
into  becket  of  this  block  leading  down  to  end  block  on  boom,  up 
through  block  on  outrigger,  down  through  second  block  on  boom, 
up  through  single  block  tmder  outrigger  at  mast  band,  and  down 
to  heavy  cleat  at  table  of  mast.  Stoppers  are  fitted  at  table  and 
the  topping  lift  fall  is  taken  to  the  winch  head,  through  a  snatch 
block,  boom  hoisted,  fall  stoppered,  and  then  belayed  at  the 
cleat.  The  spare  end  of  the  fall  is  then  made  up  snugly  and 
hung  on  the  cleat  with  a  half  hitch.  If  the  table  is  large  enough 
it  is  sometimes  coiled  down  on  the  table. 

Boom  rests.  Booms  when  down  rest  in  chocks  on  gallows 
frames,  or  on  brackets.  Long  booms  sometimes  reach  to  chocks 
at  the  edge  of  deck  houses.  Chocks  should  be  fitted  with  clamps, 
or  lashings  and  eyes. 


The  lifts,  guys  and  falls  for  each  boom  and  for  each  hatch 
should  be  marked  on  the  upper  block,  or  on  the  winch  end  of  the 
falls,  4nd  this  end  should  be  on  top,  ready  for  running  on  the 

winch. 

Where  tabernacles  are  fitted  the  gear  for  each  mast  should 
stow  in  the  tabernacle.    Otherwise  have  a  separate  place  in  the 


A  mast  tabernacle,  showing  lead  of  cargo  falls  to  base  of  mast. 
Tandem  friction  drum  winches 

boson's  locker  for  the  gear.  Some  mates  use  heavy  canvas 
bags  for  the  gear,  these  being  painted  with  the  hatch  and  boom 
number. 

As  gear  comes  up  and  down  frequently  it  is  well  to  reduce  this 
to  a  routine.  Have  a  particular  man  in  charge  of  the  gear  at 
each  hatch,  usually  a  quartermaster,  or  a  seaman.  In  "  home 
ships  "  where  men  "  stay  by  "  this  works  out  very  well. 

Where  runs  are  short  it  is  often  well  to  let  the  gear  stand. 
If  topping  lifts  are  rove  through  a  double  block  on  the  boom, 
unshackle,  bring  in  to  the  mast  table,  set  moderately  taut  and 
cover  with  a  canvas  coat  if  in  the  wake  of  the  funnel.  Hang 
the  ends  of  the  fall  so  it  will  not  chafe. 

Guys  will  usually  slap  on  the  boom  and  it  is  well  to  unhook 
them,  even  for  short  runs.    Always  unreeve  the  hemp-clad 


INTENTIONAL  SECOND  EXPOSURE 


t 


■i 


I 


It 


II 


166  STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 

n 

Cargo  Gear 

The  development  of  modern  cargo  gear  is  shown  in  the 
accompanying  sketches.  It  is  well  to  learn  the  different  kinds 
of  gear  in  use  and  their  special  applications. 


0 


STEAMER  RIGGING— CARGO   GEAR 


167 


Heart 


Flush  head 
screw 


Reverse 
key 

Shackles 


Oval  pin 


Eye 
screw 


Blocks,  Special  cargo  blocks  with  wide  swallow  and  sheave 
and  with  curved  lips  and  lignum  vitae  shell  pieces  are  now 
generally  fitted  at  the  boom  end  and  as  lead  blocks  under  the 
goose  neck. 

Guys  generally  consist  of  wire  pendants  and  twofold  manila 
purchases. 

Topping  lifts.  Usually  of  four  or  five  inch  manila,  rove  two- 
fold, or  rove  through  two  blocks  on  the  boom  as  follows: 

Single  block  on  outrigger  at  mast  head,  standing  part  hooked 
into  becket  of  this  block  leading  down  to  end  block  on  boom,  up 
through  block  on  outrigger,  down  through  second  block  on  boom, 
up  through  single  block  under  outrigger  at  mast  band,  and  down 
to  heavy  cleat  at  table  of  mast.  Stoppers  are  fitted  at  table  and 
the  topping  lift  fall  is  taken  to  the  winch  head,  through  a  snatch 
block,  boom  hoisted,  fall  stoppered,  and  then  belayed  at  the 
cleat.  The  spare  end  of  the  fall  is  then  made  up  snugly  and 
hung  on  the  cleat  with  a  half  hitch.  If  the  table  is  large  enough 
it  is  sometimes  coiled  down  on  the  table. 

Boom  rests.  Booms  when  down  rest  in  chocks  on  gallows 
frames,  or  on  brackets.  Long  booms  sometimes  reach  to  chocks 
at  the  edge  of  deck  houses.  Chocks  should  be  fitted  with  clamps, 
or  lashings  and  eyes. 


The  lifts,  guys  and  falls  for  each  boom  and  for  each  hatch 
should  be  marked  on  the  upper  block,  or  on  the  winch  end  of  the 
falls,  and  this  end  should  be  on  top,  ready  for  running  on  the 
winch. 

Where  tabernacles  are  fitted  the  gear  for  each  mast  should 
stow  in  the  tabernacle.    Otherwise  have  a  separate  place  in  the 


A  mast  tabernacle,  showing  lead  of  cargo  falls  to  base  of  mast. 
Tandem  friction  drum  winches 

boson's  locker  for  the  gear.  Some  mates  use  heavy  canvas 
bags  for  the  gear,  these  being  painted  with  the  hatch  and  boom 
number. 

As  gear  comes  up  and  down  frequently  it  is  well  to  reduce  this 
to  a  routine.  Have  a  particular  man  in  charge  of  the  gear  at 
each  hatch,  usually  a  quartermaster,  or  a  seaman.  In  "  home 
ships  "  where  men  "  stay  by  "  this  works  out  very  well. 

Where  runs  are  short  it  is  often  well  to  let  the  gear  stand. 
If  topping  lifts  are  rove  through  a  double  block  on  the  boom, 
unshackle,  bring  in  to  the  mast  table,  set  moderately  taut  and 
cover  with  a  canvas  coat  if  in  the  wake  of  the  funnel.  Hang 
the  ends  of  the  fall  so  it  will  not  chafe. 

Guys  will  usually  slap  on  the  boom  and  it  is  well  to  unhook 
them,  even  for  short  runs.    Always  unreeve  the  hemp-clad 


168 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


wire  cargo  fall,  coil  it  neatly,  winch  end  up,  hook  down  and  stow 
below  where  it  will  not  get  wet. 


4iit''Circ. 
Manila 
14"  Tr.W.  Block 


4'/4'Circ.Manila 


MTriple  Wooden 
Block 


"Doob/e  St.  Block 
^2WSp  Flex  Wire 


14'D/a  Single 
Steel  Block 


Shroud^ 
cr  c.  ST.  win 


I'/e"  Chain 


7J$.  Cargo  Hook 
l^'Cr.  est  Wire 
10' Triple  Wooden  Block 
•M'Manila 

I OJ Double  W.  Block 
B'xS' Decking 


Rigging  for  a  moderately  heavy  lift 

Winches  should  be  overhauled  by  the  deck  engineer  between 
ports.  Overhauling  winches  in  port  while  cargo  is  to  be  moved 
is  an  expensive  business. 

King  posts.  The  gear  on  king  posts  is  smaller  than  on  the 
masts.  King  posts  usually  serve  smaller  hatches,  such  as  the 
hatch  over  the  reserve  bunker  just  forward  of  the  bridge,  or 


STEAMER  RIGGING— CARGO   GEAR 


169 


the  trunk  hatches  on  the  bridge  deck.  One  boom  is  usually 
fitted,  both  king  posts  working  together.  The  post  on  the  work- 
ing side  supports  the  "  yard  "  boom  and  the  post  on  the  oppo- 
site side  the  "  mast "  boom.    The  words  "  yard  "  and  "  mast " 


Spctnner 
Stay; 


Span  6uyj 


King  posts  or  pair  masts.  Smaller  rigs  are  usually  referred  to  as  king 
posts,  larger  rigs  as  pair  nutsts,  when  stepped  in  thwartship  line  with  the 
usual  mast  positions, 

as  explained  under  "  tackles  "  come  from  sailing  ships,  where 
the  lower  yard  is  cocked  up  and  used  to  sling  cargo  out  clear  of 
the  side,  while  the  midship  hoist  is  from  a  pendant  from  the 
topmast  head. 

Where  "  pair  masts  "  are  stepped,  the  booms  work  in  the 
same  way  but  the  gear  is  of  full  single  mast  size. 

Stays,  Before  going  on  to  the  consideration  of  the  lesser 
parts  of  cargo  gear  it  is  well  to  again  say  a  word  about  stays. 
Cargo  loads  are  not  dead  loads.  That  is  the  lift  is  not  strictly  a 
steady  pull  but  is  what  engineers  call  a  live  loady  that  is  the  load 
is  a  moving  load.  In  consequence  we  have  to  consider  force 
acting  on  the  cargo  gear,  and  as  force  is  the  product  of  mass 
times  acceleration,  the  faster  a  load  moves  the  greater  the  force. 


170 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


STEAMER  RIGGING— CARGO  GEAR 


171 


A  moderate  load  of  a  few  tons,  may,  if  moved  quickly,  exert  a 
force  of  four  or  five  times  its  weight 

This  is  a  facinating  subject  and  merits  careful  study.  (See 
previous  chapter.) 

In  considering  such  loads  and  stresses,  we  have  to  consider 
the  stajdng  of  masts.  Many  stays  are  set  up  for  the  main 
purpose  of  steadjring  pole  masts  against  vibration.  But  the 
main  shrouds  are  of  course  designed  for  the  staying  of  cargo 
loads. 

Where  stays  have  to  be  "  let  up  "  to  work  booms,  be  sure 
that  preventers  are  used  if  needed,  especially  in  a  seaway 
loading  from  and  to  lighters. 

m 

Slings,  Nets,  Hooks 

A  great  deal  of  confusion  exists  in  regard  to  the  best  form  of 

slings,  cargo  nets,  hooks,  etc.,  for  use  on  board  ship.     No 

matter  what  the  hoisting  gear  may  be,  whether  aboard  ship,  or 

ashore,  something  must  be  used  to  get  hold  of  and  lift  the  cargo. 

For  general  cargo  manila  rope   slings 

are  most  often  used,  and  great  care 

should  be  taken  of  them.    Too  many 

mates   leave    this  important  item  go 

without  much  consideration  and  a  large 

number  of  slings  find  their  way  into  the 

junk  boats  at  every  port. 
A  draft  of  case  goods  •»«■      m        i*  ^  j*  f^^        r 

Note  correct  tiering  of      ^^'^^   ^^"^^^    ^^^   ^^^"^^  ^^^   <>^ 
case  and  position  of  ma-  ^ase  goods  and  bales  are  the  most  com- 

nila  sling  monly  used. 

Manila  slings.  Usually  two  and  a 
half,  three  and  four  inch  rope.  Four  to  six  fathoms  to  a  sling. 
Short  splice. 

Many  special  sizes  are  made,  depending  upon  the  trade. 

Wire  slings.  Wire  slings  are  made  for  many  uses.  For  the 
handling  of  heavy  cases,  for  loading  and  unloading  ballast. 
There  is  no  set  size  or  length.    Slings  are  spliced  as  needed. 

Wire  ballast  unloaders  are  usually  made  with  an  eye  and 
thimble  at  each  end,  a  small  and  large  link  and  a  small  link  and 
hook  (to  pass  through  large  link)  are  fitted. 


Chain  slings.    Chain  slings  are  generally  open  with  large 
link  and  hook.    These  are  used  for  handling  rails,  pipe,  pigs  of 

ballast,  etc. 
Barrel  slings.    These  are  generally  of  chain  with  specif  cant 

hooks. 

Chain  slings  should  be  of  the  best  grade,  and  should  not  be 
used  too  long.    Re-annealing  is  advisable  after  a  year  of  use, 


Bale  sling 


Butt  sling 


if  the  vessel  is  part  of  an  outfit  that  does  such  things  in  a  scien- 
tific way.  Cargo  gear  is  so  expensive  and  so  vital  a  factor  that 
more  attention  should  be  given  to  seemingly  small  details. 
All  metal  gear  should  be  stamped  with  the  ship's  name  and 

date  of  issue. 

Cheap  chain  slings,  with  faulty  welds,  or  old  chains,  crystallized 
from  years  of  racking,  and  painted  over,  have  been  the  cause  of 
many  accidents,  such  gear  giving  way  at  some  critical  moment. 

Chain  cargo  nets  are  made  for  general  ship's  use. 
The  regular  sizes  and  dimensions  are:  chain — 1/4, 
5/16  and  3/8  inch;  mesh — 7  inches  square;  com- 
plete net,  8x8,  9x9  or  10  x  lOfeet  square. 

Net  slings.  Cargo  nets  are  of  great  use  and  are 
the  most  adaptable  form  of  lifting  device.  Almost  any- 
thing within  reason  can  be  taken  out  in  nets.  The 
nets  are  usually  twelve  feet  square,  with  outer  or 
bolt  rope  31/2"  and  the  crossings  of  2%"  rope,  ten 
inches  apart.  The  mesh  is  made  by  tucking,  and 
where  four-stranded  rope  is  used  this  works  very 
well.  In  three-stranded  rope  tuck  two  and  one,  getting  the  one 
strand  a  different  tuck  each  time.  The  ends  of  the  mesh  are 
tucked  into  the  bolt  rope,  two  full  tucks  one  way,  and  one  an- 


Hook  with 

overhauling 

weight 


— ^-^r-»«^^_jBi  ^_p^ 


172 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


STEAMER  RIGGING— CARGO  GEAR 


173 


\r> 


i 


%■ 


Safety  hook 


Other  way,  whipping  the  strands  with  sail  twine  doubled  and 
waxed. 

The  lifting  bridles  are  spliced  into  the  bolt  rope  between  the 
comers,  passing  through  the  large  thimbles  at  the  comers.  The 
hooking  bridles  are  spliced  into  the  lifting  bridles. 

Nets  used  for  the  handling  of  flour,  grain,  coffee,  and  other 
cargo  packed  in  bags  have  been  made  as  follows:  Twelve  by 
twelve  bolt  rope,  mesh  21  thread  hemp  spaced  on  ten-inch 

centers.  This  net  was  covered  on 
both  sides  with  No.  4  coal-bag 
canvas,  stitched  to  the  bolt  rope  of 
the  net,  a  four-inch  tabling  turning 
under.  Give  the  canvas  enough 
slack  so  the  rope  mesh  will  take 
the  weight  of  the  draft  of  cargo. 
This  is  a  very  satisfactory  net  for 
leaking  grain  bags. 

Many  officers  have  their  own 
ideas  as  to  how  nets  should  be  made ;  those  described  here  have 
been  used  by  the  writer  and  have  proven  satisfactory. 

Cargo  nets  should  be  examined  between  ports.  Inspect  the 
bridles  and  renew  when  necessary.  These  will  wear  out  about 
twice  as  fast  as  the  nets. 

Use  for  old  nets.  Old  nets  that  have  done  a  good  turn  of 
lifting  should  be  repared  and  set  aside,  two  at  a  hatch,  seized 
together,  making  a  two  fathom  by  four  fathoms  net,  or  larger  if 
a  big  ship,  cut  off  the  bridles  and  splice  in  stout  guy  ropes  at 
the  comers  and  upper  side  (old  boat  falls  are  handy  for  this). 
We  then  have  nets  for  use  under  the  gangways  between  the 
wake  of  the  hatches  and  the  wharf  or  lighters.  Where  the  vessel 
is  light,  and  a  long  ladder  is  used  in  place  of  the  gangway,  it  is 
well  to  stretch  a  length  of  this  net  under  the  ladder.  The  writer 
remembers  a  certain  boatswain  (one  of  the  best  steamboat 
bo'sons)  who  came  aboard  one  night  "lit  up."  He  lost  his 
footing,  dropping  off  the  ladder  down  between  the  ship  and  the 
wharf,  striking  a  large  spar  fender.  That  bo'son  never  went  to 
sea  again.    He  lost  his  leg. 

Coal  bags.  Where  coal  is  handled  in  bags  special  roping  and 
No.  4  canvas  is  used.  Bags  run  to  about  five  hundred  pounds 
capacity. 


In  Coronel,  Chili,  coal  is  lifted  onboard  by  means  of  square 
canvas  slings,  fitted  with  eyes  and  lifting  bridles.  A  great 
deal  of  coal  is  lost  overboard  between  the  ship  and  the  lighters 
—the   more  the  merrier.    It  is  hard  bottom  there  and  after  a 


A  sling  of  coffee  coming  on  hoard  at  Corinto,  Nicaragua. 

Note  use  of  nets 

vessel  leaves  the  local  pirates  come  out  with  their  dredges  and 
pick  up  the  coal  spilled.  At  least  five  per  cent,  of  the  coal  is 
dropped  in  hoisting;  this  is  specially  so  in  lively  weather.  Ves- 
sels anchor  and  then  moor  their  sterns  to  a  buoy.  Old  Ameri- 
can-Hawaiian Line  officers  recall  the  place  with  no  regret. 


T 


174 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Nitra  te  slings.  Eight  by  eight 
feet  square  roped  around  with 
2"  manila,  cross  roped  on  un- 
der side  with  3Vi"  manila  fitted 
with  hooking  eyes,  cross  roping 
in  two  parts  corner  to  corner  and 
spaced  a  foot  apart. 

Canvas  slings.  Forty-two 
inch  canvas  No.  1,  roped  with 
3"  manila.  Short  and  long 
hooking  bridles.  A  very  good 
rig  for  hoisting  flour,  or  other 
bagged  stuff  requiring  careful 
handling. 
Hooks,  The  various  types  of  cargo  hooks  are  shown  in  the 
illustrations. 


Western 
cargo  hook 


Seattle  cargo 
hook 


Plain 

Reverse 

Double 

Swivel         Cargo 

Hatch 

hook 

eye  hook 

swivel 
hook 

cargo  hook  hook  with 
{Liverpool)     safety 
{hook)         tongue 

hook 

IV 

Tables 

In  selecting  the  gear  for  a  heavy  lift  it  is  well  to  have  in  mind 
the  important  fact  that  no  chain  is  stronger  than  the  weakest 
link.  Examine  everjrthing,  take  your  tinier  be  sure  before  you 
go  ahead.  The  Chief  Mate  going  to  a  port  where  a  heavy  lift 
will  have  to  be  made  with  the  vessePs  own  gear  will  usually  have 
plenty  of  time  to  get  together  his  layout. 

The  strength  of  fittings  can  be  figured  as  follows,  if  the  tables 
are  not  sufficiently  comprehensive. 


STEAMER  RIGGING— CARGO  GEAR 


175 


Let  d  equal  the  diameter  of  metal  (steel)  in  inches.  The 
figures  should  be  taken  in  whole  numbers  and  decimal  parts  of 
an  inch. 


Safe  working  load  of  hook  equals  rf^^    tons 

ringbolt  "      2d^        " 

eye  bolt  «      Sd^        " 

straight  shackle      "      3d^        " 
bow  shackle  "      2Virf2    " 

Chain  Table 


u 
a 
u 
u 


Size  of 
Chain 


1 

4 

1^ 
3 

8 

1 

S 

I 

3 
? 

I 

H 
1 

ii^ 

U 
If 
li 


Dist.  From 
Center  of 

One  Link  to 
Center  of 

Next 


25 
32 
27 
32 
li 
32 
1     5 

•*•  32 
Iff 

IM 

2A 

2^ 

2h 

2f 

2f 

3^ 

3i 

3| 

3i^ 

3H 

31 


Weight  per 
Foot  in  Lb. 
Approxi- 
mately 


2 

2h 

3fV 

4tV 


<¥- 


U^ 


8 
9" 

10| 

12 

13  f 

13tV 
16 

16^ 

23 
25 


Outside 
Width 


u 

i| 

iM 

2 

2A 

^8 

2A 

2f 

u 

3    3 

?^ 

3   9 
TS 

4 

4A 

4f 

4^ 

4f 

51 
5-5- 


2M 


Crane  Chain 


Proof  Test 
Lb. 


Average 

Breaking 

Strain  Lb. 


1,680 
2,520 
3,640 
5,040 
6,720 
8,400 
10,360 
12,600 
15,120 
17,640 
20,440 
23,520 
26,880 
30,240 
34,160 
38,080 
42,000 
45,920 
50,680 
54,880 
60,480 
65,520 


3,360 
5,040 
7,280 
10,080 
13,440 
16,800 
20,720 
25,200 
30,240 
35,280 
40,880 
47,040 
53,760 
60,480 
68,320 
76,160 
84,000 
91,840 
101,360 
109,760 
120,960 
131,140 


Ordinary 

Safe  Load 

General 

Use  Lb. 


1,120 
1,680 
2,427 
3,360 
4,480 
5,600 
6,907 
8,400 
10,080 
11,760 
13,627 
15,680 
17,920 
20,160 
22,773 
25,387 
28,000 
30,613 
33,787 
36,587 
40,320 
43,180 


— Bradlee  &  Co.,  Philadelphia 


'I 


> 


i 


176 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Strength  of  Open  Cargo  Hooks 
Drop  Forged  Steel 


Diameter  of  Eye 

Extreme  Dimensions 

Approximate 
Load  Required 

to  Straighten 

Out  Net  Tons 

2,ooo  Lbs. 

Estimated 

Inside,            Outside, 
Inches              Inches 

Length, 
Inches 

Width. 
Inches 

Weight  Each, 
Lbs. 

u 

2 

21 

21 

II 

4 

il 

2. 
2i 

11 

3 

3i 
31 

4 

4f 

5J 
6i 
7 

81 

41 
41 
5f 
61 
61 
7f 
8^ 
9^ 

loi 
lU 

121 

14^ 

16^ 

19 

22 

21 
3i 
3^ 
31 
4| 
4s 
5f 
6f 
6i 
7i 
8i 
9i 

101 

13 

14  f 

1.9 

2.3 

3 

5.7 

7 

8.5 
10 
13 
17 
19 
26 
32 
35 
48 
80 

1 

1 

1 

n 

2 

H 

4| 
6 

8i 
lOf 
15 
19i 
3U 
47 
65 

Size  and  Strength  of  Shackles 


Size  Diam. 
of  Link 

Length  Inside 

Width  Between 
Eyes 

Diameter  of 
Pin 

Gov't  Test. 

Maximum  Strength 

in  Pounds 

3^  in. 

1   in. 

1  in. 

i  in. 

3,080 

i     " 

1^  " 

i  " 

A  " 

5,510 

A  " 

U    " 

^ " 

f  " 

8,320 

3       « 

8 

If  " 

ii " 

^  " 

10,890 

1^     " 

13         (( 
*  4 

ii " 

1   (t 

3 

15,200 

^       " 

11        " 

3      u 

^     " 

18,390 

^     " 

2       " 

1     " 

f      " 

24,800 

f       " 

2f     " 

ll^    " 

3       i( 

4 

33,400 

1       U 

2f     " 

lA    " 
If      " 

1      " 

43,400 

I       " 

31     " 

1            " 

55,200 

1            " 

3|     " 

If      " 

U    " 

74,900 

If        " 

41     « 

11      " 

U    " 

90,200 

1            " 

5       " 

2       «* 

If  " 

92,040 

1            " 

5i     " 

2i     " 

n  " 

94,100 

U    " 

5i     " 

2f     " 

If  " 

103,800 

If   " 

6^     " 

2^     " 

If  " 

155,542 

If  " 

7       " 

2f     " 

2       " 

172,400 

2        " 

8       " 

3f     " 

21     " 

235,620 

Recommended  safe  working  load  y^  of  maTim^im  strength 


STEAMER  RIGGING— CARGO  GEAR 


177 


Table  of  Drop  Forged  Tumbuckles 


Amount  of 

Size  Turn- 

Recom- 

Take-UD 

buckle  and 

Approximate 

mended 

Length  in 
the  Clear 

Length  of 

Length  PuU 

Approxi- 

Outside 

Breaking 

Working 
Load  in 

Buckle  Out- 

to Pull  when 

mate 

Diameter 

Strength  in 

Between 

side  in 

Extended 

Weight  Each 

of  Thread 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Heads  in 

Inches 

in  Inches 

in  Pounds 

in  Inches 

Inches 

1 

4 

1,350 

270 

4 

4f 

12 

.40 

A 

2,250 

450 

4f 

5f 

13^ 

.60 

f 

3,350 

670 

41 

5f 

14 

.90 

1^ 

4,650 

930 

5 

61 

m 

1.31 

i 

6,250 

1,250 

6 

7h 

18f 

1.87 

^ 

8,100 

1,620 

7f 

9 

23  i 

3.00 

1 

10,000 

2,000 

8^ 

10| 

24f 

3.69 

f 

15,000 

3,000 

9f 

llf 

27| 
30| 

5.81 

1 

21,000 

4,200 

10 

12f 

8.81 

1 

27,500 

5,500 

11 

14 

33 

12.56 

u 

34,500 

6,900 

12 

151 

39 

17.00 

u 

44,500 

8,900 

13 

16f 

40 

25.00 

If 

52,500 

10,500 

14 

18 

50 

36.00 

u 

64,500 

12,900 

15 

191 

51 

40.00 

If 

75,500 

15,100 

16 

21 

SH 

48.00 

11 

8,7000 

17,400 

18 

23 

55^ 

52.00 

ll 

102,500 

20,500 

18 

23 

66 

89.00 

2 

115,000 

23,000 

24 

31 

74 

98.00 

2i 

132,500 

26,500 

24 

31 

•  •   • 

•  •   • 

2i 

151,000 

30,200 

24 

32 

•  •  • 

I 

i 


•♦ 


Mechanical  Loading  and  Discharging 

Special  rigs  are  now  employed  in  the  loading  of  coal  and  ore, 
clamshell  buckets,  self-trimming  holds,  chutes,  pipes,  etc. 
Grain  is  shot  into  the  holds  and  sucked  out. 

Large  side  ports  are  used  in  certain  trades,  and  on  such  craft 
the  endless  conveyor  finds  favor.  Conveyor  loading  is  growing 
in  favor,  taking  sugar,  flour,  etc.,  to  the  deck  and  then  sending  it 
SLnywhere  in  the  holds  and  'tween  decks  by  means  of  chutes. 
It  would  hardly  be  within  the  province  of  a  work  on  seamanship 
to  do  more  than  mention  these  devices.  They  are  of  growing 
importance  and  are  plajdng  a  larger  and  larger  part  in  cutting 
down  what  the  heartless  statisticians  tabulate  as  "  turn  arotmd  " 
and  quick  dispatch  in  and  out  of  port  means  money. 


178 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


A  belt  machine  loading  case  goods  at  No.  2  hatch. 
A  net  sling  working  at  No.  1  hatch 


CHAPTER  6 
SAILING  SHIP  RIGGING— SAILS— CANVAS  WORK 

I 

Masts  and  Spars 

The  masts  usually  consist  of  the  following  sections:  Lower 
mast,  topmast,  topgallant  mast,  and  royal  mast,  which  includes 
at  its  upper  end  the  sky  sail  mast. 

The  masts  of  a  square  rigger  are  shown  in  the  various  illus- 
trations, giving  their  locations  and  names. 


Foresfaysa/V. 
Club 


Loading  flour  at  Puget  Sound  by  belt  conveyor 
{See  Chap.  9— on  Stowage) 


Fore  stay  of  a  schooner 

The  masts  of  a  fore  and  after  consist  of  a  long  lower  masty 
and  a  topmast j  except  in  the  case  of  a  baldheaded  schooner 
when  no  topmast  is  fitted. 

When  lower  masts  are  made  of  steel  (square  rigged)  the  lower 
and  topmast  are  often  in  one  piece,  making  a  change  in  the  lower 
top  fitting  and  getting  rid  of  much  top  hamper.  But  the  fidded 
topmast  has  much  to  commend  it  and  still  finds  favor. 

The  other  spars  on  a  square  rigger  are  the  yards^  names  and 
locations  given  in  illustrations,  also  the  names  and  fittings  of  a 
yard. 

Men  go  out  on  a  yard  by  means  of  the  foot  ropes y  held  up  by 
stirrups.    The  footrope  extending  from  inside  of  the  sheave 

179 


!: 


1 


i 


180 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


hole  to  the  yard  arm  is  called  the  flemish  horse.  When  hauling 
out  on  a  weather  or  lee  earing,  a  sailor  must  go  out  on  the 
famous  steed,  straddle  the  yard  and  keep  one  arm  around  the  lift. 


Parrall- 
Tub 


Cap-.^ 


Topsail 
Halyards 


' — Truss 


Doubling 


Tresile 
Jrees\ 


Hounds- 


Crane 


Lower  Staj^t 


Truss 
Band 


Topmasi 
shrouds' 


Leech  Line 
and  Bunt  ^ 
Line  Blochs\ 


FuHock 

Shrouds 


Lower 


Yard 


'^Truss 


Upper 
'Topsail 
yard 


\Lower 

Topsail 

yard 


5     f  la  f  form 


'Lower 
Shrouds 


Chain 
Sh'ng 


Lower  Topsail 
Sheet  Lead  Blocks 


Lower  mast  head  details — square  rig 

Gaffs  and  booms  spread  fore  and  aft  sails,  at  head  and  foot, 
as  shown. 

A  cluby  is  fitted  to  the  foot  of  inner  fore  staysails*  in  many 
*  The  club  on  the  foot  of  fore  staysail  is  sometimes  called  ihe  jumbo  club. 


ma^t^m^aae^ 


SAILING  SHIP  RIGGING 


181 


)(l 


schooners.    The  club  swmgs  freely  from  side  to  side,  as  the 
foot  of  the  sail  is  short,  and  this  rig  makes  for  ease  in  tacking. 


3a//' 


Topsail  Halliard,, 
mhuble  Blocl<)\ 


Baclcsfay 
(Z'/i'Wire) 


Topmast  Shrouds 

(2'/z"mre) 

Topmast  Staysail  ..-' 
Halliard  Block  '' 
1  Back  Single 


-•■Truck 


Fore  Topsail 
Staysail 
-finale  2'/^ Wire) 


Jib  Topsail  Stay 
(Single  Il'Wr^ 


Outer  Jib  Sta\ 


jterJiDoray 
(Single  S'Wireh, 


Topmast  Stays' 
(2'A'Wlre) 

-Cap         = 


Shrouds  3W  Wire-- 


Spring  Stay' 
(4'A-Wlre) 

Heel  Chain 7 

Peak  Halliard 
Blocks-'-:: 
(15"  Double)     -- 

Preventer  Stay(3^''Wlr^ 
Fore  stay  (4'Wlre  DoubleK^ 

Trestle  Trees. ^ 

Topping  Lift 
^-Blocks--. 
10' Double 


Throat  Halliard - 
-'-'Block—--' 
(IS'Trlple) 

Staysail  Lift(St'l>dj 

Jib  Lift  (Port)'' 

YuthckBand     Shroud^'' 
J^'mre 

Fore  Staysail  Halliard. — ■\ 
(9' Double  Block) 

IZ' Double  Swivel  Block/lsh  Tackle 


"Preventer 
Stay 
(ZWWire) 


'Fore  Stay 
4' Wire 
(Double) 


Fore  mast  details  of  a  schooner 


A  club  is  also  used  in  yachts  to  set  the  club  topsail^  the  club 
extending  beyond  the  reach  of  the  gaff. 


m 


if  u 


ii 


182 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


?ii 


I 

I 

I 

I 

T 

•C! 


SAILING  SHIP  RIGGING 


Ball  Truck 


183 


Backstay 
2'/i"Wire 


Topmast  Shrouds 

272"  Wire 


Backstay 
^-2'/z"Wire 


Topmast 
.■Shrouds 
] Spreader    Ilk-'  2>/z"Wire 


Topsail  Halyard  Block 
(7'DoubleK, 


Backstay,...-' 
2'/z"Wire 


Topmast  Shrouds 
2'/2"Wire 


Shrouds{5WWirey- 


\Topmast  Stays 
^-  2'U'Wires 


11  'Topmast  Staysail 
Halliard  Block 
(TSincfle) 


Spring 
[Stays 


Spring  Stay- 


Peak  Halliard    ,,: 
"'•;>     Blocks    -=--:l' 
"'  (l3"Double)      ' 


,.Cross  Trees 

Toppinqlift  Blocks 
)     ,-'/     (IO"1)ouble\ 


Heel 
Chain 


Trestle 
/  Trees 


•Hounds 


Throat  Halliard--' 

Block  . 
(l3"Triple) 


ShroudsfJWWirey-'        l' 


Mean  mast  details  of  a  schooner,    Also'other  masts  between  the  fore 
and  aftermost  mast.    Aftermost  mast  has  no  spring  stay  leading  <^t. 


184 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


I 


>li 


|<.' 


The  bowsprit  and  the  jibboom  are  shown  in  the  illustrations. 

The  flying  jibboom  is  seldom  fitted  nowadays. 
When  speaking  of  a  mast,  a  sailor  always  pronounces  it  like 

"  mist,"  Fore  "mw^,"  Fore  topmist  stays'le.    Sail  also  being 

shortened  to  silt 
The  sailor  names  for  masts  and  yards  are  as  follows: 
Fore,  main,  and  mizzen,  pronounced  as  spelled,  adding  mist 
Topmasts  are  "  topmists,** 

Topgallant  is  "  Tgallant  mist;'  the  sail  is  a  "  TgansilV 
Royal  mast  is  Royal  mist.    The  sails  are  simply  "  Royals;^ 
Skysail  is  "  SkysilV    The  mast  is  a  "  Skysill  mist.'' 
The  lower  yard  on  the  mizzen  is  the  crossjack  yard,  called 

the  ''crojik  "  yard  by  sailormen.    The  sail  spread  on  it  is  simply 

the  "  crojik." 

The  braces  on  the  mizzen  yards  lead  forward,  and  are  all 
referred  to  as  "  crojik  braces."  If  we  are  to  swing  the  after 
yards  (main  and  mizzen)  as  in  tacking,  we  get  the  order, 
"  Weather  main,  lee  crojik  braces!  "  just  before  the  order  is 
given  to  "  Main  topsHe  haul!" 

A  real  Yankee  coaster  always  refers  to  a  schooner,  as  a 
skunner,  pronouncing  the  name  quickly,  with  the  accent  on  the 
first  syllable. 

Masting  with  Own  Resources 

Hull  lying  in  stream. 

Shear  legs  in  water  alongside  legs  aft,  near  quarter. 

Sling  skids  up  and  down  the  side  for  the  purpose  of  keeping 
the  shear  legs  clear.  Secure  three  or  four  small  spars  in  a 
slanting  direction  from  the  bulwark  to  ease  the  shears  down  on 
deck.  The  shears  being  brought  alongside,  with  their  small 
ends  aft,  are  taken  on  board  by  parbuckle. 

Place  the  heads  or  small  ends  either  on  the  taffrail,  the  break 
of  the  poop,  or  a  spar  placed  in  a  most  convenient  spot,  the  more 
elevated  the  better.  Square  the  heels  exactly  one.  with  the 
other,  so  that  when  they  come  to  be  raised  the  legs  may  be 
found  of  equal  height.  Cross  their  heads,  placing  the  shear 
head  of  the  side  on  which  the  mast  is  coming  in  uppermost, 
and  put  on  the  head-lashing  of  new  well-str etched  rope,  the 
lashing  being  at  equal  distances  from  the  heels  of  both.    After 


SAILING  SHIP  RIGGING 


'185 


the  lashing  is  on,  the  heels  of  the  shears  are  drawn  asunder^ 
carrying  one  over  to  each  gangway  and  placing  it  on  a  solid  piece 
of  oak  or  shoe.  Lash  them  to  the  eye-bolts  in  the  shoes;  nail 
cleats  on  the  heel  of  the  shears  to  prevent  the  lashing  slipping 
down.  Clap  stout  tackles  on  the  heels,  two  on  each,  one  leading 
forward,  the  other  aft;  set  taut  the  after  ones  and  belay  them. 
Lash  a  three  or  four-fold  block,  as  the  upper  one  of  the  mam 
purchase,  over  the  first  lashing  (so  that  it  will  hang  plumb  under 
the  cross),  with  canvas  underneath  to  prevent  chafing,  passing 
the  lashing  round  each  shear  head  alternately;  also,  sufficiently 
long  to  secure  the  free  action  of  the  block.  Lasfi  the  small 
purchase  block  or  truss  block  on  the  after  horn  of  the  shears, 
sufficiently  high  for  the  falls  to  play  clear  of  each  other,  and  a  girt- 
line  block  above  all.    Middle  a  couple  of  hawsers  and  clove- 


M 


A  parbuckle 
a,  a,  counter  parbuckle  for  easing  spar  inboard 

hitch  them  over  the  shear  heads— havmg  two  ends  leading 
forward  and  two  abaft,  and  stout  luffs  clapped  on  them.  These 
should  be  sufficiently  strong  to  secure  the  shears  while  lifting 
the  masts.  The  lower  purchase  block  is  lashed  forward  to  a 
toggle  secured  to  lower  deck  beams  in  one  of  the  foreward 
hatches,  or  in  bowsprit  hole.  The  fall  is  rove— the  hauling 
parts  leading  through  the  middle  sheave-hole— and  led  away 


III 


186 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


I 


A  garland 


Top  ffifTT} 


to  the  capstan.    The  shears  are  raised  by  heaving  upon  it,  and 
preventing  the  heels  from  slipping  forward  by  means  of  the  heel 

tackles  previously  mentioned.  When  the  shears 
are  up,  the  heels  confined  to  their  shoes,  they 
can  then  be  transported  along  the  deck  by 
means  of  the  heel  tackles  and  guys  to  the  sit- 
uation required,  taking  care  to  make  them  rest 
upon  a  beam,  and  to  have  the  deck  properly 
shored  up  below.  Finally,  give  the  shears  the 
necessary  rake  by  means  of  the  guys,  and  set 
taut  all  the  guys  and  heel  tackles. 

The  mizzen  mast  is  taken  on  board  first,  then 
main,  fore,  and  bowsprit. 
When  getting  in  bowsprit  shear  heads  are 
supported  over  the  bow  by  a  heavy  purchase  from  the  fore 
masthead. 

Measure  height  of  lower  main  purchase  block  when  "two 
blocks"   to  rail.    Place  garland  on 
mast  at  a  distance  less  than  this  from 
the  heel. 

To  take  in  mast.  Lower  block 
lashed  to  garland,  take  main  pur- 
chase to  capstan.  See  all  guys  and 
lashings  secure.  Heave  round  cap- 
stan. When  masthead  comes  over 
the  rail  put  on  trestle  trees,  top  and 
cap.  Secure  gantlines  to  the  mast- 
head and  the  truss  tackle  is  made 
fast  to  band  below  the  top. 

Heave  away  till  mast  rises  near 
top  of  rail.  Secure  a  tackle  for  eas- 
ing it  inboard. 

Heave  over  rail,  ease  inboard  and 
by  means  of  truss  tackle  and  gant- 
lines point  mast  fair  for  stepping. 
Wipe  tenon  dry.  White-  lead  it,  also  step  (tar  will  do  as  well). 
Lower  main  purchase  and  step  mizzen  mast.  The  mast  is  then 
wedged.  Shrouds  and  stay  are  got  up  and  shears  are  worked 
forward  to  take  in  main  mast. 


.iCross  Trees 


Lubbers 
Hole; 


Heel 
of  Top 
Mast 


TresHe,' 
Trees<' 


Lower 
Mast  -' 
Head 


Pi(jeon' 
Holt, 


Cross  Trees 


Top  platform  details 


\\ 


SAILING  SHIP  RIGGING 


187 


To  get  shears  forward  proceed  as  follows : 
Haul  the  shears  upright  by  the  tackle  on  the  guys,  and  bowse 
the  heels  forward,  taking  care  to  have  a  tackle  on  the  after  part 


Stepping  a  mizzen  mast  by  shear  legs 

This  serves  to  illustrate  the  method  of  using  shears  and  of  staying  them. 
The  same  rig  may  be  employed,  with  necessary  changes,  wherever  weights 
have  to  be  lifted  without  regular  masts  and  booms. 

A  and  B— shear  legs,  rigged  for  taking  in  mast  on  port  side.  C— shear 
head  lashing.  D— shoes  for  heel  of  shear  legs.  Starboard  shear  leg  is 
shown  lashed  to  spar  outside  of  port  in  bullwark.  E—Lead  block  for  main 
purchase.  F—Heel  tackles,  leading  fore  and  aft,  for  shifting  the  shear  legs 
along  the  deck.  G— Belly  guys  for  steadying  the  shear  legs  against  heavy 
stresses.  H—Head  guys  for  staying  the  shear  legs.  These  are  the  prin- 
cipdl  guys— the  others  may  be  dispensed  with  except  for  the  heaviest  lifts. 
I— Topping  Lift  or  truss  tackle.    J— Mast  guys.    K—Main  purchase. 

When  shifting  shear  legs  wet  the  deck  under  the  shoes. 

of  the  heels  to  ease  away  with.     Next  slack  away  the  after  guys, 
and  haul  on  the  fore  ones  at  the  same  time. 


11 


'i 


188 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


I 


In  taking  out  a  mast,  the  shears  are  hoisted  up  singly  and 
lashed  aloft,  and  generally  remain  up  till  the  new  mast  is  taken  in. 
To  take  in  the  bowsprit  proceed  as  follows : 

Transport  shears  as  far  forward  as  possi- 
ble,  or  as  the  bows  will  permit.    Bend  on 
the  gantlines  to  the  small  purchase  block  at 
the  shear  heads  to  light  it  up,  unlash  it  and 
lash  it  again  to  the  forward  fork  or  horn  of 
the  shears,  pass  a  strap  round  the  fore-mast- 
head, to  which  hook  a  large  tackle,  carry  it 
well  aft,  and  haul  it  taut  for  the  purpose 
of  staying  the  mast.    Lash  a  couple  of 
large    single  blocks   to   the  foremast- 
head,  middle  a  hawser  and  clove-hitch 
it  over  the  shear-head,  reeve  the  ends 
through  the  blocks  at  the  mast- 
head, down  on  deck,  carry  them 
well  aft,  and  take  a  turn.    Hook 
the  after  heel  tackles  forward 
and  take  the  after  guys  aft.    Pass 
a  bulwark   lashing   round  each 
heel.    Rake  the  shears  over  the 
bows  suflBiciently  for  the 
main   purchase    to  hang 
directly    over   the   stem, 
and  make  all  fast. 

The  shears  being 
dropped  over  the  stem 
and  secured,  the  large 
tackle  is  made  fast  to  the 
bowsprit  outside  the  dis- 
tance from  the  heel  to  the 
knight-heads.  The  truss 
tackle  (or  topping  lift)  is  fastened  to  a  strop  through  the  cap,  and 
two  guys  are  hitched  to  bolts  in  the  cap,  the  former  to  cant  the 
heel,  and  the  two  guys  to  assist  in  steadying  the  bowsprit  when 
pointing  the  heel  through  the  knight-heads.  Now  bring  the  fall 
to  the  capstan  and  heave  round,  taking  in  the  slack  and  top- 
ping on  the  cap  purchase  when  necessary.    When  high  enough 


Sending  up  fore  stay  (fitted  with  lashing 
eyes) 


;i 


u 


SAILING  SHIP  RIGGING 


189 


point  the  heel,  having  the  partners  weU  greased,  when  by  eas- 
ing away  the  main  and  topping  on  the  cap  purchase,  working  the 
guys  at  the  same  time,  the  bowsprit  will  come  down  in  its  place. 
If  the  ship  has  a  top-gallant  forecastle  the  bowsprit  cannot  be 
taken  in  with  the  shears  without  the  assistance  of  a  small  derrick 
further  forward,  on  account  of  the  break  of  the  forecastle,  it  not 
bemg  prudent  to  step  shears  on  the  top  of  it. 

Having  topped  the  bowsprit  well  up  by  means  of  the  truss 
tackle,  and  finding  that  you  cannot  get  the  shears  sufficiently 
sloped  to  point  the  heel,  rig  a  jibboom  or  any  other  spar  over  the 
forecastle,  lash  the  heel,  and  have  a  tackle  on  the  outer  end  to 
haul  the  heel  of  the  bowsprit  out  and  point  it  fair  for  stepping. 

When  masts  are  stepped  without  shipping  the  tops  and  caps, 
these  must  be  got  up  by  special  rigs.  Gantline  blocks  are 
lashed  at  the  square  of  the  masthead  and  the  trestle  trees,  tops 
and  cap  are  hoisted  up  and  eased  over. 

Topmasts  are  sent  up  through  the  trestle  trees  and  cap  by  the 
mast  rope  rove  through  the  heel  sheave.  After  lower  masts  are 
stayed  the  remainder  of  the  rigging  is  simple.  Masts  and  yards 
go  up  by  virtue  of  the  lower  mast  purchases. 

Many  modern  ships  have  lower  and  topmasts  in  one  piece 
of  steel.  Such  masts  can  only  be  secured  at  fittmg  out  yards. 
They  are  not  floated  alongside  and  stepped  by  your  own  re- 
sources. Wooden  lower  masts  are  generally  built  up,  made  of 
four  sections,  held  together  by  steel  hoops. 

Lower  yards  and  lower  topsail  yards  are  often  of  steel. 
Spare  spars  and  sails.  All  sailing  vessels  are  to  have,  at 
least,  one  complete  suit  of  sails,  and  a  second  suit  for  the  fore- 
mast, consisting  of  course,  topsails,  topgallant  sails,  and  two 
spare  jibs  or  foresails;  they  are  also  to  carry  a  spare  topmast 
and  a  spare  topsail  yard.     (A.B.S.  Rules.) 

n 

Rigging 

Rigging  is  conveniently  divided  into  standing  rigging  and 

running  rigging. 

Standing  Rigging 

Lower  rigging  or  shrouds,  support  the  lower  mast  at  each  side 
and  extending  aft.    The  forward  legs  of  the  shrouds  are  also 


I! 


190 


i 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


/Lower  Pendanf 


\ 


I 


W/J/mmA'/M//. 
Setting  up  rigging^  old  style 


SAILING  SHIP  RIGGING 


191 


called  swifters.  When  lower  yards  are  braced  sharp  upy  they 
lie  close  against  the  swifters. 

Ratlines,  are  cloved  hitched  across  the  shrouds  and  form  the 
ladder  for  climbing  aloft.  Every  fifth  ratline  extends  to  the 
swifter  and  after  shrouds  and  is  called  a  catch  ratline. 

Topmast  shrouds ^  extend  from  topmast  head  to  the  rim  of 
the  top.    The  top  is  the  platform  about  the  lower  masthead. 

Topgallant  shrouds,  royal  shrouds,  are   similar  but  much 

lighter. 

Topmasts,  and  masts  above,  are  supported  aft  by  backstays^ 
leading  down  to  the  channels  on  either  side. 


The  proper  way  to  secure  lanyards.  Knots  are  inside.  Forward  hole 
to  starboard,  after  hole  to  port.  The  holes  for  the  knots  are  finished  square. 
Dead  eyes  are  of  lignum  vitae.  Lanyard  ends  are  hitched^  as  shown^  and 
seized  in  place. 

All  masts  are  supported  forward  by  stays^  the  stay  taking  its 
name  from  the  mast  it  supports. 

Bowsprit  shrouds  lead  aft  from  the  bowsprit  on  either  side, 
supporting  it  from  side  thrusts. 

Bobstays  lead  down  from  the  bowsprit  end  to  the  cutwater, 
and  support  it  from  lifting.  They  are  usually  made  of  chain  and 
set  up  with  hearts  and  lanyards  to  add  some  give  to  the  rigging. 

Jib  guys  lead  out  on  either  side  from  the  jibboom. 


I    I 


If^ 


':\ 


192 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


Jib  martingale  and  back  ropes  lead  down  to  the  martingale, 
or  dolphin  striker^  and  support  the  jibboom  from  lifting. 

The  gammoning  is  the  ring  that  secures  the  bowsprit  to  its 
bed  on  the  top  of  the  stem. 

In  old  ships  this  was  a  lashing  passing  over  the  bowsprit  and 
through  the  gammoning  hole  in  the  head  of  the  stem.  When 
rope  or  chain  is  used  for  a  gammoning  it  is  crossed,  that  is,  the 
forward  turn  over  the  bowsprit  is  the  after  turn  through  the 
gammoning  hole.  Old  seamen  sometimes  refer  to  a  crossed 
lashing  as  a  "  gammon  lashing." 


The  proper  way  to  "  rattle  down  " 

Standing  rigging  is  set  upy  that  is,  it  is  hauled  tight,  or  taut^ 
as  seamen  call  it.  In  setting  up  modern  rigging  use  is  made  of 
screws  and  turnbuckles.  In  older  rigs  dead  eyes  and  lanyards 
were  used,  or  hearts  and  lanyards.  The  latter  are  still  used  to  a 
great  extent  on  the  bowsprit  shrouds.  In  wooden  vessels,  the 
dead  eye  and  lanyard  is  preferred  because  of  its  give.  In  steel 
vessels  screws  and  turnbuckles  are  most  often  found.  Many 
ships  have  been  dismasted  because  the  standing  rigging  was 
not  set  up  properly.  Too  much  tension  is  almost  as  bad  as  too 
little.  When  rigging  works  loose  in  a  heavy  gale  and  it  cannot 
be  set  up,  luff  tackles  are  hooked  to  the  shrouds  on  opposite  sides 


SAILING   SHIP  RIGGING 


193 


iiUi|iD[!::=^ 


me- 1  ml:  S-: 


and  they  are  swiftered  in.     this  puts  a  temporary  tension  on 
them  and  steadies  the  masts.    This  principle 
can  be  used  in  many  ways  where  masts  work 
loose  in  heavy  weather. 

The  setting  up  of  rigging  cannot  be  learned 
from  a  book.  Watch  this  work  when  it  is  be; 
ing  done,  and  when  you  have  to  do  it  your- 
self you  will  know  something  about  it.  Masts 
are  generally  stayed  by  the  fore  and  aft  stay 
and  the  first  pair  of  shrouds.  The  shrouds 
usually  go  over  the  masthead  in  pairs,  the 
legs  of  each  pair  setting  up  on  the  same  side. 
But  a  great  deal  of  irregularity  has  crept  into 
this  matter  with  steel  construction  and  where 
masts  are  longer,  lower-  and  topmast  in  one 
piece  and  of  steel,  shrouds  for  lower  rigging 
may  set  up  from  eyebolts  on  the  mast  to  the 
channel  plates,  being  fitted  singly.  Each 
ship  is  a  study  in  itself.  Steamship  rigging 
is  mainly  set  in  this  fashion. 

The  Standing  Rigging  of  Yards 

Stationary  yards,  like  the  lower  yards, 
lower  topsail  yards,  and  lower  topgallant 
yards  are  supported  in  the  slings  or  center 
of  the  yard,  by  a  sling  and  truss.  Or  by  a 
crane  in  the  case  of  lower  topsail  yards. 
Some  lower  topsail  yards  are  supported  by 
a  standard  coming  up  from  the  trestle  trees, 
or  the  cap. 

Yards  that  ride  up  and  down  the  mast  are 
held  in  contact  by  a  parrel.  This  may  simply 
be  a  set  of  wooden  jaws,  or  saddle,  held  in 
by  a  metal  hoop  covered  with  leather.  Or,  in 
the  case  of  a  topsail  yard,  it  may  be  an  elab- 
orate tub  of  steel,  lined  with  leather. 

The  yard  arms  are  supported,  when  the 
yard  is  down,  in  the  case  of  a  hoisting  yard,  and  at  all  times 


I 


. 


'1 


I 

I 


194 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


in  the  case  of  a  lower  yard,  by  standing  ropes  called  lifts. 
Lifts  are  usually  wire  pendants  fitted  with  purchases  on  their 
hauling  parts.  The  handling  of  the  lifts  is  an  important  part 
of  the  manipulation  of  the  courses. 


■-31 
35"-34  "'16 


Standing  rigging  of  a  ship 


1 
2 
3 

4 
S 
6 

7 


Fore  royal  stay 
Flying  jib  stay 
Fore  topgallant  stay 
Outer  Jib  stay 
Inner  Jib  stay 
Fore  topmast  stay 
Fore  stay 

8  Fore  royal  backstay 

9  Fore  topgallant  backstay 

10  Fore  topmast  backstays 

11  Topgallant,    topmast    and 

shrouds 

12  Main  royal  stay 

13  Main  topgallant  stay 

14  Main  topmast  stay 

15  Main  stays 

16  Main  royal  backstay 

17  Main  topgallant  backstay 
{18  missing  on  drawing) 

19  Main  topmast  backstays 


fore 


20  Topgallant,     topmast    and    main 

shrouds 

21  Mizzen  royal  stay 

22  Mizzen  topgallant  stay 

23  Mizzen  topmast  stay 

24  Mizzen  stay 

25  Mizzen  royal  backstay 

26  Mizzen  topgallant  backstay 

27  Mizzen  topmast  backstays 

28  Topgallant,    topmast  and  mizzen 

shrouds 

29  Jibboom  guys 

30  Martingale  stays 

31  Martingale  stays 

32  Martingale  stays 

33  Back  ropes 

34  Back  ropes 

35  Bobstay 

36  Martingale,  or  dolphin  striker 


SAILING  SHIP  RIGGING 


195 


Foo  tropes  are  fitted  along  all  yards,  hanging  from  stirrups 
from  the  after  side.  The  footrope  from  the  yard  arm  to  inside 
of  the  sheave  hole  is  called  the  flemish  horse  and  is  only  found 
on  lower  yards  and  on  upper  topsail  yards. 


Fore  yard  and  fore  topsail  yard.    School  ship  Newport.     This  vessel  carries 

a  single  topsail.    Note  the  harbor  furl. 

Booms  are  fitted  with  topping  lifts,  similar  in  purpose  to  the 
lifts  on  a  crossed  yard.  The  lee  lift  is  always  allowed  to  hang 
slack  and  the  weather  lift  is  hauled  taut. 

The  bowsprit  is  also  fitted  with  footropes. 


Running  Rigging 

Running  rigging  may  best  be  considered  as  follows : 
The  rigging  of  spars — halyards.    Yards,  except  the  lower, 
lower  topsail  and  lower  topgallant,  are  hoisted  up  and  lowered 
by  means  of  halyards.    Halyards  always  lead  to  the  deck  and 
are  found  as  follows: 


II 


196 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


SAILING  SHIP  RIGGING 


197 


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Fore  upper  topsail  halyard  port     side. 
Main     "  "  "        st'b'd     " 

Mizzen "  "  « 

Fore  topgallant  halyards 
Main 


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This  system  of  alternating  the  side  to  which  similar  halyards 
lead  is  followed  through  when  the  masts  are  increased. 


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I     I 


A,  A,  Starboard  mizzen  topmast  backstays 

B,  Starboard  spreader 

C,  Shoe  of  spanker  gaff 

D,  Tack  of  spanker  topsail 

Ey  Spanker  peak  halyard  blocks 
F,  Spanker  throat  halyard  blocks 

The  jib  halyards,  foretopmast  staysail,  and  flying  jib  also 
alternate.    The  same  holds  good  of  the  staysails  on  other  masts. 


198 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


A  fore  and  aft  sail  hoisting  to  a  gaff  is  carried  up  the  mast  by 
means  of  two  sets  of  halyards. 

The  throat  halyards j  lift  the  spar  next  to  the  mast. 

The  peak  halyards^  usually  rove  with  two  or  more  blocks  on 
the  gaff,  hoist  up  the  outer  end,  or  peak,  of  the  gaff. 

Throat  halyards  usually  belay  on  the  port  side  of  the  mast  and 
peak  halyards  on  the  starboard  side. 


fl       ! 


A,  Spanker  sheet 

B,  Boom  guy 

C,  Boom  guy 

D,  Boom  crotch 

E,  Wythe,  the  aftermost  band  on  the  boom 

f.  Boom  tackle,  hooked  to  becket  at  forward  end  of  boom.  This 
is  only  hauled  out  when  the  boom  is  trimmed  for  a  wind 
nearly  aft. 

H,  Rubber  buffers  at  deck  connection  for  spanker  sheet  traveller. 
Deck  cleat  just  forward  of  this. 

I,   Sounding  machine 

J,   End  of  spanker  sheet,  faked  down  clear  for  running 

Bracesy  as  the  term  implies,  are  to  steady  the  yards,  brace 
them  in  and  trim  or  square  them,  as  the  case  may  be.    The 


SAILING  SHIP  RIGGING 


109 


braces  all  lead  aft,  except  upon  the  mizzen  where  they  neces- 
sarily lead  forward.  This  arrangement  is  not  very  good  and  in 
four-masted  vessels  gives  added 
reason  for  fitting  the  jigger  mast 
fore  and  aft. 

Braces  on  the  lower  yards 
consist  of  wire  pendants  with 
purchases,  or  whips.  Braces  in 
large  ships  are  now  entirely  of 
wire  and  small  hand  winches  ^ 
are  fitted  on  the  bulwarks  for 
heaving   them   taut   in    heavy   Method  of  fitting  deck  end  of  mam 

.  «.  M  brace 

weather.    Strong  new  manila, 

however,  is  preferred  by  most  seamen  because  of  its  greater 
ease  in  handling  and  slacking. 

Sheets  are  fitted  to  booms,  and  in  the  case  of  large  vessels 
these  ropes  are  rove  off  with  double  blocks.  On  some  large 
booms  spans  of  wire  are  fitted  to  carry  the  pull  of  the  heavy 
sail  along  the  boom. 


Por+ 


Fore  leech 
Lines 


-■i 


-J-o 


'Topsai/     .^ 
Reeftackle^k^ 

Topsail  ... 
Bunfline 

Taallanf  „.. 
Clew  Line. 

Tgallanf  _....]f> 
Bunfline 


Jib  Ha  Ilia rds  I 
efc.-"\ 


^ 

^ 


«x 


Fore  Buntwhip 
'(Optional) 


Forward 


Fore  Bunflines-^^ 


Starboard 


c 


1^ 


roreTop^^J-.>^Top^gM^ 


Monkey  Rail 


Topgallant 


Bit+s 
Pari  Fore 
LiFi~~-- 

Porf  Fore  .. 
Clew  Garnet 

Port  Fore, 
Reef  Tackle 


Topsail 
Buntwhip 


Starboard 
Fore  Topsail 
"  Sheet 


o 
a: 

c 

a: 


Main  Sfaysaildown  hauls ' 
etc. 

Fife  Rail 


Starboard 
Fore  Lift 

^Starboard  Fore 
Zlew  Garnet 

^.Starboard  Fore 
Reef  Tackle        _ 

'6 
cc 

c 


<t 


iFore  Leech 
Lines 


o-- 


•Topsail 
Halliards 


Tgallant  ^, 
Halliards 


TopsailReef 
''   Tackle 

Topsail 
Bunfline 


Tgallant 
Clew  Line 

Tgallant 
unflihe 


oi-Tgc 


^ih  Halliards 
ere. 

Bullwarks 


Starboard  _. 
Fore  Sheet 


■4 


Port  Fore 
Sheet 
Bull  work 
Diagram  of  the  deck.     Lead  of  running  gear  at  foremast.     Schoolship 
Newport.     This  gives  a  general  idea  of  the  lead  of  gear  to  the  deck  on  a 
square  rigger.     There  are  no  down  hauls  as  the  schoolship  has  a  single  topsail. 


^ 


I 


.1 


200 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


SAILING  SHIP  RIGGING 


201 


Boom  tackles y  are  heavy  tackles  used  for  hauling  the  booms 
forward  when  running  and  for  hooking  against  the  sheet  to 
prevent  the  heavy  boom  from  slamming  over  if  taken  aback  by  a 
shift  of  wind  or  direction  of  vessel. 

Vangs  are  light  whips  leading  from  the  gaff  to  the  deck  on 
each  side.  They  are  used  to  steady  the  gaff  when  the  vessel 
rolls.  The  lead  is  so  sharp  that  vangs  are  not  much  good  except 
with  a  standing  gaff  in  port,  when  they  steady  it  amidship. 
When  sail  is  set  the  vangs  had  better  be  left  loose. 

Runners  or  preventer  backstays  are  fitted  on  most  large 
yachts — sloop  and  schooners.  In  going  about,  set  taut  weather 
runner;  let  go  lee  runner. 

The  Rigging  of  Sails 

The  gear  of  a  square  sail  is  explained  further  along  in  this 
chapter. 

Stay  sails  hoist  by  a  single  halyard,  usually  rove  as  a  whip, 
standing  part  in  the  fork  of  the  stay,  and  a  single  block  at  the 
head  of  the  sail.  The  down  haul  reeves  from  the  head  of  the 
sail  down  to  the  tack  and  then  through  a  lead  block  along  the 
deck. 

Sheets  are  usually  double  rove  through  clump  blocks  fitted 
into  the  eyes  of  the  pendants,  and  haul  aft  by  whips.  A  wire 
cross  over  is  often  fitted  between  the  pendants  in  the  wake  of 
the  clew  to  ease  the  hauling  of  the  clew  over  the  stay  next  aft. 

Fore  and  aft  sails  abaft  the  masts  fit  in  two  ways : 

First,  to  gaffs  and  booms,  the  gaff  hoisting  on  the  mast. 

Second,  to  standing  gaffs,  the  sail  hauling  out  on  the  gaff  or 
brailed  to  it.  In  this  rig  the  foot  of  the  sail  is  loose.  The  sail 
is  then  taken  in  by  brailSj  spilling  lines  rove  around  the  sail  and 
clinched  to  cringles  in  the  leech. 

Gaff  topsails,  set  by  a  halyard,  a  gaff  topsail  sheet ,  and  a  tack. 
The  clew  being  hauled  out  to  the  end  of  the  gaff,  and  the  tack 
down  over  the  throat  of  the  lower  sail.  The  head,  of  course, 
is  hoisted  along  the  mast,  the  luff  of  the  sail  being  held  in  by 
mast  hoops. 

All  large  hoisting  gaff  and  boom  sails  are  held  to  the  mast  by 
hoops.    Hoops  are  a  most  important  part  of  the  rigging  of  a  fore 


and  aft  vessel  and  should  only  be  made  of  straight  grain  oak.    If 
the  mast  hoops  fail,  the  vessel  may  meet  with  disaster. 


r 

\ 


I     I 


G,  Goose  neck 

H,  Mast  hoop,  beginning  of  lacing  under  reef  band.    Hoops  above 
this  are  stopped  to  the  leech  of  sail 

/,   Mast  ladder,  one  on  each  side 

A  tvindsail  is  shown  forward  of  the  mizzen  mast,  used  for  venti- 
lation in  fine  weather 

Hanks  are  another  important  fitting  of  all  sails  that  hoist  along 
a  stay.  Where  double  stays  are  fitted  be  sure  the  hanks  used 
are  double  hanks ^  with  wide  flat  bows. 

The  whole  subject  of  gear  and  sails,  of  canvas  and  rope,  is  so 
closely  allied  that  much  of  the  running  gear  will  be  described 
under  the  heading,  sails. 


I 


202  STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 

m 

Sails 

Canvas  used  for  sails  on  American  craft  is  almost  entirely 
of  cotton.  The  standard  width  for  sailmaking  is  22",  although 
special  wider  sizes  are  used  for  racing  craft,  and  24"  duck  is 
sometimes  employed.     Narrow  duck  runs  14",  16",  18"  and  20". 

Canvas  is  designated  by  numbers  beginning  with  00  as  the 
heaviest.    It  runs  as  follows : 

00,  0,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  12. 


1  Flying  jib 

2  Outer  jib 

3  Inner  jib 

4  Fore  topmast  staysail 

5  Fore  royal 

6  Fore  upper  topgallant  sail 

7  Fore  lower  topgallant  sail 

8  Fore  upper  topsail 

9  Fore  lower  topsail 

10  Fore  sail,  or  fore  course 

11  Main  royal  staysail 

12  Main  topgallant  staysail 

13  Main  topmast  staysail 

14  Main  skysail 

15  Main  royal 


Sails  of  a  ship 

16  Main  upper  topgallant  saU 

17  Main  lower  topgallant  sail 

18  Main  upper  topsail 

19  Main  lower  topsail 

20  Main  sail,  or  main  course 

21  Mizzen  topgallant  staysail 

22  Mizzen  topmast  staysail 

23  Mizzen  royal 

24  Mizzen  topgallant  sail 

25  Mizzen  upper  topsail 

26  Mizzen  lower  topsail 

27  Crossjack   {hanging  in  gear — not 

set) 

28  Spanker 


SAILING  SHIP  RIGGING 


203 


Flax  duck  (Scotch)  is  soft  and  handles  easily  when  wet.    It  is 
extra  strong  and  makes  good  storm  trysails.    This  duck-nms 
24"  wide. 

But,  as  stated  before,  the  standard  width  and  kind  of  canvas 
used  on  merchant  craft  is  22"  cotton.  Canvas  comes  in  holts 
of  ninety  yards.  Sails  are  said 
to  be  made  up  of  a  certain 
number  of  cloths j  referring  to 
the  widths  of  canvas  used. 
Canvas  is  tested  by  boring 
through  with  a  fid.  If  the 
threads  break  easily  use  it  with 
suspicion. 

Twine,  Cotton  sail  twine 
usually  comes  in  half  pound 
balls  and  is  known  by  the  ply^ 
that  is  the  number  of  threads. 

Sewing  twine  runs  as  fol- 
lows: 4,  5,  6,  7,  8  ply. 

Roping  twine,  9,  10,  11  ply. 

Canvas  and  twine.     The  fol-  Beginning  stitch,  round  seam 

lowing    is    considered     good 

practice  in  sewing  canvas,  although  sailmakers  may  differ  some 
on  this  point. 


Canvas    00  and  0 
"  1 

«  2 


<« 


3,  4  and  5 


Twine 

a 
u 

i( 


8  and  7  ply. 

7  and  6    " 

(6  ply  used  two  parts 

same  as  for  No.  1.) 

6  ply  single. 


4  and  5  ply  twine  is  used  for  very  light  work. 

Twine  must  always  be  well  waxed. 

Seams,    Seams  are  of  two  kinds,  round  and  flat. 

The  round  seam  is  used  to  join  the  edges  of  two  pieces  of 
canvas,  and  the  needle  is  taken  through  the  canvas  almost  at 
right  angles,  the  edge  being  up.  To  make  this  lie  flat,  the 
round  seam  is  then  rubbed. 

The  flat  seam.  Here  the  canvas  lies  flat,  and  the  needle  is 
taken  through  the  lower  piece  and  up  through  the  edge  of  the 


I 


204 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


SAILING  SHIP  RIGGING 


205 


cloth  to  be  joined.    This  is  the  most  general  way  of  sewing 
canvas  aboard  ship. 
In  stitching  flat  seam  make  four  stitches  to  the  inch. 


Sewing  canvas,  flat  seam,    A  pleasant jummer  job  on  deck 

A  good  saihnaker  can  sew  forty  yards  of  canvas  in  an  eight- 
hour  day.  It  is  sometimes  useful  to  know  how  much  a  man  can 
cfo  in  a  day,  m  these  tunes  when  most  folk  only  think  of  what 
they  can  get  in  a  day.  Seams  are  iVi"  wide  for  heavy  sails 
and  generally  run  to  the  blue  edge  line  on  the  cloth. 

Roping,  In  roping  sails,  awnings,  dodgers,  etc.,  the  following 
proportions  are  considered  good  practice : 

Use  roping  twine,  well  waxed. 

Leech  rope  on  fore  and  aft  sails,  51/2"  manila  bolt  rope,  use 
9  ply,  six  parts  through  needle,  making  twelve  parts  in  all. 

4"  rope,  use  four  parts  of  8  ply. 

3"     "       "   three  parts  of  8  ply. 

2"     "       "   three  parts  of  6   "  . 

W2'  rope,  use  twofparts  of  8  ply. 


Wire  bolt  rope.    Heavy  square  sails  are  roped  with  wire  on 
the  leech  and  foot  and  with  hemp  on  the  head. 

Wire  bolt  rope  is  sewn  on, 
the  stitches  being  taken 
around  the  rope.  After  sew- 
ing a  canvas  chafing  strip  is 
sewn  over  all  and  then 
leathered  in  the  wake  of 
bull's-eyes,  blocks,  and  at 
any  point  where  chafe  will 
take  place. 

Bolt  ropes  are  also  marled 
to  the  sail.  First  splice  in 
clew  irons,  get  rope  on  a 
stretch  along  the  edge  of  the 
tabling.  Use  a  "Lolley"  nee- 
dle, with  10  or  11  ply  roping 
twine,  and  make  the  marling 
hitches  on  the  fore  side 
against  the  canvas,  and  opposite  to  the  roping. 


Pulling  through,  round  seam.    Canvas 
is  held  by  a  sail  hook 


■ 


Wire  bolt  rope.    Marled  to  foot  of  square  sail 

Marling  hitches  are  placed  about  one  inch  apart. 

^_^  Needles,    Sail  needles  are 


C5 


Long  spur  sail  needle 


Short  spur  or  Lolley  needle 


triangular  in  section  for  half 
their  length  from  the  point, 
then  round. 

Long  spur  needles  are  used 
for  sewing  canvas,  and  are 
designated  by  numbers  as  follows  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  12,  13,  14, 
141/2,  15,  151/2,  16,  I6I/2,  17,  171/2. 

The  needle  most  generally  used  is  the  15  two  and  a  half  inches 
long,  for  general  repair  work  on  medium  canvas. 


i' 


206 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Pdm 


The  higher  the  number  the  smaller  the  needle. 
Roping  needles  are  of  the  short  spur  or  Lolley^s  patern,  and 
are  designated  according  to  use,  as  follows:  flatseam,  tabling, 

old  work,  store,  headrope,  small  boltrope,  mid- 
dle bolt  rope,  large  bolt  rope,  small  marline,  and 
large  marline. 

Palms  are  classified  as  seaming  and  roping 

palms  the  former  being  light  with  small  seat  for 

the  end  of  needle.    Roping  palms  are  broad  and 

heavy,  giving  the  hand  a  good  purchase  in  forcing  through  heavy 

needles.    Some  are  buckled,  being  adjustable  with  brass  cup 

and  pitted  iron  seat. 

Sail  hook  is  attached  to  the  end  of  the  bench  by  a  lanyard  and 
is  used  to  hook  into  the  canvas  to  keep  it  on  a  proper  stretch 
while  sewing. 

Creasing  stick  is  a  wooden  or 
metal  tool,  split  at  the  end  and  Pricker 

used  for  creasing  seams. 

Pricker  is  a  small  marling  spike  fitted  with  a  wooden  handle. 
Used  for  opening  holes  in  stiff  canvas. 

Rubber  is  a  piece  of  steel  set  in  a  handle,  used  for  rubbing 
down  seams. 

Having  taken  a  look  at  the  materials  and  tools  of  sailmaking 
we  will  now  name  the  parts  of  a  sail. 

Square  Sails 

A  square  sail  is  rarely  "  square  " ;  in  fact  the  writer  has 
never  seen  a  perfectly  square  sail.  The  top  of  the  sail  is  the 
heady  on  either  side  are  the  leeches^  and  the  bottom  edge  is  the 
foot.  The  corners  of  the  sail  are  known  as  head  cringles  where 
head  and  leeches  join  and  clews  where  foot  and  leeches  join. 

The  sail  is  bounded  by  roping;  the  head  cringles  are  rope  or 
metal  loops  into  which  the  head  earings  are  spliced.  These 
earjngs  are  long  tails  of  rope,  usually  ratline  stuff,  and  are  used 
in  hauling  out  the  head  of  the  sail  along  the  yard,  stretching  it 
on  the  jacks  tag y  a  rod  fitted  to  the  yard,  to  which  the  sail  is 
fastened  by  means  of  robandSy  long  rope  yarn  stops,  hitched  in 
the  head  holes  of  the  sail,  these  being  small  stitched  holes  at 
each  seam,  worked  where  the  clothes  of  canvas  overlap.    Ro- 


SAILING  SHIP  RIGGING 


207 


bands  are  passed  up  forward  over  the  top  of  the  jackstay,  and 
down  through  the  head  hole  from  aft  forward,  until  end  is  nearly 
expended;  the  two  ends  are  then  brought  up  between  the  head 
of  the  sail  and  the  jackstay,  one  on  each  side,  and  knotted  on 
top  of  the  roband  with  a  square  knot. 

The  middle  roband,  which  may  be  of  houseline,  is  called  the 
midship  stop.  In  bending  sail  this  is  passed  and  then  the 
weather  and  lee  earings  are  hauled  out  (see  bending  sail). 

Roping  is  always  on  the  after  side  of  a  square  sail  with  one 
exception.  In  large  American  ships,  cross  leeches  are  fitted  on 
the  main  course,  running  from  the  head  cringles  to  the  middle 
of  the  foot  where  they  splice  into  a  ring  to  which  is  shackled  the 
midship  tack.  The  cross  leeches  consist  of  a  line  of  tabling, 
with  a  rope  sewn  down  the  center  on  the  forward  side  of  sail. 
The  use  of  the  cross  leeches  is  as  follows:  When  sailing  with 
wind  on  the  quarter  the  weather  clew  of  the  mains'le  is  hauled  up, 
leaving  the  cross  leech,  from  head  to  middle  of  foot,  to  take  the 
pull.  The  midship  tack  is  hauled  aft  and  belayed  to  a  cavil 
(a  heavy  square  belaying  pin)  on  the  main  fife  rail.  This  rig 
makes  the  mains'le  set  perfectly  under  these  conditions. 

Some  sailmakers  rope  "  down  leech "  portside  and  "  up 
leech  "  starboard  side — a  mere  technical  point. 

Tabling^  except  at  head,  is  always  sewn  on  the  forward  side  of 
the  sail,  and  the  belly  bands,  reef  bands,  and  lining  cloths  are 
also  sewn  on  forward,  leaving  the  after  side  smooth  for  the  action 
of  the  wind  when  close  hauled  or  sailing  with  the  wind  abeam. 

The  canvas  and  roping  of  the  sails  of  a  ship,  three  masted, 
square  rigged,  of  two  thousand  tons,  or  over,  are  as  follows : 


Courses 

Fore  No.  0  canvas 

Main         No.  I      " 
Crossjack  No.  1 


(( 


Bolt  rope,  %"  flexible 
steel  wire.  2"  tarred 
Russian  hemp  on  head. 


Lower  topsails* 

Fore       No.  0  canvas 
Main     No.  0      " 
Mizzen  No.  0      " 


Roping   same   as   courses. 


*  The  division  of  the  great  single  topsails  of  a  ship  into  lower  and  upper 
topsails,  by  means  of  the  stationary  lower  topsail  yard,  was  the  invention  of 
8 


208 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


SAILING  SHIP  RIGGING 


209 


Upper  topsails 

Fore      No.  1  canvas 
Main     No.  1      " 
Mizzen  No.  1      " 

Topgallant  sails 

Fore      No.  3  canvas 
Main     No.  3      " 
Mizzen  No.  3      " 

Royals 

Fore      No.  4  canvas 
Main     No.  4      " 
Mizzen  No.  4      " 

Skysails 

Fore      No.  5  canvas 
Main     No.  5      " 
Mizzen  No.  5      " 


Roping  next  size  smaller 
than  lower  topsails. 

Bolt  rope  flexible  wire  K" 
and  \y^'  Russian  hemp 
head. 


Bolt  rope,  wire  next  smaller. 
ll^"  Russian  hemp  at 
head. 


Roping  of  2"  manila  on  foot 
and  leech.  iVi"  Russian 
hemp  on  foot. 


Tabling  on  these  sails  is  as  follows : 

At  head,  3^  of  a  cloth  to  take  chafe  of  yards,  sewn  on  aitei 
side  of  sail. 
Courses  and  both  topsails,  tabling  of  Vi  cloth  at  leeches  and 

foot,  on  forward  side. 

Topgallant  and  royals,  tabling  of  Va  cloth  at  leeches  and 
foot,  on  forward  side. 

Skysails,  five  or  six  inches,  on  leech  and  foot. 

Spannker,  No.  2  canvas.    4  to  5  inch  manila  bolt  rope. 

an  American,  Captain  Frederick  Howes,  of  Brewster,  Massachusetts.  He 
first  put  the  rig  on  the  ship  ClimaXy  of  Boston,  which  he  commanded,  in  1853. 

This  was  the  greatest  advance  in  the  rigging  of  ships  since  the  beginning 
of  the  age  of  sail.  It  made  possible  the  huge  sailing  craft  of  the  present  day 
where  Captain  Howes*  improvement  extends   upward  to  the  topgallant  sails. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  here  that  two  American  shipmasters  stand  in  the 
forefront  of  achievement  in  the  history  of  their  profession.  Howes  with  his 
double  topsails,  in  seamanship,  and  Sumner  with  his  discovery  of  the  use  of 
the  line  of  position,  in  navigation.  It  is  clearly  before  the  present  generation 
of  American  seamen  that  they  will  be  expected  to  contribute  as  well  to  the 
advancement  of  theory  and  practice  on  the  sea. 


Staysails, 


Fore  topmast  staysail      No.  2  canvas 

Jib                                    No.  1 

« 

Flying  jib                          No.  2 

(( 

Outer  jib                          No.  3 

it 

Main  staysail                   No.  1 

ti 

"     topmast  staysail     No.  2 

ti 

"     topgallant  staysail  No.  3 

u 

"     royal  staysail          No.  4 

u 

Mizzen  staysail                No.  1 

u 

"       topmast  staysail  No.  3 

a 

"       royal  staysail       No.  5 

(( 

All  of  these  staysails  are  roped  with  manila  bolt  rope,  average 
size  33^''  to  21/2". 

I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  James  Stafford,  sailmaker,  of  26 
South  Street,  New  York,  for  this  valuable  table,  and  to  Mr. 
Henderson,  expert  sailmaker,  with  John  Curtin  of  South 
Street,  for  much  valuable  assistance  and  data  on  sail  mak- 
ing. 

Machine  sewing.  Power-driven  sewing  machines  are  now 
used  in  all  large  sail  lofts.  The  machine-sewn  seam  is  more 
uniform,  the  tension  is  regulated  and  the  result  is  superior  to 
hand-sewn  work.    Machines  use  a  12  to  15  ply  twine. 

All  roping  is  done  by  hand,  as  no  satisfactory  machine  has  as 
yet  been  developed  for  this  purpose. 

Eyelets,  The  brass-botmd  eyelets  used  for  screens  should 
not  be  used  on  sails.  Eyelets  for  sails  are  formed  by  ptmching  a 
hole  in  the  canvas,  about  a  quarter  inch  smaller  than  the  finished 
eyelet.  This  leaves  the  edges  of  the  canvas  under  natural 
tension.  Never  stab,  or  pry  a  hole  for  an  eyelet.  The  eyelets 
are  then  worked  around  a  small  rope  or  galvanized  iron  grommet. 
In  large  hauling  out  holes,  as  for  heavy  awnings,  the  stitching 
about  the  hole  (well-waxed  roping  twine)  is  further  protected 
by  crimping  in  a  brass  rim  to  prevent  cutting  the  twine.  Eye- 
lets are  generally  placed  where  seams  over  lap.  Head  eyelets 
are  always  so  placed. 

The  fittings  of  a  square  sail. 


t 


■t 


210 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


'For  Head 
Rope 


Head  cringles  are  now  made  of  iron,  as  shown  in  drawing. 
Clewy  or  spectacle  irons  at  the  clews  of  a  course  are  shown  in 
drawing.    Lighter  fittings  are  used  on  the  smaller  sails.    Where 

sails  do  not  clew  upj  such  as  some  modern  up- 
Crinale^    per  topsails  and  upper  topgallant  sails,  no  fit- 
/'    ting  for  clewline  blocks  is  needed. 

Reef  cringles  are  of  hemp  worked  into  the 
leech  rope  of  the  sail  and  a  heavy  galvanized 
iron  thimble  is  forced  into  them.  Where 
leech  ropes  are  of  wire  the  cringle  is  also  of 
wire  rope. 

The  bands,  reef^  and  helly  are  sewn  across 
the  forward  side  of  the  heavier  sails. 

Lining  and  chafing  cloths  are  sewn  on  in 
the  wake  of  gear,  such  as  leech  lines,  bunt- 
lineSy  etc. 

Reef  points  are  used  on  modern  sails,  they 
are  seized  to  the  grommet  holes  stitched  in  the  seams  as  de- 
scribed above.  These  reef  ^^^^^^^ 
holes  are  in  line  along  the  mid-  ^-^.r"  Hole 
die  of  the  reef  bands.  Reef 
points  differ  in  square  and  fore 
and  aft  sails.  In  square  sails 
the  reef  point  is  seized  on  the 
upper  side  of  the  grommet  hole. 
In  fore  and  aft  sails  it  is  seized 
on  the  under  side  of  the  grommet.  The  reason  for  this  is 
readily  apparent  (sketches). 

Double  reefs  are  no  longer  used  in  modern  sails.     Sails  are 
squarer,  have  less  drop  or  hoist^  and  a  single  reef  is  sufficient. 
Length  of  reef  points  is  as  follows : 


For 
Leech' 
Rope 


i-Beef  Poinf—^, 


Fore  and  Af+Sail 


Square  Sail 


How  reef  points  are  seized  into 
grommet  holes 


7  feet,  6  inches. 


Fore  course, 

Main  course, 

Crossjack  course,  no  reef. 

Upper  topsails,  all  masts,    7  feet. 

Topgallant  sails,  all  masts,  6  feet,  6  inches. 

The  length  of  reef  points  is  of  course  dependent  upon  the 
diameter  of  the  yards.    Some  seamen  fit  shorter  reef  points  at 


SAILING  SHIP  RIGGING 


211 


the  yard  arms.  Reef  points  are  brought  up,  around  the  reefed 
portion  of  the  sail  and  reef  or  square  knotted  on  top  of  yard. 
Reef  points  are  11/2  feet  shorter  on  forward  side  of  sail. 


Reefing  fore  saU.    Hauling  out  the  weather  reef  earing.     The  man  at  the 
earing  is  bracing  his  left  foot  against  the  flemish  horse 

Reef  earings,  are  hauled  out  to  a  ring  bolt  on  the  yard  arm 
and  passed  three  or  four  times,  to  get  a  purchase,  the  end  is 
then  taken  from  forward  ait  and  up  through  the  cringle  around 
the  yard  and  in  that  way  expended,  hitching  it  to  its  own  hauling 
out  part. 

The  Gear  of  a  Square  Sail 

Halyards  (haul  yards)  haul  the  yards  to  their  respective  mast- 
heads, except  the  stationary  yards. 
Stationary  yards  are: 

Fore  yard 

Main  yard 

Crossjack  yard 

All  lower  topsail  yards 

All  lower  topgallant  yards 

The  others  are  hoisting  yards, 


212 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


t 


TopsaifC/ew 


Upper  topsail 
Upper  topgallant  sail 
Topgallant  sail  (single) 
Royals 
Skysails 

The  sheets  haul  the  clews  of  the  sail  down  to  the  yard  below, 
or,  in  the  case  of  a  course,  they  haul  the  clew  aft. 

The  tackSj  in  the  case 
of  a  course,  haul  the  sail 
forward.  When  on  a  wind, 
a  course  is  hauled  forward 
by  the  tack  on  the  weather 
side,  and  aft  by  the  sheet 
on  the  lee  side.  Therefore 
a  vessel  is  said  to  be  on 
the  starboard  or  port  tack. 
Clewlines  attach  to  the 
clews,  and  haul  them  up, 
when  furling  sail.  Mod- 
ern clewlines  generally 
haul  up  to  the  yard  arms. 
Sails  are  now  very  wide 
compared  with  their  depth 
and  this  is  simpler  and 
makes  the  sail  easier  to 
stow.  Old  fashioned  prac- 
tice was  to  clew  into  the 
quarters  of  the  yard  form- 
ing the  sail  into  a  large 
bunt.  This  was  very  diffi- 
cult to  stow  in  heavy 
weather. 
Clew  garnets  are  the  clewlines  of  a  course.  These  stilkclew 
up  to  the  quarters  on  most  ships. 

Upper  topsails,  and  upper  topgallant  sails  do  not  have  clew- 
lines, as  the  yards  come  down  close  to  the  lower  topsail  and 
topgallant  yards  and  the  clews  need  not  be  started,  accept  for  a 
close  stow  when  they  may  be  slacked  up. 
Clewlines  perform  a  double  service. 


spectacle  irons.  The  ropes  shown  on 
the  sails  are  topsail  clewline,  topsail  sheet. 
Clew  garnet,  tack,  sheet,  on  the  course 


SAILING  SHIP  RIGGING 


213 


In  taking  in  a  square  sail  there  are  two  operations. 

Halyards  are  eased  down,  sheets  remain  fast,  clewlmes  are 
manned  and  we  have  the  order  "  clew  down.''  The  clewlines 
help  haul  the  yard  down  to  the  cap.  When  the  yard  is  down, 
the  sheets  are  eased  off,  and  we  have  the  order  "  clew  up,'  as 
further  hauling  on  the  clewlmes  then  brings  the  clews  up  to  the 

yard.  -      . 

The  downhauls,  on  upper  topsails  and  topgallant  sails  haul 
the  yards  down  in  furling.  It  will  be  noted  that  no  clewlines 
are  fitted  on  these  sails. 


A— Port  fore  reef  tackle— hauled  out  for  reefing 
B — Port  fore  topsail  reef  tackle 

Port  head  earing  has  just  been  hauled  out  and  men  on  the  yard  are 
passing  the  reef  points 

Bunilines  run  from  the  foot  of  a  sail  to  the  yard,  leading 
through  bulVs  eyes,  fitted  to  lizzards  on  the  yards  then  into  the 
mast.  They  lift  up  the  foot  of  the  sail  to  help  in  furling.  On 
most  sails  buntlines  are  now  carried  from  the  after  part  of  the 
yard,  down  under  the  foot  of  the  sail,  through  bulls  eyes  worked 
into  the  foot,  and  up  on  the  forward  side  of  the  sail  to  the  other 
buirs-eyes  on  the  top  of  the  yard.  These  lines  are  sometunes 
caUed  spilling  lines.    They  practically  furl  the  saU  from  the 


i 


214 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


SAILING  SHIP  RIGGING 


215 


deck.  Such  lines  are  only  used  where  the  clews  come  up  to  the 
yard  arms.  This  is  a  great  advantage  in  working  a  large  ship 
with  a  small  crew,  merchant  service  fashion. 

Leechlines,  are  the  same  as  buntlines,  and  are  fitted  to  the 
leeches  of  courses,  hauling  them  in  along  the  yard. 

Reef  tackles.  These  are  usually  fitted  to  courses,  and  the 
lower  block  hooks  into  the  reef  tackle  cringle,  below  the  reef 
cringle.  The  upper  block  hooks  to  an  eye  bolt  on  the  bottom  of 
the  yard  arm,  well  out.  In  reefing  the  tackles  lift  the  heavy 
canvas  up  to  the  yard  and  stretch  it  for  the  passing  of  the 
earing. 

The  purchase  is  generally  two  single  blocks,  standing  part  in 
becket  of  yard  arm  block. 

Leathering,  The  corners  of  all  square  sails  should  be  leath- 
ered. Canvas  is  sometimes  used,  but  is  not  as  satisfactory. 
Leather  is  soaked  in  fresh  water,  and  sewn  on  while  wet.  When 
dry  it  shrinks  tight  on  the  bolt  ropes. 

Fore  and  Aft  Sails 

The  canvas  for  a  large  schooner  will  run  about  as  follows : 

Fore 

Main 

Mizzen 

Jigger 

Spanker 

Driver 

Fore  staysail 

Jib 

Flying  jib 
Outer  jib 
Jib  topsail 

Bolt  roping  will  run  about  as  in  the  staysails  of  a  square  rigger. 

In  roping  a  large  gaff  and  boom  sail  the  bolt  rope  will  run 
about  51/^"  on  the  leech  and  4"  on  the  luflF  (or  "  mast "  as  sail- 
makers  term  it). 

Fore  and  aft  sails  are  usually  fitted  with  complete  sail  covers, 
of  No.  3  canvas,  or  even  lighter.  Sometimes  these  are  water- 
proofed. 


No. 

00 

(( 

00 

(( 

00 

it 

0 

u 

0 

u 

0 

tt 

0 

«< 

1 

« 

2 

« 

3 

<( 

4 

Roping  on  fore  and  aft  sails  is  generally  sewn  on  the  port  side, 
tabling  to  starboard. 

Marking,  The  names  of  all  sails  should  be  plainly  marked 
with  a  stencil  on  the  canvas  just  above  the  clew.  This  should 
be  left  near  the  edge  of  the  roll  in  making  up  for  easy  inspection. 
Stow  in  lockers  so  that  the  clews  are  near  the  front. 

Stowage,  Sail  locker  should  be  dry,  and  clean.  The  Chief 
Mate  should  see  that  all  officers  know  the  stowage  of  the  locker, 
himself  included,  so  that  a  required  sail  may  be  taken  out  at 
night  without  much  trouble. 

If  the  ship  is  troubled  with  rats,  place  a  good  deal  of  dry 
newspaper  in  the  locker  for  the  rats  to  chew  on. 


6orey 

fl 

Pll 

PIO 

oa     PS      ""^ 

P8     ^' 
P9 

P3 

'/2 

P2 

PI 

^ 

A. 

^ 

e'-7' 

P\l 

■31 
/pi3 

^    i      y     i 

^Square  '^           \ 
Clofh              1 

J 

^rT'b       **'^         Gores  in   Inches 

1 

1 

n 

l\^^(b     - 

>  /Z 

1 

Dr<tft  of  a  lower  topsaU 

Making  sails.  Sails  are  seldom  made  on  board  ship.  The 
writer  has  seen  light  sails  made  on  long  voyages,  but  this  is 
seldom  done  nowadays.  Should  it  be  necessary  to  make  a  sail, 
or  to  cut  down  an  old  sail  for  use  as  a  jury  rig,  make  an  accurate 
draft  of  the  sail  to  scale.  Lay  off  the  cloths  on  the  paper,  number 
them,  allow  for  tabling,  and  then  start  a  square  sail  at  the  mid- 
ship cloth,  and  a  fore  and  aft  sail  at  the  leech.  In  roping,  pay 
special  attention  to  the  work  so  that  when  the  roping  is  got  on  a 
stretch  the  sail  will  set  fiat. 

Fore  and  aft  sails.  The  parts  of  a  fore  and  aft  sail  are  illus- 
trated under  boat  sails.    The  principal  fittings  are  the  same  in 


216 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


SAILING  SHIP  RIGGING 


217 


—  — -"r — jr — :'• 

''Poach  " 


large  schooners.  The  "  leg  of  mutton  ''  sail  sometimes  set  on 
the  spanker  or  jigger  mast  is  called  a  ring  tail  when  hauled  aft 
and  not  set  to  a  boom. 

Barkentines*  The  sails  and  rigging  of  barkentines,  now  com- 
ing into  favor,  is  simply  a  combination  of  square  rigger  and 
schooner. 

Gaff  topsails.  These  sails  run  about  three  numbers  lighter 
than  the  sails  they  set  over,  and  are  roped  accordingly. 

Marconi  rig.  Very  lofty  leg 
of  mutton  mansail.  No  gaff 
topsail,  the  main  sail  is  topsail 
being  in  one  piece.  Head  hoists 
to  head  of  topmast.  Pole 
masts  are  used  with  this 
rig. 

Roach.  The  roach  of  a  sail  is  the  curving  in  or  out  of  a  foot 
or  leech  (sketch). 

Repairing  sails.  This  duty  devolves  upon  the  seaman,  and 
for  this  reason  a  great  deal  of  detail  has  been  given  with  regard 
to  sailmaklng.  A  sail  is  often  split,  cloths  become  weak  and 
new  pieces  are  needed.  Many  old  sails  get  thin  near  the  head, 
where  the  whole  weight  of  the  sail  is  carried  and  new  cloths  must 
be  put  in. 

Many  experienced  sailmakers  advocate  cutting  across  the 
cloths  at  an  angle  when  setting  in  new  canvas.  But  the  best 
practice  is  to  cut  across  square,  and  join  new  to  old  at  right 
angles  to  the  seams.  Where  a  number  of  new  cloths  are  to  lie 
side  by  side,  stagger  the  joints. 

In  repairing  old  sails  with  new  canvas  use  a  lighter  canvas  for 
the  new  work.  One  number  lighter  at  least.  On  a  very  old 
sail  use  two  numbers  lighter. 

Middle  stitching.  It  is  often  advisable  to  middle  stitch  old 
seams.  This  is  sometimes  called  "  snake  stitching."  This^  is 
fine  practice  for  the  boys  and  ordinary  seamen  in  trade  wind 
weather. 

Bending  Sail 

The  lower  sails  on  a  schooner  are  bent  on  deck,  that  is,  the 
gaff  is  lowered,  the  head  is  bent,  throat  and  peak  lashings  are 


^^OanfLine 


Sending  aloft  a  square  sail 


passed,  and  the  foot  is  bent  to  the  boom,  usually  to  a  bending 

jackstay,* 

Topsails  are  sent  aloft  and  are  bent  to  the  hoops,  and  tack 

and  sheet  hooked  on.    The  halyard 

is   sent  down  to  the  deck  and  is 

used  as  a  gantline. 

Staysails  are  bent  to  the  hanks 
as  the  head  of  the  sail  is  hoisted 
along  the  stay  by  the  halyards. 
Tack  lashing  passed,  and  the  sail  is 
ready  for  business. 

In  bending  square  sails  the  sail  is 
made  up  for  bending,  head  outj  ro- 
bands  inserted  in  head  holes,  head 
earings  clear,  and  clews  out.  The 
sail  is  loosely  stopped  with  spun- 
yarn,  and  the  middle  is  taken  up  by 
a  gantline,  this  being  a  single  rope, 
or  a  single  block,  hooked  to  a  strap  about  the  sail. 

*  A  great  deal  depends  on  the  way  a  new  sail  is  bent  and  on  its  care  during 
the  first  few  times  it  is  in  use.  The  first  operation  of  bending  a  mainsail  is 
to  make  the  throat  fast,  being  sure  that  there  is  enough  slack  canvas  left 
there  so  that  when  the  gaff  is  peaked  up  there  will  not  be  an  imdue  strain. 
The  head  is  then  pulled  out  "  hand  taut,"  the  peak  lashed  in  place  and  the 
head  then  laced  to  the  gaff — ^not  with  one  long  lacing  round  and  round  the 
gaff,  but  preferably  by  a  lashing  at  each  grommet.  If  a  single  lacing  is  used 
it  should  be  hitched  at  each  grommet,  as  otherwise  the  sail  will  hang  from  the 
peak.  Then  hoist  the  sail  and  seize  on  each  hoop.  If  blowing  too  fresh  the 
gaff  may  be  hoisted  only  a  few  feet  and  each  hoop  triced  up  as  it  is  made  fast. 
Then  secure  the  tack,  either  by  a  shackle  or  a  lashing,  make  the  clew  fast  and 
lace  the  foot  to  the  boom.  A  tag  will  be  found  on  the  sail  giving  the  measure- 
ments of  head  and  foot.  Do  not  guess  at  these,  but  measure  them  on  gaff 
and  boom,  and  do  not  haul  the  sail  out  beyond  the  proper  points.  .  .  . 

It  is  probable  that  the  art  of  sailmaking  has  never  reached  as  high  a  degree 
of  perfection  (especially  as  regards  yacht  sails)  as  at  the  present  time,  and 
the  advent  of  steam  and  the  gasolene  motor  hasn't  driven  the  sailmaker  out 
of  business,  as  many  predicted.  Indeed,  the  sailmakers  have  specialized 
not  only  on  yacht  and  schooner  sails,  with  sails  for  the  occasional  square 
rigger  that  still  ploughs  the  sea,  but  on  vessel  awnings,  boat  covers,  spray 
hoods  and  wind  cloths  and  the  many  kinds  of  canvas  work  required  on  the 
modem  steamship.  Indeed,  good  sailmakers  are  in  great  demand,  and  the 
larger  sail  lofts  sometimes  have  difficulty  in  getting  enough  men  that  have  had 
experience  in  all  the  intricacies  of  broadseaming,  roping,  turning  in  cringles 
and  thimbles,  and  the  like.— Henry  C.  Ames  in  Yachting, 


,1 


I 


« 


218 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


SAILING  SHIP  RIGGING 


219 


Hoist  up  middle  of  sail  well  above  the  yard  to  which  it  is  to 
be  bent,  send  it  up  forward  of  the  yard.  Have  men  on  the  yard 
lead  out  the  head  earings.  If  a  very  large  sail,  hook  handy 
billy  to  each  head  cringle.  Haul  away  on  these  and  lower  gant- 
line.  Pass  midship  stop,  haul  out  head  earings,  pass  robands, 
hook  and  mouse  all  gear. 

To  unbend,  haul  up  sail  in  gear,  cast  off  midship  stop,  pass 
strop  around  middle  of  sail,  hook  gantline,  haul  taut,  cut  robands 
and  ease  away  on  head  earings,  having  detached  all  gear. 

To  shift  sail.  Sail  is  usually  shifted  at  sea  when  making  a 
passage,  from  fine  to  bad  weather  or  vice  versa.  This  is  done, 
one  or  two  sails  at  a  time  and  a  smart  crew  can  shift  the  canvas 
in  a  day  or  two.  All  gear  is  kept  aloft  and  unhooked  and  hooked 
as  the  case  may  be  as  the  sails  come  up.  Watch  the  weather 
carefully  before  starting  this  work. 

To  bend  a  course  in  blowing  weather.  Stretch  the  head  of 
the  sail  across  the  deck  as  near  as  possible;  bend  the  gear, 
then  bring  the  leeches  of  the  sail  as  near  where  it  should  haul 
up  on  the  yard  as  possible,  then  stop  sails  well  about  every  two 
or  three  feet;  besides  the  yard  buntlines,  have  one  in  'midship 
of  the  sail.  When  ready,  man  altogether,  and  run  up  to  the 
yard;  then  the  sail  may  be  bent  and  furled  with  very  little 
diflficulty. 

Care  of  sails.  At  sea  sails  naturally  dry  out,  as  sail  is  set 
whenever  it  will  draw.  Do  not  stow  wet  sails  in  the  locker  with 
other  dry  canvas. 

In  port  always  loose  sail  after  each  rain.  Be  certain  to  do  this 
in  warm  weather  as  canvas  will  sweat.  Even  if  no  rain  has  fallen 
loose  sail  when  conditions  are  favorable. 

When  alongside  unbend  sail  and  stow  away.  Stow  all  running 
gear,  reeving  off  temporary  braces  and  gear  with  old  stuff. 

When  in  an  open  harbor  do  not  strip  the  vessel  of  all  sail. 
Leave  enough  sail  on  the  yards  to  work  ship  with  in  case  o|  a 
sudden  blow. 

The  writer  recalls  an  incident  on  the  auxiliary  bark  Frithjof 
in  the  arctic.  Her  sails  were  never  loosed  and  he  thought  it 
a  good  idea  to  try  them  on  the  voyage  home.  As  soon  as 
sheeted  home  they  began  to  melt  away,  the  canvas  being  thor- 
oughly rotten.    A  few  months  later,  in  1907,  this  vessel  was  lost 


with  all  hands  on  the  coast  of  Iceland.  Her  canvas  had  not 
been  replaced,  the  spare  sails  being  as  poor  as  the  ones  we 
lost.    She  went  ashore  before  a  heavy  gale,  being  unable  to 

ratch  off. 

IV 

Canvas  Work 

On  board  ship,  whether  sail  or  steam,  there  is  a  great  deal  of 
canvas  fitting.  The  following  notes  may  be  of  service  and  are 
given  as  a  guide. 

Tarpaulins.  For  schooners,  where  the  hatches  are  liable  to 
be  under  water.  No.  1  canvas  is  used,  at  least  for  the  top  cover. 

Steamers  use  No.  4  can-  j^^ksfay^ 

vas,  waterproofed. 

Tarpaulins  are  made 
large  enough  to  cover  the 
hatch  and  fold  down  six 
inches  below  the  battens. 
The  custom  is  to  use  three 
tarpaulins  one  over  an- 
other. 

Tarpaulin  canvas  comes 
waterproofed  in  the  bolt, 
and  the  seams  are  treated  after  making. 

Awnings.  Large  steamer  awnings  are  made  of  No.  2  canvas. 
Ridge  rope  2"  manila.    Bolt  rope  2"  manila  or  IV2  inch  hemp. 

Stops  on  a  heavy  awning 
should  be  fitted  to  two 
grommet  holes  as  shown 
in  sketch. 

Smaller  awnings  run 
down  to  No.  5  canvas. 

Awnings  are  held  up  by 
a  euphroe  and  crow's  foot, 
the  latter  with  ends  spliced 
into  the  ridge  rope. 

In   tropical  trades  it  is 
sometimes  the  custom  to 
fit  double  awnings,  the  up- 
per one  of  white  canvas,  the  lower  one,  about  a  foot  below  it, 


i  Awn/ng 

A,  Hole  into  which  awning  stop   C  is 

spliced 

B,  Hauling-out  hole 
E,  Seam 

D,  Jacks  lay 


Wind  sail 


220 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


t 


of  dark  blue  canvas  of  lighter  grade.  The  lower  awning  should 
be  furled  at  night.  The  reason  for  this  rig  is  obvious.  Side 
screens  are  fitted  below  the  edge  of  the  lower  awning. 

To  house  an  awning.  On  the  approach  of  a  squall,  cast  off 
stops  and  bring  them  down  below  the  rail,  or  if  no  rail,  close  to 
the  deck,  securing  where  handy.  This  keeps  out  the  wind  and 
rain.  Many  ships,  where  sudden  squalls  come  up  at  night, 
always  house  or  furl  awnings  after  sunset. 

Windsails.  Windsails  find  much  use  in  hot  climates  where 
extra  ventilation  is  needed. 

Make  of  No.  5  or  6  canvas.  Roped  with  21  thread  manila  or 
hemp  (sketch). 

Bridge  dodgers.  No.  1  canvas,  roped  and  fitted  with  grommet 
eyes  for  lacing  or  lashing  to  jackstay. 

Crowds  nest  dodgers,  Nos.  1  or  2  and  3  canvas.  When 
painted  use  No.  4  canvas,  as  paint  makes  dodger  much  heavier. 

Wet  before  painting  with  soapy  water. 
Takes  less  paint  and  keeps  canvas  half  way 
pliable. 

Rail  screens.  No.  5  or  6  canvas.  Brass 
eyelets  along  tabling,  lace  top  and  bottom. 
Do  not  paint,  keep  scrubbed. 

Ventilator  covers.  No.  3  to  6  canvas. 
Fit  with  draw  strings  long  enough  to  run 
down  to  handle  of  ventilator.  Covers  often 
blow  off  and  this  keeps  them  on  board. 

Boat  covers,  10  and  12  ounce  duck,  gen- 
erally used.    Should  not  be  too  heavy. 

Mast  coats.  Use  No.  1  canvas.  Usually 
treated  to  make  fire  proof.  Always  painted. 
Oil  bags.  Use  No.  2  canvas,  cross  sec- 
tion triangular,  bag  shaped  like  a  beech  nut, 
with  roping  of  15  thread  hemp  at  joints.  At 
bottom  the  bags  of  good  design  have  a  drip  pipe  filled  with 
oakum  (sketch). 

A  vessel  kept  in  good  order  will  have  neat  canvas  covers  for 
hoze  and  wire,  reels,  for  sounding  machines,  binnacles,  pelorus, 
telegraphs,  cargo  winches  and  other  fittings. 


OilBaq^ 


Filled 
wifh 
Oakum 


I 


Canvas  oil  bag 


CHAPTER  7 


DECK  MACHINERY 


The  various  mechanical  devices,  engines,  winches,  capstans, 
windlasses,  steering  and  towing  machinery,  and  deck  pumps, 
are  usually  taken  care  of  by  the  engineering  force  of  the  vessel, 
but  their  use,  and  very  often  their  management,  is  part  of  the 
duty  of  the  deck  department  and  a  book  on  seamanship  may  well 
include  a  brief  description  of  the  most  usual  types  of  these 

machines. 

The  windlass,  steering  engine  and  towing  engme,  will  be 
treated  under  later  divisions  of  Standard  Seamanship,  In  this 
chapter  we  will  confine  our  attention  to  winches,  capstans,  and 
deck  pumps. 


Cargo  winches. 

There  are  in  general  six  types  of  steam  winches  in  common 
use  on  board  ship.* 

1.  Friction  drum  winch.     Drum  held  to  gears  by  cone  friction 

band. 

2.  Winch  having  keyed  drum  and  reverse  link  or  valve  motion. 

3.  Steam  reverse  valve  winch  operated  by  a  single  lever.    Rais- 

ing lever  hoists  the  load,  lowering  lever  pays  out  the  rope 
and  lowers  load. 

4.  Friction  gear  winches. 

5.  Two  speed  winch.    The  favorite  English  type  and  used  on 

American  vessels  frequently  to  handle  extra  heavy  booms. 

6.  Wmches  having  winch  heads  but  no  drimi;   used  for  light 

loads  and  quick  handling  with  manila  rope  hoist. 
In  addition  to  these  types  there  are  of  course  many  combina- 
tions of  the  same;  for  instance,  friction  drum  with  link  motion, 

*  Mr.  J.  S.  Carswell,  of  the  Lidgerwood  Manufacturing  Company's  Marine 
Department,  very  kindly  supplied  me  with  valuable  data  on  ship  winches. 

221 


! 


I 


222 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


varying  numbers  and  arrangements  of  winch  heads,  and  also 
multiple  drum  winches. 

Double  drum  winches  of  the  friction  type  are  quite  common 
on  the  smaller  ships  where  they  do  not  have  room  for  two 
winches  at  a  hatch. 

When  operating  under  high  steam  pressure,  say  over  125  lbs., 
the  ordinary  slide  valve  commonly  used  on  winches  is  not  suc- 
cessful, and  piston  valves  are  required. 


Steam  reverse  valve  winch.  Drum  keyed  to  gear.  To  hoist  load^  raise 
lever.  To  lower  load^  lower  lever.  Brake  shown  at  right  edge  of  cut  is  for 
emergency  only. 

Winches  may  be  made  with  straight  or  herringbone  gears. 
The  following  rules  for  the  operation  and  care  of  ship's  auxili- 
aries have  been  drawn  up  by  the  Lidgerwood  Company: 

1.  Auxiliaries  of  any  type  will  give  better  service  if  they  are 
oiled  up  thoroughly  and  turned  over  at  least  every  day,  whether 
the  ship  be  in  port  or  at  sea. 

2.  On  steam  auxiliaries  drip  cocks  should  be  opened  before 
each  operation  and  the  throttle  opened  very  slowly  and  steam 
chests  and  cylinders  given  a  chance  to  warm  up  before  the  engine 
is  operated. 

The  Dew  Valve  is  an  automatic  relief  valve  for  draining  steam 


DECK  MACHINERY 


223 


cylinders,  and  has  proven  efficient  on  auxiliary  ship  machinery 

such  as  winches,  windlasses  and  pumps. 

3.  Care  should  be  taken  that  every  bearing  and  outside 
rubbing  surface  is  lubricated.  This  is  usually  done  twice  a 
day  when  in  operation. 

4.  On  shipboard  no  lubricant  is  used  in  the  steam  chest  or 
cylinders  on  account  of  the  steam  being  condensed  and  returned 
to  boiler.  The  Lidgerwood  Mfg.  Co.  makes  it  a  practice  on 
ship's  auxiliaries  to  coat  all  cylinders  and  rubbing  parts  of  the 


A  compound  geared  winch  (two  speed).    Gear  shift  shown  at  back  of  winch. 

reciprocating  parts  with  a  special  compound  of  graphite  and 
vaseline.  The  engines  are  given  a  run  before  leaving  the  shops 
and  this  compotmd  is  thoroughly  worked  into  the  rubbing  sur- 
faces. 

5.  Care  should  be  taken  in  winding  the  rope  on  the  drum  to 
see  that  it  lays  evenly  across  the  face  and  in  succeeding  layers. 
This  should  be  given  exceptional  care  at  the  start  and  should 
be  watched  as  closely  as  possible  during  the  operation  of  the 
winches.  Due  to  the  frequent  short  leads  on  shipboard  it  is 
hard  to  have  a  perfect  rope  lay.  The  life  of  the  rope  and  of  the 
face  of  the  drum  will  be  very  materially  lengthened  by  care 
being  taken  in  this  respect.  The  rope  leads  from  drum  to  first 
sheave  should  be  as  great  as  possible  at  all  times,  care  being 
taken  in  this  respect  especially  when  making  new  installations. 
This  materially  aids  the  lay  of  the  rope. 


224 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


6.  Winch  heads  shotild  be  carefully  polished  before  ship- 
ment and  should  be  kept  so.  It  will  materially  increase  the 
life  of  the  manila  rope  used  on  them.  When  not  in  operation 
they  should  be  coated  with  lubricant  to  prevent  rust.  As  soon 
as  grooving  appears  on  the  face  of  any  winch  head  due  to  cutting 
from  slipping  the  rope  too  long  in  one  position,  this  face  should 
immediately  be  turned  ofif  to  eliminate  such  grooving. 

7.  Care  should  be  taken  to  watch  for  any  knocks  that  may 
occur  in  the  engine  elements.  This  usually  means  a  loose 
bearing.  If  the  bearings  are  tightened  down  promptly  on  dis- 
covery of  knocks,  .they  will  last  longer,  wear  more  evenly,  and 
save  wear  on  the  engine  elements.  The  heating  of  bearings  or 
rubbing  parts  is  due  either  to  insufficient  lubrication,  improper 
adjustment  (too  tight),  or  grit  in  bearing. 

8.  Gearing  should  be  kept  lubricated.  Experience  has  indi- 
cated that  in  normal  weather  a  good  lubricant  is  "  Crater  Com- 
poimd  "  manufactured  by  the  Texas  Co.  In  very  severe  weather 
this  becomes  too  stiff  and  a  lighter  compoimd  "  Thuban  Com- 
pound "  is  more  desirable.  Many  other  good  lubricants  are  of 
course  available. 


' 


A  friction  gear  winch.    Note  absence  of  cogs.    For  fast  light  loads.  \ 

9.  Worm  gearing,  which  is  more  commonly  used  on  steering 
engines  than  other  types  of  auxiliaries,  should  be  furnished  so 
that  the  worm  will  run  in  an  oil  bath,  and  this  bath  should  be 
kept  full.  The  worm  is  usually  provided  with  some  sort  of 
adjustable  thrust  washers,  and  care  should  be  taken  that  these 
are  kept  in  adjustment  and  the  worm  kept  in  a  central  position 
as  regards  the  worm  wheel. 


DECK  MACHINERY 


225 


10.  Bearings  should  be  occasionally  examined  to  see  that  they 
are  wearing  evenly,  and  the  gearing  should  be  examined  to  see 
that  it  is  in  proper  mesh.  Should  the  drum  shaft  bearings 
chance  to  wear  more  quickly  than  the  crank  shaft  bearings,  the 
gear  may  tend  to  drop  toward  the  pinion  and  bottom,  possibly 
breaking  the  teeth  of  one  or  the  other. 

11.  On  friction  dnmi  winches  the  load  should  be  lowered  on 
the  brake  and  not  by  slippmg  the  frictions.  The  brake  is  de- 
signed for  the  purpose  of  slipping  to  lower  the  load,  while  if  the 
frictions  are  continually  slipped  they  will  wear  quickly,  perhaps 
bum,  and  present  an  uncertain  holding  power  which  may  result 
in  disaster,  possibly  dropping  a  load  and  badly  damaging  the 
ship  or  injuring  stevedores  in  the  hold. 

12.  Electrically  driven  auxiliaries  must  have  the  electrical 
equipment  protected  from  the  weather.  When  auxiliaries  can- 
not be  imder  cover  they  may  be  protected  in  several  other  ways. 

1.  Watertight  electrical  equipment  supplied. 

2.  Waterproof  motor — controller  and  resistance  mounted  below 

deck. 

Note:  This  cannot  usually  be  done  on  freighters  because 
there  is  danger  of  the  hot  resistance  igniting  or  exploding 
cargo  in  the  hold. 

3.  Removable  watertight  casings  mounted  over  equipment. 

13.  On  electrical  auxiliaries  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the 
commutator  and  brushes  free  from  oil  and  dirt. 


Repairs 

14.  It  is  the  present  custom  of  almost  all  large  manufacturers 
to  give  their  finished  products  serial  numbers.  Any  officer  in 
charge  of  auxiliaries  should  be  instructed  to  learn  (from  in- 
quiring of  the  manufacturer  direct  if  information  is  not  otherwise 
available)  where  these  serial  numbers  are  placed  on  the  auxiliary, 
and  in  ordering  repair  parts  the  serial  nimiber  of  the  auxiliary 
for  which  the  parts  are  used  should  always  be  stated.  On 
Lidgerwood  steam  winches  and  steering  engines  the  serial  num- 
bers are  stamped  on  the  tops  of  the  rear  cylinder  heads  and  on 
the  rear  ends  of  the  top  surface  of  the  slide  bars.  On  electric 
auxiliaries  they  are  stamped  or  cast  on  plates  mounted  on  the 
resistance  and  are  stamped  on  the  side  of  the  bedplate  under 
the  right  hand  main  bearing. 

15.  On  most  auxiliaries,  particularly  single  drum  winches,  the 
hand  should  also  be  stated.  The  hand  is  determined  by  the 
side  on  which  the  operating  levers  are  placed  viewing  the  aux- 
iliary from  the  cylinder  end. 

16.  Repair  parts  should  be  ordered  by  name  of  part,  and  the 
number  wanted  should  be  given  rather  than  ordering  by  sets. 


) 


226 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


On  American  craft  the  reverse  valve  t3rpe  of  winch  is  gaining 
in  favor,  while  foreign  practice  favors  the  link  motion.  The 
link  motion,  by  the  way,  is  the  famous  Stephenson's  Link. 
With  a  working  pressure  of  100  lbs.  per  inch,  a  good  steam  winch 
should  attain  a  hoisting  speed  of  250  feet  per  minute  slinging  a 
one  ton  load.  The  loads  of  course  depend  upon  the  tjrpe  of 
cargo,  and  the  gear  used.  With  heavy  loads  winch  speeds  must 
decrease. 

Electric  winches  are  gaining  in  favor  and  will  undoubtedly  be 
largely  used  when  motor  ships  become  more  common.  The  elec- 
tric winch  is  more  flexible  than  the  steam  winch,  the  decks  are 
kept  clear  of  steam  pipes,  heat  losses  are  avoided,  and  power  is 
available  at  shorter  notice,  with  chance  of  freezing  up  eliminated. 


An  electric  cargo  winch.     Control  at  right. 

The  first  cost  of  electric  equipment  is  considerably  higher 
than  for  steam  winches;  but  offsetting  this  are  a  number  of 
important  advantages.  The  electric  winch  is  more  economical 
to  operate ;  it  is  claimed  that  it  cuts  loading  or  unloading  time  in 
half,  affords  much  better  control  of  the  load,  eliminates  standby 
charges  that  increase  steam  operation  costs  when  delays  occur, 
makes  the  winches  available  any  time  on  short  notice  and 
eliminates  trouble. 

The  greater  speed  with  electric  winches  is  credited  to  the 
degree  of  control  which  the  operators  have  over  the  load.    It 


DECK  MACHINERY 


227 


can  be  dropped  rapidly  to  within  a  few  feet  of  the  bottom  of  the 
hold  and  then  slowed  down  to  enable  it  to  be  swung  into  place. 
The  return  of  the  empty  hook  is  also  made  much  faster  than 
with  steam  winches. 

The  positive  unwinding  drive  of  the  electric  winch  brings  down 
the  empty  hook  as  rapidly  as  desired.  Should  the  current  fail 
during  operation,  the  automatic  brake  will  hold  the  load  sus- 
pended until  the  current  comes  on  again.  The  motors  are  pro- 
tected against  overload  on  low  voltage  by  a  double  point  circuit 
breaker  and  contactor  panel.  If  an  overload  comes  on  the  circuit 
breaker  goes  out  and  is  cut  in  again  automatically  when  the 
control  lever  is  returned  to  neutral  position.  A  single  lever 
controls  each  winch,  and  no  foot  brakes  are  required.  It  is 
notable  that  levers  and  directions  of  movement  are  the  same 
as  in  the  old  steam  winches,  so  that  new  operators  have  no 
difficulty  in  "  breaking  in.'^ 

Trouble  heretofore  experienced  with  electric  machinery  above 
deck  is  believed  to  be  due  very  largely  to  inadequate  protection 
from  salt  air  and  water.  As  now  installed,  the  motors  are  not 
merely  weatherproof,  but  are  made  absolutely  watertight.  The 
controlling  apparatus  is  enclosed  in  a  watertight  steel  case  with 
two  watertight  doors,  which  can  be  opened  for  ventilation 
during  use.  The  lever  shaft  which  operates  the  controller  is 
carried  through  the  side  of  the  control  case  in  a  stuflftng  box, 
packed  like  a  piston  rod.  Wires  are  led  through  watertight 
conduit.  The  motors  are  direct  geared  to  the  winding  drum, 
and  friction  drums  and  hand  brakes  are  entirely  eliminated. 

n 

The  Placement  and  Use  of  Cargo  Winches 

The  following  series  of  valuable  photographs  have  been  given 
to  Standard  Seamanship  by  Mr.  Ernest  Pulsford,  manager  of  the 
Marine  Department  of  the  Lidgerwood  Manufacturing  Company. 
Careful  study  of  the  location  and  method  of  rigging  and  operating 
ship's  winches  has  been  made  by  this  company.  The  author 
wishes  to  express  his  appreciation  of  the  generous  way  in  which 
these  photographs  are  made  available  for  the  benefit  of  seamen 
and  all  others  concerned  in  the  efficient  design  and  operation  of 
vessels. 


iv 


y 


228 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


DECK  MACHINERY 


229 


Illustration  A  shows  a  pair  of  single  friction  drum  winches 
with  reverse  gear,  installed  at  the  hatch. 

Stevedores  lay  particular  stress  upon  the  advantage  gained 
with  these  winches  in  overhauling  the  empty  line  by  the  reverse 
gear. 

A  Second  Mate  in  referring  to  these  winches  said :  "  They 
will  handle  any  kind  of  load,  and  you  don't  have  to  wear  a  man 


A.    Single  friction  drum  winches, 

out  overhauling  a  light  line  all  day— just  kick  it  over  with  the 
reverse." 

Illustration  B  shows  an  interesting  group  of  single  friction 
drum  winches.  At  the  hatch  in  the  foreground  the  stevedores 
are  operating  a  pair  of  two  speed  (compound  gear)  winches  with 
single  friction  drum.  These  two  speed  winches  are  designed 
for  handling  cargo  of  greatly  varjdng  weights.  Forward  of  the 
mast  are  two  single  friction  drum  winches. 

Illustration  C  shows  the  rigging  provided  for  fixing  one  boom 
over  the  hatch  and  the  other  over  the  side  of  the  vessel,  both 
whips  being  permanently  attached  to  a  single  hook  forming  what 
is  called  "  yard  and  stay  method  "  or  "  burton  method."  These 
winches  are  installed  so  that  one  operator,  standing  where  he 
can  see  down  into  the  hatch  while  hoisting,  operates  both 


B.     Two-speed  single  friction  drum  winches. 
Note-  The  figures  on  the  hatch  coaming  are:  The  register  number, 
net  tonnage.    The  vesseVs  signal  letters  of  the  International  Code. 


The 


C,    Reverse  lever  winches  at  hatch.     Wooden  steamer. 


(• 


230 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


H! 


winches,  the  one  to  hoist  and  the  other  to  swing  the  load  out  to 
the  dock  or  barge  alongside. 

Illustration  D  shows  "  two  speed  "  ship  winches  (compound 
gear).  They  are  particularly  well-adapted  for  use  with  heavy 
derrick  booms ,  the  base  of  such  a  boom  showing  in  the  illus- 
tration. 

These  drums  are  so  constructed  that  they  may  be  bolted  fast 
to  the  friction  gear,  and  the  winch  used  as  a  fixed  drum  reverse 


D.    Heavy  duty  winches. 

motion  winch.  This  is  generally  done  when  hoisting  very  heavy 
loads,  the  drum  being  driven  through  the  compound  intermediate 
gear  giving  high  hoisting  duty  at  low  speed.  The  drum  is  of 
ample  size  to  hold  the  large  amount  of  rope  required  with  the 
multi-part  blocks  generally  used  on  the  heavy  booms. 

The  same  winch  rapidly  handles  light  loads  on  the  single  gear 
reduction,  the  drum  being  operated  through  the  friction. 

A  foot  operated  band  brake  is  provided  on  the  drum  to  control 
the  lowering  of  the  load  when  hoisting  with  the  friction,  or  to  hold 
the  drum  while  hoisting  on  the  winch  head. 


DECK  MACfflNERY 


231 


niustration  E  shows  a  "  side  by  side  "  double  friction  drum 

winch. 

When  this  photograph  was  taken  only  one  of  the  drums  was 
being  operated.  Each  drum  operates  independently  of  the  other, 
and  hoisting  and  lowering  can  be  done  on  both  drums  simul- 
taneously, or  independently,  by  two  operators.  The  operators 
stand  one  on  each  side  of  the  engine,  each  operating  the  drum 
on  his  side.  Each  side  of  the  engine  is  the  same,  with  separate 
throttle  valves,  and  each  man  handles  his  own  friction  lever, 


E,    *'  Side  by  side  "  winch. 

foot  brake  and  throttle  valve,  entirely  independent  of  the  other. 
The  loads  are  hoisted  by  the  friction  drums,  then  taken  upon  the 
brakes,  and  either  held  or  lowered. 

The  advantage  of  this  type  of  winch  is  that  a  hoisting  line  is 
always  attached  to  each  drum  and  they  are  always  ready  for 
immediate  use,  saving  delay  in  changing  ropes  which  is  necessary 
when  using  a  single  drum  engine  working  two  booms. 

Illustration  F  shows  two  of  our  double  side  by  side  friction 
drum  winches,  each  arranged  for  the  operation  of  two  booms, 
using  one  winch  with  two  booms  at  each  hatch. 

This  is  a  very  good  illustration  of  an  equipment  suitable  for 


t 


\\f 


232 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


F.    Light  duty  "  side  by  side '»  winches. 


G.    Operator's  platform  and  raised  winch  bed. 


DECK  MACHINERY 


233 


the  smaUer  size  cargo  steamers,  showing  how  the  compact  double 
drum  winch  can  be  more  conveniently  installed  on  such  ships 
than  two  single  drum  winches. 

Illustration   G  shows  how  an  experienced   marine   super- 
intendent set  the  winches.    It  is  a  good  form  of  structural 

foundation.  . 

This  foundation  serves  the  three-fold  purpose  of  securmg  the 
winch,  levelmg  it,  and  raising  it  above  the  wash  of  the  sea. 


H,    The  yard  and  stay  method  of  hoisting  cargo. 

The  illustration  also  shows  an  operator's  platform  adjusted  to 
correct  height  for  easy  handling  of  the  levers,  and  which  also 
gives  the  operator  a  full  view  of  the  hold. 

Illustration  H  shows  the  "  yard  and  stay  "  or  *'  burtoning 
method  of  hoisting  cargo. 

Two  booms,  with  two  winches,  are  generally  used  at  each  hatch. 
One  boom  is  swung  over  the  center  of  the  hatch,  carrying  the 
main  hoisting  whip  leading  from  the  drum  of  one  of  the  winches, 
and  this  whip  hoists  the  cargo  from  the  hold.  The  other  boom 
is  swung  out-board,  and  the  second  winch  operating  the  whip 
on  this  boom  swings  the  load  after  it  is  hoisted  clear  of  the 
hatch,  and  then  lowers  it  alongside.  In  loading,  the  operation  is 
reversed. 


ti 


r 


iU 


234 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


There  is  one  operator  at  each  winch.  The  far  winch  has  just 
hoisted  the  load  from  the  wharf,  and  the  near  winch  is  pulling 
the  load  over  the  hatchway,  preparatory  to  lowering  it  into  the 
hold ;  the  far  operator  releasing  the  friction,  controlling  the  height 
and  swing  of  the  load  by  the  brake.  When  the  load  arrives  over 
the  hatch  it  is  lowered  into  the  hold,  controlled  by  the  brake  on 
the  near  winch. 


/.     Loading  with  a  single  winch. 

Illustration  /  shows  a  method  of  cargo  handling  by  the  use  of 
single  friction  drum  winch  particularly  well  adapted  to  the 
handling  of  light  loads.  With  this  method  one  winch  and  one 
boom  are  employed,  the  boom  being  held  over  the  center  of  the 
hatch.  The  winch  hoists  the  load  from  wharf  or  lighter  sliding 
it  on  a  broad  skid,  and  when  the  load  clears  the  bulwark  it  swings 
over  the  hatch  by  gravity.  The  hatch  tender  by  means  of  a 
guide  line  prevents  the  load  from  taking  an  excessive  swing  and 
bringing  up  against  the  hatch  coaming.  The  load  is  then  lowered 
into  the  hold  by  the  brake  and  friction.  As  soon  as  the  load  is 
unhooked  the  hatch  tender  snaps  the  hoisting  line,  twirling  it 
over  the  side  of  the  ship,  and  it  is  in  position  to  hook  on  the  next 
load.  With  an  experienced  man  on  the  guide  line  remarkably 
rapid  work  is  done  in  this  way. 


DECK  MACfflNERY 


235 


n 

Capstans  and  Warping  Winches 
Steam  capstans.    These  should  be  readily  unkeyed  for  use 
by  hand  with  pigeonholes  and  bars  ready.    Capstans  driven  by 
power,  either  steam  or  elec- 
tricity are  generally  placed  on 
the  forecastle  head,  amidship, 
and  on  the  bows,  depending 
upon  the  size  of  the  vessel. 
Additional  capstans  just   for- 
ward of  the  bridge,  amidship, 
and  on  the  quarters  as  well  as 
in  the  stern  are  to  be  found  on 
large  vessels  for  use  in  hand- 
ling lines  when  going  alongside. 
The  large  mooring  lines  are  so 
heavy,  and  the  side  out  of  wa- 
ter so  great,  that  such  power  ^    ^eck  capstan    {see  illustration    of 
must  be  used  both  in  docking    forecastle  head  capastan,  page  641), 
and  in  handling  lines  with  the 

change  in  tide.    The  use  and  location,  with  leads,  bollards,  and 
reels  for  wire  should  be  understood  by  the  officers  charged  with 


--Head 

,' Pigeon  Moles 

— -Barrel 
■i^  Whelps 


^^.-Pawls 

~-Pawl  F'inq 

-Base 


« 


Docking  winch. 


236 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


DECK  MACHINERY 


237 


their  use,  and  petty  officers  should  also  be  familiar  with  their 
working. 

Docking  and  warping  winches.  These  take  the  place  of 
capstans  in  some  vessels  and  are  often  preferred.  They  are 
geared  at  least  10  to  1  and  have  large  winch  heads.  Many 
tankers  are  fitted  with  these  winches  on  the  after  deck. 

When  about  to  warp  the  vessel,  particularly  in  a  tide  way,  or 
when  there  is  considerable  wind,  be  certain  that  full  steam 
pressure  is  available  in  the  deck  lines,  that  all  water  is  out  of  the 
cylinders,  and  that  the  winches  and  capstans  are  in  order. 
Steam  under  low  pressure  will  sputter  around  quite  lively,  but 
when  the  load  comes  on  the  winches  there  is  nothing  doing.* 

IV 
Pumps 

Pumps,  The  pumping  machinery  is  so  much  a  part  of  the  me- 
chanical equipment  of  the  engine  room,  that  nowadays  most  deck 
officers  forget  that  such  things  as  pumps  exist.  No  rules  can  be 
laid  down  with  regard  to  ships'  pumps,  but  deck  officers,  and 
masters  especially,  should  know  what  the  ship's  pumps  can  do. 
How  fast  ballast  can  be  shifted  from  forward  trimming  tanks  aft, 
and  the  reverse,  and  how  long  it  will  take  to  pump  out  any  tank, 
and  the  amount  of  water  (weight)  that  will  be  discharged.  A 
study  of  this  and  the  tons  per  inch  scale  will  give  an  officer  a  fair 
idea  as  to  how  much  he  can  lighten,  or  list,  his  ship  at  any  given 
time,  knowing  the  condition  of  the  ballast  tanks. 

Pumps  for  fire  use  are  as  important  as  the  bilge  and  emergency 
pumps.  In  any  emergency— grounding,  collision  or  fire— the 
efficient  use  of  pumps  is  an  important  part  of  seamanship. 

Roughly  the  pumps  in  a  ship  are  as  follows:  Condenser  circu- 
lating  pump,  (This  is  the  pump  that  discharges  the  great  stream 
of  water  we  see  coming  from  the  side  of  ships  a  few  feet  above 
the  load  line.  The  water  has  been  taken  in  low  down,  passed 
through  the  condenser  to  cool  off  the  exhaust  steam,  and  is  dis- 
charged as  above.  The  exhaust  steam,  in  a  coil  of  pipes,  returns 
to  the  hot  well  as  hot  water  and  is  ready  to  go  back  into  the 
boilers  and  work  again  as  steam.  This  circulating  pump  should 
always  be  in  mind  when  a  vessel  goes  aground  on  a  sandy  bottom. 

♦In  freezing  weather  keep  steam  on  all  deck  lines  and  turn  winches  over 
as  often  as  necessary  to  avoid  freezing.  When  laid  up  be  certain  all  water 
is  drained  from  pipe  lines  and  cylinders. 


The  pump  should  be  stopped  at  once  to  prevent  the  condenser 
filling  with  sand.)*  Main  boiler  feed  pumps;  Auxiliary  boiler 
feed  pumps;  Fire  pumps;  Bilge  pumps;  General  service 
pumps,  fresh  water,  sanitary,  etc.;  and  on  a  tanker,  Cargo 
pumps.    There  are  also  oil  pumps,  and  air  pumps. 

The  American  Bureau  of  Shipping  has  set  certain  requirements 
for  steam  pumping  arrangements  with  which  the  master  and 
chief  mate  should  be  familiar.  Tank  suctions  are  regulated  by 
the  size  of  the  tank,  running  from  21/2  inches  m  diameter  for  a 
tank  under  20  tons,  to  71/2  inches  in  diameter  for  a  tank  over 
1,000  tons  and  under  1,300  tons.  Also  the  main  suction  line 
must  not  be  of  less  diameter  than  that  required  for  the  largest 

tank  in  the  vessel. 
Extracts  from  the  A.B.S.  rules  follow: 

All  steamers  are  to  be  provided  with  efficient  steam  pumping 
plant,  havmg  the  suctions  and  means  for  drainage  so  arranged 
that  any  water  which  may  enter  any  compartment  of  the  bmp 
and  any  watertight  section  of  a  compartment  can  be  pumped 
through  at  least  one  suction  when  the  Vessel  is  on  even  keel  and 
upright,  or  has  a  list  of  five  degrees.  Satisfactory  means  are  to 
be  provided  for  draining  the  tops  of  tanks  in  order  to  comply 

with  this  requirement.  .     ^  ^      j    •  • 

All  pipes  from  the  pumps  which  are  required  for  drammg 
cargo  or  machinery  spaces  should  be  entirely  distinct  from  pipes 
which  may  be  used  for  filling  or  emptying  spaces  where  water 
is  carried;  the  arrangement  of  the  valves,  etc.,  should  be  sucn 
to  prevent  water  passing  from  the  sea  and  from  such  water 
spaces  into  the  machinery  and  cargo  spaces,  or  from  one  com- 
partment to  another.  If  a  suction  pipe  from  the  engme  room 
is  led  to  the  fore  peak,  a  screw-down  stop-valve  capable  of  being 
operated  from  above  the  bulkhead  deck,  is  to  be  fitted  on  the 
suction  mside  the  fore  peak.  ^t.        1,  *u^ 

(Note:  This  is  to  prevent  pumpmg  the  ocean  through  tne 
ship  if  she  is  stove  in  forward  of  the  collision  bulkhead.— ilii^/ior.) 

The  Main  and  Donkey  Pumps  are  to  draw  from  all  compart- 
ments, and  in  addition,  the  donkey  is  to  have  a  separate  bUge 
suction  in  the  engine  room.  The  pumps  are  to  be  of  sufficient 
capacity  to  give  a  speed  of  water  through  the  pipes  of  not  less 
than  400  feet  per  minute,  imder  ordinary  working. 

Mam  circulating  pumps  should  have  direct  suction  connections 
to  the  lowest  drainage  level  in  the  machinery  space.  The 
diameter  of  these  connections  should  be  at  least  twice  the  diam- 
eter of  the  engine  room  main  suction  line. 

*  (See  page  739.) 


A 


238 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Distribution  Boxes j  cocks,  and  valves  are  to  be  in  positions 
which  are  accessible  at  all  times  under  ordinary  circumstances. 

Bilge  and  Ballast  Suction  Pipes  are  to  be  efficiently  secured, 
and  straps  are  to  be  fitted  at  the  middle  of  the  length  of  each 
range  of  pipes  to  prevent  fore  and  aft  movement.  Efficient 
expansion  joints  are  to  be  fitted,  and  where  the  connections  at 
the  ends  of  each  range  of  pipes  are  made  with  lead  bends,  the 
radii  of  the  bends  and  the  distance  between  the  centers  of  the 
radii  should  each  be  equal  to  3  diameters,  and  the  length  of  the 
bend  to  8  diameters  of  the  pipe. 

Roses  and  Boxes  are  to  be  easily  accessible  for  examination 
and  cleaning.  The  bilge  suctions  in  machinery  spaces  and 
tunnel  wells  should  be  led  from  easily  accessible  mud  boxes 
placed  wherever  practicable  above  the  level  of  the  working  floor, 
and  should  have  straight  tail  pipes  to  the  bilges.  The  suction 
ends  in  other  spaces  should  be  enclosed  in  strum  boxes  having 
perforations  whose  combined  area  is  not  less  than  three  times 
that  of  the  suction  pipe,  and  so  constructed  that  they  can  be 
cleared  without  breaking  the  joints  of  the  suction  pipe. 

Sounding  Pipes  are  to  be  fitted  to  each  compartment  and 
ballast  tankj  with  a  thick  doubling  plate  securely  fixed  under 
each  pipe,  for  the  rod  to  strike  upon.  These  pipes  are  to  be 
fitted,  without  bends,  directly  into  the  compartment  intended  to 
be  sotmded,  and  are  to  extend  to  the  btdkhead  deck  or  to  a 
position  which  is  always  accessible;  if  in  accessible  positions 
below  the  bulkhead  deck  they  are  to  be  fitted  with  non-detach- 
able screw  caps. 

Air  Pipes,  not  less  than  2  inches  in  diameter,  are  to  be  fitted 
at  each  corner  of  each  ballast  tank;  this  requirement  may  be 
modified  in  the  case  of  small  tanks  and  increased  for  large  tanks; 
the  total  area  of  the  pipes  should  always  be  greater  than  that 
of  the  supply  pipes  and  in  the  case  of  deep  tanks  should  be  at 
least  twice  that  of  the  supply  pipes.  Efficient  arrangements  must 
be  made  to  permit  of  the  air  getting  freely  to  the  pipes  while  the 
tanks  are  being  filled.  Where  the  tank  top  is  peaked,  cambered, 
or  has  sheer,  air  pipes  are  to  be  fitted  at  the  highest  position. 

Air,  sounding  and  suction  pipes  are  to  be  effectively  protected 
against  the  risk  of  damage  from  cargo,  coal,  etc. 

In  the  old  days  the  mates  and  "  chips  "  knew  all  about  the 
ship's  pumps.  It  might  be  a  good  idea  to  find  out  all  about  the 
pumps  of  a  modern  vessel. 

Installation  and  Care  of  Pumps* 

Alignment.  Pumps  should  be  set  positively  in  line  on  a  stiff 
foundation.    Particular  care  should  be  taken  with  long  stroke 

*  From  Marine  Engineer's  Handbook,  Sterling. 


DECK  MACfflNERY 


239 


vertical  pumps  which  have  tie  bar  connections.  When  se^  to 
test  alignment,  remove  glands  from  both  piston  rod  stuffing 
boxes,  move  piston  rod  to  one  end  of  stroke,  try  glands  m  both 
boxes.  Remove  glands,  move  piston  rod  to  opposite  end  of 
stroke  and  try  the  glands  again.  If  any  sign  of  bmdmg  exists 
make  proper  adjustment  in  setting  of  pump.       ,       ^.  , 

Location,  The  pump  should  be  located  in  the  ship  as  close 
to  its  work  as  conditions  will  conveniently  allow,  with  as  short 
and  direct  suction  and  discharge  pipe  connections  as  circum- 
stances wUl  permit.  An  air  pump  should  be  located  lower  than 
the  condenser  so  that  condensate  will  dram  directly  mto  pump 
cylinders.  Provide  a  proper  space  around  pump  so  that  aU 
parts    requiring   inspection    or    adjustment    are    conveniently 

accessible 

Pump  connections.  Always  connect  pump  so  as  to  secure  a 
full  and  uniform  supply  of  liquid  to  be  handled.  The  extreme 
theoretical  height  to  which  water  can  be  lifted  by  atmospheric 
pressure  alone  is  33.9  feet.  In  practice  this  seldom  exceeds  25 
feet;  the  smaller  the  suction  lift  can  be  made,  the  better,  buc- 
tion  pipe  should  be  as  short  as  possible  and  never  smaller  than 
opening  on  pump.  As  there  is  a  considerable  loss  of  head  due 
to  friction,  the  diameter  of  long  lines  of  pipe  should  be  mcreased 
to  allow  for  this,  and  for  the  same  reason  bends  of  large  radius 
and  as  few  in  number  as  possible  should  be  used. 

The  same  remarks  apply  to  discharge  pipe,  dthough  not  wrth 
the  same  force,  since  in  the  discharge  pipe  the  full  power  of  the 
pump  is  always  available  to  force  the  liquid  through  the  pipmg, 
while  in  the  case  of  the  suction  pipe,  only  the  atmospheric  pres- 
sure is  available  to  force  the  liquid  into  the  pump.  Avoid  all  air 
leaks  in  air  pump  connections;    otherwise  vacuum  wiU  De 

^°AUv\lves  in  the  suction  and  discharge  piping  should  be  gate 
valves,  and  at  least  as  great  in  opening  as  the  area  of  the  pipe. 
Globe  valves  offer  too  much  resistance  to  the  flow  of  the  Uqmd. 
Steam  connections.  Steam  and  exhaust  pipe  connections 
should  always  be  made  with  due  allowance  for  expansion  of 
steam  pipe,  and  of  ample  size— never  less  than  the  openmg  on 

A^t^ttle  valve  should  be  placed  in  the  steam  pipe  as  close 
to  the  pump  as  possible,  and  a  drip  cock  or  bleeder  valve  should 
be  provided  for  draining  the  mam  steam  pipe  before  startmg 

*  BloTout  the  steam  pipe  thoroughly  before  connecting  the 
pump.  Any  dirt  or  chips  carried  into  the  steam  cylmder  wiU  cut 
and  injure  it  seriously.  ^        ,       ^        ^,  ..^^ 

Air  chambers,    A  suction  air  chamber  placed  on  the  suction 
pipe  close  by  the  pump  is  distinctly  recommended  for  fire  pumps 

9 


240 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


with  high  suction  lift,  short  stroke  pumps  and  pumps  rimning 
at  high  speed.  Care  should  be  taken  to  locate  this  suction 
chamber  in  a  continuation  of  the  line  of  flow  in  the  suction  pipe 
so  as  to  receive  the  impact  of  the  water  column  and  thus  cushion 
the  pulsations  in  the  most  efficient  manner. 

A  discharge  air  chamber  should  also  be  provided  on  the  dis- 
charge of  a  heavy  pressure  pump  in  a  continuation  of  the  line  of 
discharge  pipe;  in  exceptional  cases  where  the  pump  is  subject 
to  very  heavy  duty,  it  is  an  advantage  to  provide  an  air  pet  cock 
on  the  suction  pipe  close  to  the  pump.  By  opening  this  pet  cock 
slightly,  a  small  amoimt  of  air  may  be  admitted  to  the  pump 
with  the  water,  and  the  discharge  air  chamber  kept  supplied  with 
the  proper  quantity  to  cushion  the  outflowing  water. 

Lubrication,  All  bearings,  joints  of  moving  parts  and  piston 
rods  should  be  lubricated  before  starting  pumps,  and  also  at 
short  intervals  when  in  operation.  All  grease  cups  should  be 
packed  with  Albany  grease.  Where  bearings  are  divided,  keep 
same  adjusted  with  shims. 

Packing.  Keep  stuffing  boxes  well  filled  with  a  good  quality 
of  packing,  but  do  not  screw  up  glands  too  tight,  and  do  not  allow 
same  pacldng  to  remain  in  stuffing  boxes  long  enough  to  become 
so  hard  that  it  will  score  the  piston  rods. 

Both  main  and  auxiliary  steam  pistons  are  packed  by  means 
of  carefully  fitted  cast  iron  spring  packing  rings,  which  are 
self-adjusting  and  need  no  attention  whatever;  replacement  on 
account  of  wear  is  necessary  only  after  many  years  of  service. 

When  water  pistons  are  packed  with  fibrous  packing,  trouble 
sometimes  arises  from  swelling  of  the  packing,  causing  the 
pump  to  operate  stiffiy  and  make  uneven  strokes,  etc.  This  is 
especially  so  when  pumping  hot  liquids,  and  sometimes  it  is 
necessary  to  take  out  the  packing  and  thin  it  down.  This  is 
done  by  stripping  a  layer  from  one  side  of  the  strand  or  ring,  or 
hammering  it  if  packing  is  of  the  braided  tjrpe,  as  the  swelling 
is  usually  lateral.  In  fitting  a  piston  with  new  packing,  it  is  well 
to  soak  the  packing  in  warm  water  over  night  before  fitting  it. 
New  packing  should  not  be  crowded  into  the  piston,  but  should 
fit  the  packing  space  loosely.  When  it  becomes  wet  the  swelling 
will  cause  it  to  fit  in  the  space. 

Pump  air  bound.  Hot  water  cannot  be  raised  by  suction,  as 
it  vaporizes  when  atmospheric  pressure  is  removed,  and  the 
vapor  is  alternately  expanded  and  compressed  in  pump  cylinders 
without  being  expelled. 

Laying  up.  When  pump  is  to  be  kept  out  of  commission  for 
any  considerable  time,  slush  interior  of  steam  chest  with  cylinder 
oil  to  prevent  corrosion.  If  steam  end  is  fitted  with  lubricator, 
fill  this  with  oil  and  open  cock  so  oil  can  flow  to  steam  chest.  A 
few  quick  pumpi  strokes^ill  distribute  oil  over  steam  end  of  pump. 


CHAPTER  8 


HOLDS,  PEAKS,  TANKS 


Holds 

In  many  respects  the  most  important  compartments  in  the 
hull  of  a  vessel  are  the  holds.  In  a  vessel  devoted  to  the  carriage 
of  cargo  this  is  strictly  so,  for  the  holds  represent  earning  capacity. 
The  holds  are  usually  numbered  commencing  from  forward,  for 
convenience  of  reference,  and  for  the  purpose  of  allocating  cargo 
or  locating  it  by  its  markings  in  the  cargo  book. 

Number  1  hold  comes  immediately  abaft  of  the  collision 
bulkhead. 

In  a  tjrpical  cargo  vessel,  as  shown  in  the  illustrations*,  number 
2  hold  extends  forward  of  the  cross  bunker,  the  division  bulkhead 
between  holds  1  and  2  being  in  the  vicinity  of  the  fore  mast. 
Hold  number  3  comes  abaft  of  the  engine  room  space,  and  hold 
number  4  is  immediately  forward  of  the  after  peak  bulkhead, 
the  division  bulkhead  between  these  holds  being  near  the  main 
mast. 

Other  hold  arrangements  are  employed  and  in  larger  vessels 
the  holds  are  more  numerous,  but  vessels  devoted  to  the  carriage 
of  freight  have  very  large  holds  and  the  four-hold  system  is 
followed  up  to  about  fifteen  thousand  tons  D.W. 

The  parts  of  a  hold  are  briefly  enumerated : 

The  wake  of  the  hatch  is  that  part  immediately  under  the 
hatch  opening. 

The  wings  of  the  hold  are  the  spaces  on  either  side  of  the 
hold,  usually  considered  to  lie  above  the  upper  side  stringers. 

The  limberSy  are  the  gutters  on  either  side  of  the  keel,  or 
where  a  double  bottom  is  fitted  at  the  sides  of  the  tanks,  next 
the  margin  plates.  It  is  here  that  the  water  collects  which  comes 
into  the  bilge  of  the  vessel. 

*  See  pages  244-254. 

241 


242 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Limber  boards  are  removable  boards,  or  steel  shutters,  cover- 
ing the  limbers.    They  are  a  part  of  the  flooring,  or  ceiling  of  the 

hold. 

Hold  stringers  are  simply  the  stringers  where  they  pass 
through  the  holds.  The  loose  dunnage  and  chocking  pieces  are 
usually  stowed  on  these  where  they  can  be  got  at  when  loading. 
Stanchions  and  pillars  are  the  upright  columns,  often  bolted  in 
place  so  that  they  can  be  removed  when  stowing  or  discharging 
very  large  pieces  of  cargo. 


A  typical  No.  1  hold.  Note  lower  'tween  deck  seen  looking  up  through 
the  hatch.  Note  flat  floors  over  tank  tops.  Limber  boards  lifted  at  far  end 
of  hold.    Ancient  dunnage  rules  are  useless  in  such  holds. 

Cargo  battens^  substantial  wooden  planking,  are  fitted  at  the 
sides  of  the  hold  to  keep  cargo  from  contact  with  the  steel  frames 
and  shell  plating  of  the  vessel. 

Hold  ladders  are  usually  permanent  and  on  the  center  line 
on  either  the  fore  or  aft  side  of  the  hatch  opening,  these  should 
be  examined  whenever  the  holds  are  empty  as  the  rungs  are 
often  knocked  or  pulled  loose  while  loading  and  dischargmg. 

The  pipe  lines  running  through,  or  into  the  holds  are  generally 

as  follows: 

The  sounding  pipes,  leading  from  the  upper  deck  to  the  tanks 
and  bilges.    Great  care  should  be  taken  that  these  pipes  are 


HOLDS,  PEAKS,  TANKS 


243 


not  injured  by  cargo;,  they  should  be  examined  after  each 

cleaning  of  the  hold. 

The  smothering  lines,  steam  lines  leading  into  the  holds,  or 
piping  for  conveying  CO2  gas  for  the  extinguishing  of  fire. 

The  water  lines,  hoze  connections  for  fire  and  washing  pur- 
poses. 

The  pumping  lines,  from  tanks  and  bilges.  The  rose  boxes, 
or  strums,  or  strainers,  located  at  the  suction  ends  of  these 
pump  lines  should  be  examined  whenever  the  holds  are  empty 
and  just  before  starting  to  fill  tanks  or  load  cargo. 


A  No.  2  hold.    Limbers  opened  for  inspection.    Ready  for  cargo. 

Light  conduits,  the  piped  wiring  for  light  connections  should 
be  in  good  order  and  guarded  against  damage  or  chafing  by 
cargo.    Too  much  attention  cannot  be  given  the  wiring  in  the 

holds. 

'  Tween  decks.    The  between  deck  cargo  spaces,  or  passenger 

spaces,  are  fitted  in  many  ways.    Where  cargo  is  carried  the 

battens,  etc.,  are  similar  to  those  in  the  holds.    The  fittings  for 

fire  fighting,  washing,  lighting  are  similar  and  a  part  of  the  hold 

system.     Sounding  and  air  pipes  pass  through  the  'tween  decks 

into  the  hold  below,  and  the  same  care  of  inspection  should  be 

followed  in  the  'tween  decks. 


244 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Bridge  Deck) 
Upperueck)   : 


Afier  Main  Hold' 


.Main  Hold  A  _,  '     Bridge  Deck>. 


1 1 1 1 


:6 


Cargo  Holdf 

/m  Oil  Tank 
/  i      <N''40ilTank 


B 


]L 


tJ 


MiViold\  *-.-^_^ 


BriddeDeck>i 
UpperDtck)  / 


BridgeDak, 


Briageueck 
KaisedBuarkrDk} ,' 


Hold  divisions  found  in  various  types  of  cargo  vessels 

Shifting  boards  and  special  stanchions  are  used  in  holds  and 
'tween  decks.  These  are  temporary  bulkheads,  usually  fore 
and  aft,  to  prevent  the  shifting  of  bulk  or  bag  cargoes. 


HOLDS,  PEAKS,  TANKS 


245 


«  Soundings  are  taken  at  sea  periodically,  by  passmg  a  rod, 
3  or  4  feet  long,  with  cord  attached,  down  the  pipe,  and  on  its 
withdrawal  noting  how  much  of  it  has  become  wet.    (The 
I^unS  rod  is  usually  chalked.-Author.)    The  pipe  usually 
IXndi  to  the  upper  deck,  where  it  terminates  with  a  screwed 
pSg;  W  the  upper  deck  is  not  sheltered  from  the  weather,  it  is 
preferable,  where  cargo  is  not  carried  in  the   tween  decks,  to 
stop  it  at  the  second  deck,  for  when  deck  water  is  washing  about 
it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  keep  the  rod  dry  when  sounding.    Wlien 
on  the  exposed  upper  deck,  it  is  weU  to  raise  the  end  of  the  pipe  a 
few  inches  above  the  deck  so  that  deck  drainage  water  may  no 
pals  down  the  pipe  and  wet  the  rod.    When  a  tank  air  pipe  is  at 
the  center  line  it  may  also  serve  as  a  tank-soundmg  pipe.  and 
sometimes  sluice  valve  rods  are  arranged  for  this  purpose  (when 
the  valve  spindle  is  a  tube).    Of  course  when  a  tank-soundmg 
pipe  is  extended  below  the  tank  top,  as  is  not  uncommon,  it 
?annot  also  serve  as  an  air  pipe.    Every  tune  fo^t^dings  are  taken 
the  rod  strikes  the  same  patch  of  cement  on  the  vessel's  bottom, 
so  that  in  the  course  of  time  it  may  break  it  away.    Cases  are  not 
common  where  the  continued  bumpmg  of  the  sounding  rod 
(aided  by  corrosion)  has  worn  a  hole  right  through  the  sheU 
olating.    To  prevent  this  a  small  iron  plate  should  be  embedded 
in  the  cement  just  below  the  pipe,  otherwise  a  plug  may  be 
screwed  into  the  end  of  the  sounding  pipe  and  slots  cut  immedi- 
ately above  it  to  admit  the  water."-Pracftca/  Shtpbutlding, 
Holms. 

Trunks  are  built  up  boxes,  usuaUy  of  timber,  in  the  holds 
and  sometunes  in  the  'tween  decks,  to  raise  the  center  of  gravity 
of  a  bulk  cargo.  Trunk  hatches  are  hatch  openings  leading 
from  an  upper  deck  to  a  hold  or  lower  deck  through  a  trunk, 
closing  off  passenger  or  other  spaces.  _ 

Cargo  ports  are  large  side  ports  into  the  'tween  decks  or  holds 

for  the  loading  of  cargo. 

Bow  and  stern  ports  are  sometimes  fitted  for  loadmg  long 
spars.  These  are  most  often  seen  in  wooden  single  hold  sailing 
craft. 

n 

Peaks 

The  peaks  are  the  narrow  compartments  at  the  ends  of  the 
vessel.  The  fore  peak  Ues  between  the  stem  and  the  collision 
bulkhead.  It  is  usuaUy  divided  into  two  parts  horizontally. 
The  lower  part  forms  the  fore  peak  tank,  and  the  upper  part, 


I 


4 


■  I 

u 


m* 


246 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


HOLDS,  PEAKS,  TANKS 


247 


between  the  stem  and  the  chain  lockers,  or  if  the  chain  lockers 
are  abaft  of  the  collision  bulkhead,  then  between  the  stem  and 
this  bulkhead,  is  used  for  the  stowage  of  the  forward  cargo  gear, 
for  awnings,  and  for  boatswain's  gear  in  general.  Many  vessels 
have  this  space  fitted  up  as  a  general  deck  storeroom  for  wash- 
deck  gear,  spare  parts,  rope,  canvas,  etc. 

The  after  peak  is  between  the  stern  frame  and  the  after  peak 
bulkhead.  It  is  generally  completely  filled  by  the  after  peak 
tank,  occup3ring  all  space  above  the  stern  tube  to  the  level  of 
the  lower  deck. 

The  peak  tanks,  fore  and  aft,  are  deep  tanks  and  are  also  the 
principal  trimming  tanks  of  the  ship. 

m 

Tanks 

The  tanks,  in  general,  may  be  divided  as  follows : 
Double  bottom,  or  cellular  double  bottom  water  ballast  tanks, 
fitted  with  manholes,  and  the  necessary  pumping  arrangements. 


Trimming  and 
Deep  Tank, 


ingines  and 
Boilers:  ■ 


Trimming  and 
DeepTank     "« 


"'Double  Boitom  '' 


'-Deep Tanks  '' 


"''Double  Bottom' 


The  double  bottom  water  tanks  do  not,  as  a  rule,  extend  beneath 
the  engine  space  but  generally  cover  the  floor  of  the  holds.* 

Double  Bottoms 

*  Vessels  are  now  built  with  double  bottoms  for  the  carriage  of  water  ballast, 
which  has  become  more  and  more  of  a  necessity  to  facilitate  the  handling  of 
the  ships  when  light  or  in  motion  without  cargo.  Double  bottoms  also  offer 
great  facility  for  the  storage  and  use  of  any  of  the  varieties  of  liquid  fuel, 
which  frequently  are  fotmd  to  be  more  advantageous,  if  not  more  profitable, 
than  coal,  particularly  when  the  cost  of  stowing  it  in  the  ship's  bunkers  and 
the  cost  of  firing  it  with  man  power  are  considered. 

Great  Advantages  of  Double  Bottoms 
All  liquid  fuels  are  piped  direct  to  the  furnaces,  fed  and  sprayed  into  them 
under  pressure  which  makes  the  fuel  supply  and  combustion  constant  and 


The  wing  tanks,  fitted  in  the  wings,  often  on  the  'tween  decks 
amidships,  offer  an  easy  means  for  trimming  ship  to  port  or 

starboard. 

Deep  tanks,  placed  fore  or  aft  of  the  engine  spaces  carry  fresh 

water  supplies  and  give  stability  when  needed. 

It  is  highly  important  that  the  officers  of  a  vessel  understand 
the  capacity  and  effect  of  the  various  tanks,  empty  and  filled 
upon  the  trim  and  stability  of  their  vessel,  when  loaded,  partly 
loaded  or  light,  and  with  bunkers  filled  or  empty. 

In  cases  of  groundmg,  this  knowledge  may  be  of  the  most 
practical  value,  if  instantly  applied. 

The  tank  vessel  is  treated  in  a  separate  chapter,  as  it  presents 
many  special  conditions. 

Fresh  water  tanks.  Fresh  water  should  not  be  carried  in  deep 
tanks  unless  the  tanks  are  specially  strong  so  that  free  water 
may  be  carried  in  them.  Strong  swash  plates  should  be  fitted 
in  such  tanks,  as  of  course  fresh  water  tanks  are  liable  to  be 
partly  filled  at  times.  Such  tanks,  when  partly  filled  are  referred 
to  as  ullage  tanks. 

Air  pipes  are  fitted  to  all  tanks  and  should  be  open  when  fiUmg 

uniform,  thus  doing  away  with  all  inequaUties  of  steam  pressures  incident  to 
replenishing,  slicing,  and  cleaning  of  fires  when  coal  is  the  fuel  bemg  utiUzed. 
It  should  be  here  noted  that  much  of  the  space  contained  within  double 
bottoms  exists  between  the  floors  of  the  ship  which  internally  support  the 
bottom  plates  of  the  vessel,  and  whUe  this  space  exists  between  the  ceiling 
of  the  ship's  hold  and  the  outer  plating  of  the  vessel's  bottom  absolutely  no 
use  was  ever  heretofore  made  of  it  except  as  a  receptacle  for  the  accumulation 
of  bilge  water.    In  the  double  bottom,  therefore,  it  will  be  seen  that  Uquid 
fuel  utiUzes  a  space  for  its  storage  that  was  not  and  could  not  be  utilized  for 
any  other  purpose,  since  many  parts  of  the  internal  portion  of  the  double 
bottom  are  quite  inaccessible  to  the  hand  or  the  eye  after  such  portion  of  the 
ship  has  been  constructed.    Previous  to  the  use  of  the  space  herein  referred 
to  for  water  ballast  or  the  storage  of  Uquid  fuel  it  was  customary  and  neces- 
sary to  coat  aU  surfaces  of  such  spaces  with  cement  to  protect  them  against 
oxidization  incident  to  their  being  bathed  more  or  less  continually  with  bUge 
water,  invariably  impregnated  with  the  impurities  common  to  the  dnp  from 
every  known  variety  of  cargoes.    It  can  therefore  readUy  be  seen  that  double 
bottoms  not  only  utiUze  to  a  great  extent  much  cubic  space  of  a  ship  heretofore 
unusable,  but  in  doing  so  have  a  tendency  to  preserve  those  portions  of  the 
vessel  heretofore  most  subject  to  deterioration  from  oxidization.— Stemfard- 
ization  in  the  Construction  of  Freight  Ships,  E.  Platt  Stratton,  Department 
of  Commerce,  Washington,  D.  C. 


248 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


HOLDS,  PEAKS,  TANKS 


249 


to  prevent  air  lock  in  the  tanks.    Locate  such  pipes  and  see  them 
in  good  order  and  closed  after  filling. 

IV 

Bunkers 

The  loading  of  bunker  coal  is  an  operation  that  falls  to  the 
deck  department  of  a  steam  vessel,  while  the  trimming  is  gen- 
erally attended  to  under  direction  of  the  engineers. 

The  usual  bunkers  are  as  follows : 

Cross  bunkerSy  extending  athwartship,  either  fore  or  aft  of 
the  boilers,  but  generally  forward.  On  short  passages  these  are 
sometimes  used  for  the  stowage  of  cargo. 

Side  bunker Sy  ad J3Lcent  to  the  machinery  space  and  upwards  in 
the  wings  of  the  vessel.  These  bunkers  feed  down  by  gravity 
through  pocket  bunkers,  leading  from  the  side  bunkers  in  the 
*tween  decks  to  the  fire  rooms. 

The  reserve  bunker  is  a  name  given  to  the  cross  bunker, 
when  it  is  entirely  shut  off  from  the  boiler  space  by  a  watertight 
bulkhead. 

The  filling  of  bunker  spaces  is  accomplished  through  small 
coaling  hatchways,  usually  round  scuttles,  screwing  tight  to  the 
deck  and  made  watertight  by  means  of  a  gasget. 

On  the  weather  decks  the  coaling  hatchways  are  larger  and 
are  usually  fitted  with  a  small  coaming  and  the  usual  means  for 
battening  down  with  tarpaulins,  battens  and  wedges. 

Coaling  ports  are  fitted  in  the  sides  and  this  is  specially  so  in 
the  case  of  large  liners  where  the  coal  is  carried  in  side  bunkers 
and  huge  cross  bunkers  running  the  width  of  the  vessel  between 
the  boiler  rooms  and  under  the  passenger  decks.  Great  care 
must  be  exercised  in  the  closing  of  the  coaling  ports  at  all  times 
when  not  actually  in  use.  The  sinking  of  the  S.S.  St,  Paul,  due 
to  this  neglect,  is  still  fresh  in  mind. 

The  small  holes  in  the  wings  of  the  bunkers  for  the  admission 
of  trimmers,  and  for  their  exit,  are  generally  known  as  escape 
holes.  These  holes  are  sometimes  used  for  loading  when  the 
last  coal  is  taken  into  the  ship. 

CHI  fuel  bunkers.  The  following  excellent  description  of  oil 
fuel  btmkers  is  taken  from  Holms'  Practical  Shipbuilding, 


"  The  use  of  crude  petroleum  as  fuel,  i.e.,  as  a  substitute  for 
coal  in  the  furnaces  of  seagoing  steamers,  although  far  from 
general,  is  now  common  m  the  case  of  vessels  carrying  bulk  oil, 
and  m  those  trading  to  ports  where  oil  is  produced.    In  raising 
steam,  two  tons  of  oil  may  be  taken,  roughly,  as  equivalent  to 
three  tons  of  coal.    It  follows,  therefore,  that  in  vessels  which 
burn  oil  fuel  there  is  a  considerable  saving  in  weight;  and  there 
is  also  a  saving  in  space,  for  the  oil,  if  high-flash  may  be  carried 
in  the  double  bottom  and  peak  tanks,  spaces  that  are  valueless 
for  cargo.     (The  flash  point  of  an  oil  is  the  temperature  at  which 
its  vapor  will  ignite  and  explode.    The  flash  point  of  a  high-flash 
oil  is  above  150  degrees  Fahrenheit.    On  the  other  hand,  the 
flash  point  of  gasolene  is  below  the  f reezmg  point,  that  is,  it  will 
explode— when  air  is  present,  and  a  spark  comes  across  it— at 
any  ordinary  temperature.)     Ordinary  coal  bunkers  are  un- 
necessary, but  many  vessels  are  arranged  to  use  coal  as  well  as 
oil  (in  case  the  latter  might  be  temporarUy  unobtamable),  it  is 
common  to  retain  the  coal  bunkers,  but  to  design  and  build  them, 
in  the  manner  requured  for  an  oil  tank  (i.e.,  with  oil-tight  hatches, 
doors,  wash  bulkheads,  pump  suctions,  heating  coUs,  and  air 
pipes),  so  that  either  coal  or  oil  may  be  carried  as  required. 
Some  vessels  which  trade  regularly  to  Eastern  oU  ports,  where 
the  oil  is  cheap,  fill  their  fuel-oil  tanks  with  sufficient  oil  to  take 
them  home  to  Europe  and  out  again.    Compared  with  coaling 
operations,  the  filling  of  the  oil-fuel  bunkers  is  a  very  quick  and 
simple  operation,  requiring  no  manual  labor  and  creating  no 
disturbance  on  board. 

"  Any  kind  of  oil  may  be  used  as  fuel,  but  the  great  majority 
of  vessels  employ  only  high  flash-point  oil,  on  account  of  the  ab- 
sence of  danger  in  usmg  it  and  the  simplicity  of  its  stowage.  .  .  . 

"  When  the  double  bottom  tanks  are  used  for  carrying  oil  the 
vertical  keel  must  be  oil-tight,  to  lessen  the  heelmg  effect  of  the 
oil  when  the  tanks  are  only  half  fuU.  The  tanks  must  also  be  of 
moderate  length,  and  be  specially  constructed  to  insure  absolute 

oil-tightness." 

Note:  Tanks  and  bulkheads  that  are  watertight  are  not 
necessarily  oil- tight.  Special  care  in  rivetmg  and  caulking  is 
necessary  to  insure  oil-tight  seams  and  joints. 

"  When  the  sides  of  the  oil  tanks  are  at  any  point  close  to  the 


fy 


1 


Inr 


250 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


boilers  they  must  be  insulated  to  avoid  any  chance  of  the  oil 
becoming  dangerously  heated.  Each  oil  tank  must  be  provided 
with  one  or  more  air  pipes  having  permanently  open  ends  de- 
bouching above  the  upper  deck,  so  as  to  prevent  the  possibility 
of  the  tank  bursting  or  collapsing  by  expansion  of  the  oil  through 
heat,  or  by  careless  pumping.  (In  tanks  which  may  be  pumped 
up  the  air  pipes  should  be  as  large  as  the  filling  pipes  to  prevent 
the  accumulation  of  excessive  pressure  by  continued  pumping 
after  the  tank  has  been  filled.) 

"  The  pipes  and  valves  used  for  pumping  the  oil  tanks  must  be 
distinct  from  those  used  for  pumping  the  bilges,  or  pumping  and 
flooding  the  water  ballast  tanks,  otherwise  oily  water  might  gain 
access  to  the  latter  places,  with  danger  of  explosion  through 
tmsuspected  accumulation  of  oil  vapor. 

"  When  fuel  oil  is  taken  on  board  it  usually  contains  some 
water,  which  must  be  removed  before  the  oil  is  sprayed  into  the 
furnaces.  For  this  purpose  settling  tanks  are  provided,  usually 
to  port  and  starboard,  in  the  'tween  decks.  All  fuel  oil  taken 
from  the  supply  tanks  is  first  pumped  into  a  settling  tank,  at  the 
bottom  of  which  the  contained  water  accumulates  by  gravity 
and  may  be  drained  off." 

To  sum  up,  the  use  of  oil  fuel  has  the  following  advantages 
where  it  can  be  readily  employed : 

Oil  requires  less  bunker  space  than  coal  for  a  given  steaming 
radius. 

It  can  be  carried  between  double  bottoms  and  in  other  places 
where  neither  coal  nor  cargo  can  be  stored. 

The  space  usually  given  to  coal  can  be  occupied  by  freight 
paying  cargo. 

Bunkering  can  be  effected  with  greater  dispatch,  and  is  not 
interfered  with  by  darkness  or  the  state  of  the  weather. 

It  is  not  attendant  with  dirt  and  other  discomforts  incident  to 
coal  bunkering. 

Labor  and  machinery  are  not  required  for  handling  ashes. 

Oil  fuel  eliminates  stoking,  thus  reducing  the  size  of  the  crew 
and  labor  costs. 

It  possesses  greater  thermal  efficiency  than  coal  and  reduces 
fuel  costs. 

The  modern  seaman  will  be  more  and  more  concerned  with 


HOLDS,  PEAKS,  TANKS 


251 


the  stowage  of  oil,  in  the  oil  burners  under  steam  boilers,  and 
in  the  bunkers  of  motor  ships.  Many  things  are  yet  to  be 
learned  about  oil  carriage  as  fuel  and  cargo.    See  Chapt.  11  on 

Tankers. 

Bulkheads,  A  few  words  may  be  said  about  bulkheads. 
Many  vessels  have  met  with  disaster  through  faulty  bulkheads. 
Sluice  gates  have  been  left  open,  watertight  doors  have  not 
functioned  when  needed,  or  have  been  left  open  in  time  of 
collision.  No  sluice  valve  or  cock  is  to  be  fitted  in  a  coUision 
bulkhead.  All  such  valves  and  cocks  are  to  be  worked  by  control 
rods  leading  up  to  the  bulkhead  deck  and  should  indicate  whether 
the  valves  are  open  or  closed.  Every  officer  in  the  ship  should  be 
familiar  with  their  location  and  working. 

In  closmg  this  chapter,  the  writer  wishes  to  remind  the  reader 
that  apparent  repetitions  here  and  there  are  made  with  the 
purpose  of  driving  home  essential  facts  regarding  the  working 
of  the  vessel.  No  one  is  expected  to  read  the  seamanship  at 
one  sitting,  and  no  one  will  fail  to  see  the  need  for  warnings 
and  advice  given  under  different  headings.  Holds,  peaks  and 
tanks  are  so  important  that  this  special  chapter  was  considered 
necessary. 

Sluice  valves  are 
no  longer  looked 
upon  with  favor  as 
they  red^ce  the  reli- 
abiUty  of  the  bulk- 
heads as  watertight 
partitions. 


BALANCE 

CHAMBER-, 
COriPR-ESSED 
BY  WEIGHT 
OFUQ.UID 


The  Pneumercator 
Gauge 

This  is  a  very  in- 
genious application 
of  the  pressure  in  a 
tank,  or  imder  the 

ship  to  measure  the  liquid  in  the  tank  or  the  draft  of  the  vessel. 
The  pressure  of  Uquid  is  measured  by  means  of  an  air  chamber 
as  shown  in  the  diagram.  The  higher  the  Uquid  above  the  bal- 
ance chamber  (air  chamber)  the  greater  the  air  pressure.    That 


252 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


rT*"T- 


•»«••»■>•«■■ 


p.  J' 


;ii 


!l 


I  ! 


S.-.V.V.V.V.V 


If       *i  t  • 

.'-s-—  i\ — « ; 


li 


.1  «      '    inJ 


-•»» 


aaaaawa*.. 


^! 


••— n-"i  ( 


V'n'lxuPJ 


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o 


iS)  the  air  pressure  and  the 
liquid  pressure  must  be  the 
same.  This  air  pressure  is 
communicated  to  a  column 
of  mercury  and  as  the 
pressure  increases,  or  de- 
creases, the  mercury  is 
forced  up,  or  is  allowed  to 
fall  lower  in  the  gauge. 
The  gauge  is  calibrated  so 
that  the  height  of  mercury 
will  show  the  height  of 
liquid  in  the  tank.  The 
gauge  is  calibrated  for  wa- 
ter, or  oil,  or  whatever 
may  be  the  density  of  the 
liquid  to  be  measured. 

Although  made  in  many 
types  to  meet  varied  re- 
quirements, all  Pneumer- 
cator  gauges  have  the  same 
essential  elements,  which 
are  (1)  balance  chamber, 
(2)  a  mercury  or  other 
gauge,  calibrated  in  feet 
and  inches  and  in  the  cor- 
responding weight  or  vol- 
ume, (3)  a  pump  or  other 
means  of  furnishing  com- 
pressed air,  (4)  a  control 
valve  or  valves  connected 
to  the  gauge  and  also  con- 
nected through  small  piping 
to  the  balance  chamber 
and  the  air  pump. 

When  installed  in  a  tank 
the  orifice  in  the  balance 
chamber  is  located  at  a 
predetermined  point  below 


HOLDS,  PEAKS,  TANKS 


253 


i^^ 


the  surface  of  the  Hquid  to  be  measured.    This  type  of  gauge 
works  equally  well  on  tanks  at  atmosphere  or  under  pressure 

or  vacuum. 

In  the  type  of  instrument  used  to  mdicate  the  draft  and  trim  of  a 
vessel,  the  balance  chambers,  connected  by  one-inch  sea  valves, 
are  located  at  predetermined  points 
forward  and  aft  below  the  light 
draft  line  of   the  ship,  and  also 
connected  by  one-quarter-inch  cop- 
per tubing  to  the  instrument  lo- 
cated in  the  pilot  house  or  captain^s 
office.    Thus  installed,  the  Pneu- 
mercator  draft  gauge  indicates  the 
fore  and  aft  draft,  registers  the 
mean  draft  and  corresponding  tons 
displaced,  shows  trim,  checks  in- 
voices and  deliveries,  weighs  car- 
goes and  btmkers. 

The  scales  are  calibrated  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  requirements  of 
the  service,  the  reading  is  direct 
and  instantaneous  in  every  case,  Pneumercator  draft  and  displace- 

.  ,    ,  .„  ment  scale, 

requirmg  no  special  skill. 

{Note:  The  air  in  the  balance  chamber  must  be  constant  in 
volume  in-  order  to  obtain  correct  readings  on  the  mercury  gauge. 
A  few  strokes  of  a  small  hand  pump  will  restore  the  correct  bal- 
ance, or,  where  compressed  air  is  used,  a  turn  of  the  air  cock  will 
do  the  same  thing.    If  too  much  air  is  forced  into  the  chamber  it 
bubbles  out  through  the  bottom,  no  harm  is  done.)     Read  gauge, 
pump  or  turn  on  air  (it  only  takes  a  fraction  of  a  minute)  and  read 
gauge  again.    The  second  reading  is  the  correct  one.    The  draft 
gauge  is  useful,  when  loading  or  discharging.    At  sea  the  draft 
can  be  read  to  a  fraction  of  an  inch  when  it  is  impossible  to  get 
the  draft  by  reading  the  numerals  on  bow  and  stern.    In  case 
of  collision  the  scale  will  show  whether  the  vessel  is  settling,  or 
not.    If  she  starts  down,  even  a  small  fraction  of  an  inch,  the 
warning  is  most  important.     On  the  other  hand  the  draft  gauge 
will  show  when  the  pumps  start  to  gain  on  a  le^,  or  if  they  fail 
to  do  so. 


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CHAPTER  9 


STOWAGE 


Foreword 

Stowage  in  the  modern  cargo  vessel  is  becoming  of  greater 
importance  as  the  size  of  holds  increases  and  the  variety  of  cargo 
continues  to  become  more  and  more  diversified.  Where  in  the 
old  days  a  vessel  stowed  a  few  thousand  tons,  now  more  than 
that  is  carried  in  a  single  hold.  Many  writers  set  down  nice 
little  rules  for  the  stowage  of  cargo,  but  the  practical  sea  officer 
knows  that  such  rules  are  hard  to  follow.  Stowage  is  a  contmual 
compromise  between  the  filling  in  of  deadweight  and  measure- 
men  t  cargo.  The  following  item  from  a  shipping  paper  illustrates 
the  point: 

"  After  being  detained  at  Boston  two  weeks  waiting  for  fuel 
oil,  the  steamer  West  Togua  has  left  for  the  Pacific  Coast  with  a 
very  large  cargo.  She  will  call  at  PhUadelphia  for  more  fuel 
oil  and,  if  the  dock  laborer's  strike  is  settled,  will  take  on  1,500 
tons  of  steel.  From  Boston  she  carries  paper,  shoes,  dry  goods, 
soap,  drugs,  machinery  and  confectionery." 

Here  was  a  problem  in  stowage  for  the  Chief  Mate,  to  get 
in  the  1,500  tons  of  steel,  somewhere  in  the  'tween  decks  under 
the  measurement  cargo. 

Such  problems  are  always  happening.  Sometimes  the  com- 
plications pile  on  each  other  to  the  point  of  distraction,  especially 
where  a  vessel  is  to  discharge  at  a  number  of  different  ports  and 
the  question  of  trim  and  stability  after  each  unloading  comes 

into  play.* 

Every  modern  vessel  should  carry  a  capacity  sheet  containing 
the  following  information:  (See  opposite  page). 

Capacities  of  cargo  spaces 

Dimensions  of  cargo  spaces 


*  (See  page  717.) 


255 


r;   I 


f 


256  STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 

Capacities  of  bunker  spaces 

Dimensions  of  bunker  spaces 

Capacities  of  trimming  tanks 

Size  of  hatches 

Capacities  of  booms 

Plan  showing  location  of  holds,  tanks  and  hatches 

Tons   per  inch    scale, 


Top  ofUpper.^ 
,Deck  Plating  \ 


boaV(4°^'"^*'«'5i  P*""^^ 


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13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


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20 


21 


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"  Buffsfrap  on  Keel 
Plate 


F 


Tons 
Inch 


1-25 


i-24 


5500 


rZh 


5000 


4500 


1-21 


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4000 


r  19 


3500 


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3000 


2500 


2000 


1500 


1000 


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303 


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29.8 


29.5 


29.2 


29.0 


28.7 


28.3 


28.1 


27.8 


27.5 


271 


26.6 


13" 


22'-ir!i 


16 


Load  Line 


showing  the  freeboard, 
displacement,  deadweight 
and  draft  in  their  true 
relation  and  the  number 
of  tons  of  displacement 
per  inch  of  draft. 

A  displacement  curve 
is  also  given  in  the  set 
of  blue  prints  supplied 
the  ship.     (See  page  22.) 

In  old  vessels  not  sup- 
plied with  this  informa- 
tion the  Chief  Mate 
should  collect  as  much  of 
the  data  as  possible, 
measuring  holds  and 
hatches  to  satisfy  him- 
self. 

When  cargo  is  taken 
for  a  vessel  the  freight 
and  traffic  department 
ashore,  in  a  well-organ- 
ized concern,  see  to  it 
that  cargo  assigned  to  the 
ship  is  suitable,  dead 
weight  and  measurement 


Tons  per  inch  scale.    Note  A.B.S.  load  line  SO  proportioned,  if  possi- 

marking.  ble,  that  the  best  Stow- 

age can  be  made. 
Where  cargo  diagrams  are  prepared,  and  this  should  be  done 
where  mixed  cargoes  are  carried,  these  diagrams  should  be  kept 
for  reference  from  voyage  to  voyage  in  a  cargo  book.    Carefully 


STOWAGE 


257 


prepared  diagrams  are  of  the  utmost  importance  in  settling 
clahns  for  damage  due  to  faulty  stowage,  pilfering,  and  the  like. 

n 

Preparing  for  Stowage 

This  duty  falls  to  the  ship  and  is  one  of  the  most  important  to 
be  attended  to  after  discharging.  Holds  and  'tween  decks 
should  be  swept  clean.  If  it  is  necessary  to  wash  down  the 
'tween  decks  and  hold  use  fresh  water  if  this  is  available. 

Lift  limber  boards  and  clean  out 
the  limbers,  see  that  the  rose  boxes 
(the  strums  or  strainers  over  the 
bilge  suction  pipes)  are  clean  and 
clear. 

See  that  all  battens  and  tank 
top  covers  are  in  good  order. 

See  that  all  piping,  sounding 
pipes,  smothering  lines,  fire  and 
water  lines  through  the  hold  are 
in  good  order. 

See  that  all  wiring  is  in  good 
order,  pipe  or  armored  conduits 
are  not  chafed  or  bent. 

See  that  .  all  ports  are  tight, 
deadlights  screwed  down  and  that 
all  side  ports  are  secure.  Always  have  your  cargo  lights 

Make  careful  examination  of  and  cables,  in  good  order.  A, 
the  under  side  of  the  weather  deck.   Ring  for  the   lanyard   to  carry 

.     -     -     ,  J .    weight  of  the  reflector.     5,  Guy 

under  wmch  beds,  around  mast  ^.J^  to  point  r^ec tor.    C,  Con- 

and  king  post  wedges.     Examine  section  for  cable.    Do  not  hang 
well  for  leaks.    Look  after  venti-  the  light  by  the  cable. 
lators  for  leakage. 

See  that  all  hold  ladders  are  in  good  order.  Look  after  all 
strong  backs,  fore  and  afters,  and  hatch  covers  to  be  certain 
that  these  fittings  are  in  shape  for  closing  hatches. 

Look  after  the  hatch  tarpaulins,  two  or  three  at  each  hatch  as 
required.  See  that  the  tarpaulins  fit,  or  are  properly  marked, 
and  are  not  torn  or  cracked. 

See  that  the  battens  and  wedges  are  handy. 


ti 


V 


I! 


258 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


I  i 


u 


r; 


Dunnage.*  The  modern  steamer  is  so  designed  that  dunnage, 
except  for  chocking  and  filling  between  battens  (when  necessary) 
is  largely  dispensed  with.  The  old  rule  "  ten  inches  of  dunnage 
on  the  floor  and  fifteen  in  the  bilge  "  is  a  dead  letter. 

Rough  spruce  planking  is  usually  employed,  and  this  is  used 
where  needed ;  baled  goods,  liable  to  damage  through  sweat  are 
protected  with  a  layer  of  planking  over  the  steel  decks  and 
against  the  steel  framing  of  the  ship. 

Dunnage  is  also  used  in  flooring  off  between  different  kinds 
of  cargo  where  contact  would  result  in  damage.  No  hard  and 
fast  rule  can  be  given  as  to  the  amount  of  dunnage  needed  for 
any  ship,  but  each  cargo  is  a  rule  unto  itself  in  this  respect. 
Good  stowage  calls  for  sufficient  dunnage  to  prevent  damage  by 
contact  or  leakage,  and  enough  chocking  pieces  to  prevent  the 
working  or  shifting  of  cargo  when  in  a  seaway. 

Dunnage  should  be  laid  as  directed  by  the  Mate,  when  the 
nature  of  the  stowage  is  known.  It  is  well  to  sweep  off  dunnage 
wood  and  pile  it  in  the  wings  of  the  'tween  decks  and  on  the  hold 
stringers  so  it  will  be  handy  when  the  time  comes  for  its  use. 

Chocking  pieces  usually  consist  of  rough  cord  wood  of  handy 
size  useful  as  quoins  under  the  quarters  of  casks,  etc. 

Certain  kinds  of  cargo  lend  themselves  to  chocking  purposes 
and  may  be  used  when  it  will  not  result  in  damage.  Heavy 
machinery  is  often  wedged  and  lashed  in  the  holds  and  then 
further  secured  by  close  stowage  of  baled  hay.  This  is  a  very 
satisfactory  combination.  Of  course,  cotton,  or  other  baled  stuff 
may  also  be  used,  care  being  taken  to  protect  it  from  damage  by 
oil  or  grease. 

♦Whether  the  ship  owner,  in  a  lump  sum  charter,  should  deduct  the 
dunnage  from  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  ship,  or  include  it  in  the  tonnage 
carried,  was  again  under  discussion  in  the  King's  Court  in  London.  The 
case  at  point  was  that  of  the  steamship  "  Ben  Lodi,"  which  was  fixed  at  a 
lump  stmi,  "  owner's  Guarantee  to  place  5,600  tons  deadweight  carrying 
capacity  and  300,000  bale  space,  as  per  builders'  plan,  at  disposal  of  charterers, 
and  it  was  provided  that, "  if  the  deadweight,  or  bale  space  placed  at  charterers' 
disposal  be  less  than  the  above,  then  the  Itmip  sum  is  to  be  reduced  pro  rata." 
The  charterers  loaded  a  general  cargo,  which  required  thirty-two  tons  of 
dimnage,  and  the  .point  in  dispute  was  whether  the  charters  were  entitled 
to  the  deduction  of  those  thirty-two  tons. 

Justice  Atkin  held  that  when  the  owner  placed  a  ship  at  the  disposal  of 
the  charterer,  having  a  carrying  capacity  of  5,600  tons,  he  had  satisfied  his 
contract,  and  gave  judgment  for  the  shipowner. 


STOWAGE 


259 


Cargo  should  always  be  stowed  so  it  will  not  move  or  chafe 
with  the  rolling  of  the  vessel. 

Before  starting  stowage.  Know  the  condition  of  tanks, 
usually  filled,  as  ballast. 


Locomotives  stowed  in  a  lower  hold,  blocked  off  with  compressed  hay  in 
bales.  In  addition  to  this  they  are  also  lashed  and  wedged  securely  on 
their  beds. 

Know  the  state  of  the  bunkers.  Where  a  vessel  must  bunker, 
after  loading^  this  extra  weight  of  fuel  must  be  considered  when 
bringing  her  down  to  her  load  marks. 

The  trimming  tanks  may  be  emptied  as  the  vessel  takes  on  her 
cargo.  Special  care  must  be  taken  to  see  these  tanks  completely 
free  of  water,  also  of  mud.  A  few  inches  of  water  wUl  make  a 
difference  of  100  tons  in  ajarge  ship's  cargo  capacity. 


i    . 


*'  J 


I  ^ 


2«0 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


STOWAGE 


261 


Depth  of  water.  Make  certain  of  the  depth  of  water  in  the 
loading  berth,  forward  and  aft.  This  is  most  important.  Be  sure 
to  get  the  depth  at  low  tide.  Make  certain  whether  you  are  in  a 
clear  or  a  foul  berth,  A  clear  berth  is  one  where  there  is  no 
obstruction,  rocks,  etc.  on  the  bottom.  When  you  come  mto  a 
new  berth  with  a  larger  vessel  than  has  used  it  before  be  most 
careful.  If  the  ends  are  free,  there  may  be  too  little  water 
amidship,  careful  soundings  should  be  made  with  a  ship's  boat  at 
low  tide  before  going  into  the  berth. 

It  is  very  dangerous  to  continue  loading  a  vessel  that  is 
aground. 

The  writer  remembers  a  certain  ship  taking  bunker  coal  at 
St.  Lucia.  When  her  bunkers  were  filled  she  would  not  budge, 
she  was  fast  in  the  mud.  The  lack  of  care  on  the  part  of  some 
one  cost  that  vessel  several  thousand  dollars,  at  a  tune  when  a 
chief  mate  had  to  work  two  years  to  earn,  what  his  lack  of  fore- 
sight cost  the  ship  within  an  hour.  And,  by  the  way,  a  master 
or  chief  mate  who  is  constantly  on  the  job  wiU  save  his  salary 
many  tunes  over  on  ahnost  every  voyage.  At  present  the  master 
is  so  underpaid  with  respect  to  his  responsibiUties  that  this  point 
may  well  be  considered  by  wide-awake  ship  operators. 

Hatches,  The  hatches  of  vessels  differ,  and  in  every  ship, 
unless  perfectly  designed,  certain  hatches  wiU  be  slow  hatches, 
that  is,  all  things  being  equal,  these  hatches  will  be  the  last  to 
load  or  discharge.  These  factors  should  be  taken  into  account 
when  loading. 

The  reserve  bunker  or  tank  hatches  are  usually  slow.  In 
these  spaces,  when  cargo  is  to  be  carried,  stow  things  Uable  to 
do  damage,  but  do  not  stow  cargo  liable  to  damage  from  the  heat 
of  bunkers  or  fire  room. 

HI 

Order  of  Stowage 

In  deep  holds,  only  heavy  and  securely  boxed  or  crated  cargo 
should  be  placed  below  for  the  weight  of  stowage  on  top  will 
cause  considerable  damage  unless  this  is  attended  to. 

Stowage  generally  takes  the  f ollowmg  course : 
Lower  holds — 


Heavy  weights,  stout  packages,  deadweight  cargo.    Fol- 
lowed by  measurement  to  lower  'tween  deck  beams,  using 
small  cases  for  beam  filler  if  possible. 
Lower  'tween  decks^ — 

Heavy  stuff,  steel  rails,  billets,  etc.,  casks,  cases,  and 
measurement. 
Upper  'tween  decks — 

Some  heavy  stuff  to  carry  up  the  weights,  and  mostly 
measurement  cargo. 
The  order  of  stowage  depends,  largely  upon  the  order  of  dis- 
charging.   Consignments  for  any  single  port  should  be  kept  as 
close  together  as  possible. 

So  many  factors  enter  into  the  practical  work  of  stowage  that 
only  general  principles  can  be  given.  Never  allow  drafts  of 
cargo  to  bang  against  the  side  when  loading.  Heavy  slings  of 
cargo  will  batter  in  the  shell  plating  abreast  of  the  hatch  ways. 

Scales  of  Permissible  Loading  and  Ballasting 

Holds  and  'tween  decks  should  be  marked  with  their  safe 
stowage  weights  for  full  cargo  loading.  A  scale  of  such  safe 
loading  weights  should  be  given  the  vessel  by  her  designers  with 
the  approval  of  the  classification  society.  The  correct  proportion 
of  cargo  weights  for  ore,  coal,  sugar,  and  general  cargo  could 
easily  be  determined,  using  certain  "  tjrpe  "  cargoes. 

With  such  a  scale  should  be  given  the  minimum  ballast  re- 
quirements of  the  vessel  when  flying  light. 

Most  sailing  craft  carry  a  certain  weight  of  kentledge  per- 
manent pig  iron  ballast.  This  is  not  taken  out  when  stowing 
cargo. 

IV 

Railway  Iron 

"  Stow  fore  and  aft  until  level  with  the  keelson,  then  *  grating 
fashion,'  keeping  the  rails  well  apart  so  that  the  weight  will  be 
raised  to  make  the  ship  easy  in  a  seaway." 

The  above  ancient  instruction  keeps  finding  its  way  into  the 
newer  books,  one  man  copies  from  another  and  it  is  even  now 
the  standard  answer  to  the  ancient  question.  "  How  would  you 
stow  a  cargo  of  railroad  iron?  " 


262 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


STOWAGE 


263 


1 


! 


"  Both  sides  of  the  keelson  '*  are  now  filled  with  tanks,  and 
the  floor  is  flat. 

Stow  railroad  iron  (rails)  and  other  steel,  as  close  as  possible. 
Chock  it  against  shifting  and  place  dunnage  between  tiers  for 
greater  ease  in  passing  the  chain  slings  in  hoisting  out.  In 
loading  a  deadweight  cargo  of  steel  put  one  third  in  the  'tween 
decks,  of  number  2  and  number  4  holds. 

This  cargo  is  generally  best  stowed  fore  and  aft. 


Steel  Billets 

Steel  billets  are  often  stowed  in  the  'tween  decks  to  bring 
up  the  weight.  Such  billets  weighing  from  450  lbs.  to  600  lbs. 
are  often  thoroughly  magnetized  due  to  handling  with  an  electric 
magnet,  and  may  be  a  very  disturbing  factor  in  the  performance 
of  the  compass  when  stowed  in  the  hatch  just  forward  of  the 
bridge.  It  is  worth  while  looking  after  this  point.  In  discharg- 
ing billets  sling  with  a  sound  chain  sling,  three  in  a  draft. 

Steel  plates  are  handled  by  means  of  screw  clamps  and  slings. 
Use  great  care  in  slinging. 

Weight  of  Steel  Plates  per  Square  Foot 


— 

In. 

In.          In. 

1 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

Thick 

Pounds 

2.55 

1 
5.10 

7.65 

i 

10.2 

12.8 

f 
15.3 

17.9 

20.04 

1 
40.08 

To  calculate  the  weight  of  angle-bars  take  the  sum  of  the  flanges,  and 
treat  as  a  plate. 

VI 

Sugar 

Sugar  cargoes,  as  taken  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  are  carried 
in  gunny  bags,  weighing  in  the  neighborhood  of  150  lbs.  It  is  a 
clean  cargo,  readily  stowed,  and  weights  should  be  carried  up 
into  the  'tween  decks,  as  the  vessel  will  be  down  to  her  marks 
before  she  is  filled.  Cuban  and  Porto  Rican  sugar  is  handled 
the  same  way. 

In  dunnaging  be  careful  to  keep  clear  of  all  steel  work,  and 
arrange  for  ventilation  in  the  holds  as  the  cargo  is  usually  warm 


and  in  coming  mto  cool  weather  the  deck  beams  will  sweat  and 
drip  onto  the  bags;  though  no  real  damage  results  from  this, 
it  is  as  well  to  avoid  it. 

In  loading  from  lighters  be  careful  not  to  receive  cargo  that 
has  been  wet  with  salt  water.  This  can  usually  be  ascertained 
by  opening  a  suspicious  bag  and  tasting  the  sugar. 


Loading  bag  grain.    Hides  on  wharf  to  go  into  tank  hatch. 

The  sugar  is  only  partly  refined  and  is  taken  to  Atlantic  Coast 
ports  to  the  refineries. 

Much  of  the  loading  and  unloading  is  now  done  by  conveyor. 
When  loading,  long  hard  wood  chutes  are  employed  and  the 
bags  are  slid  to  every  part  of  the  hold  and  'tween  decks. 

vn 

Hides 

Confine  hides  to  a  single  hold  if  possible.  Dunnage  well 
against  contact  with  steel  or  other  cargo.  Best  to  carry  these  in 
the  tank  hatch,  if  other  perishable  cargo  is  carried. 


1    ^ 


I     ' 

I 

•'•  'I 

ii>     i 


264 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


STOWAGE 


265 


vm 

Jute 

Jute  cargoes  are  carried  from  East  Indian  ports  and  require 
special  care  in  handling.  Cases  of  spontaneous  combustion  have 
been  noted  and  the  sweating  of  hold  beams  and  exposed  metal 
parts  is  very  pronounced.  The  following  reconmiendations 
have  been  made  with  regard  to  the  stowage  of  this  cargo. 

1.  That  there  shall  be  at  least  six  ventilators  of  not  less  than 
18  inches  diameter,  elevated  7  to  8  feet  above  the  main  deck, 
continued  by  Venetian  shafts  through  the  *tween  decks  into  the 
hold,  with  an  air  space  under  both  decks  of  not  less  than  3  inches 
— ^fore  and  aft  the  vessel — these  ventilators  being  placed  at  equal 
distances  between  the  fore  and  aft  hatches. 

2.  That  two  strong  ventilators, 
about  3  feet  high  and  15  inches 
diameter,  be  fitted  with  screw  cov- 
ers in  the  main  hatch. 

3.  That  one  of  each  of  the 
hatches  is  to  be  kept  open  during 
the  voyage,  when  the  weather 
permits. 

4.  That  the  hatches  are  not  to  be 
filled  close  up  with  jute,  but  an  air 
space  left  all  rotmd  the  coamings. 

5.  That  the  spaces  between  the 
vessePs  frames  adjoining  the  lower 

the  necks.  Screens  must  be  kept  deck  are  to  be  kept  open,  to  aUow 
clean,  the   steam   to   ascend   from   the 

lower  hold. 
6.  That  the  ventilators  are  to  be  carefully  attended  to  at  sea. 
Also, 

1.  That  the  old  plan  of  sweat  boards,  formerly  fitted  imder  the 
stringer  plates  of  the  upper  deck,  would  be  very  beneficial  to  a 
jute  cargo,  by  carr3dng  off  much  of  the  condensed  sweat,  also 
forming  an  air  space  where  most  required. 

2.  That  matting  round  the  sides  be  discontinued,  as  mats  get 
saturated  and  retain  the  sweat;  dry  sticks  or  permanent  dunnage 
being  preferable,  allowing  it  to  escape. 


yClamp 


Handle-'' 


I— '.--:.■! 


Ventilator  cowls.    Should  have 
wire  mesh  fire  screens  fitted  in 


3.  That  no  bone  meal  or  broken  stowage  be  carried  with  jute 
cargoes. 

Bales  average  300  lbs.,  and  400  lbs.  should  be  the  limit. 
Damp  bales  should  be  rejected. 

Jute  bags  and  waste  are  pressed  in  bales  15  lbs.  to  the  cubic 
foot,  and  149  cubic  feet  to  the  long  ton. 

Bales  are  generally  stowed  flat,  amidship,  marks  and  numbers 
up  and  on  the  edge  in  the  wings,  marks  and  numbers  inboard. 

IX 

Silk 

Silk  will  be  in  bales  or  packed  in  cases.  Silk  should  be  stowed 
with  great  care  as  to  dryness,  and  away  from  all  drip  or  offensive 

odors. 

Tea 

Japanese  waste  silk  (the  combings  after  the  silk  is  drawn) 
emit  an  odor  very  injurious  to  tea. 

Tea  must  be  carefully  stowed,  holds  specially  cleaned,  bilges 
free  and  clean,  sweetening  them  with  lime  water.  It  is  often 
desirable  to  coat  the  iron  work  in  the  holds  with  a  cement  wash 
and  then  whitewash  the  holds,  where  tea  is  being  carried. 

Tea  shipped  from  Canton  or  Macao  is  packed  in  cases  measur- 
ing two  to  three  cubic  feet  and  weighing  between  fifteen  and 
twenty  pounds  net. 

Tobacco 

Manufactured  tobacco  and  cigars  should  be  kept  free  from 
odors  and  moisture.  Bales  of  leaf  tobacco  will  heat  and  may 
cause  spontaneous  combustion.  Tobacco  is  shipped  in  hogs- 
heads, tierces,  or  bales.     Use  ample  dunnage. 

X 

Cotton 

Cotton  is  pressed  in  bales  running  from  480  to  500  lbs.,  the 
latter  figure  in  the  case  of  cotton  waste.  Oil,  turpentine,  and 
grease  should  be  kept  away  from  cotton.  All  bales  should  be 
watched  when  stowing;  this  is  best  done  on  the  dock  and  no 
bales  showing  signs  of  wet  should  be  accepted,  or  if  acceptance 


^ 


266 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


STOWAGE 


267 


is  insisted  upon  a  remark  as  to  their  condition  should  be  made 
on  the  bill  of  lading  and  signed  by  the  shipper  or  his  agent  and 
the  master.    This  should  be  done  with  all  damaged  cargo. 

All  naked  lights  should  be  kept  out  of  the  hold — "  no  smoking  " 
enforced,  and  all  ventilator  cowls  should  be  watched  where 
same  are  liable  to  be  in  the  wake  of  sparks  from  the  vessel's 
funnel,  or  from  the  funnel  of  tugboats,  etc.  Use  fire  screens  in 
all  ventilators. 

The  fire  risk  is  great  and  every  precaution  should  be  taken 
when  carr3ring  a  cargo  of  cotton. 

Cotton  bales  swell  or  "  spring  "  some  in  handling  and  this 
should  be  taken  into  consideration  when  estimating  stowage. 
Extra  dense  bales  stow  80  cubic  feet  to  the  ton,  while  the  ordinary 
bale  will  stow  130  cubic  feet  to  the  ton  before  springing.  This 
enlargement  of  the  bales  may  amount  to  ten  per  cent.  Cotton 
is  no  longer  screened  into  holds. 

XI 

Wool 

Wool  is  shipped  in  bales  of  various  sizes  depending  upon  the 
part  of  the  world  in  which  the  cargo  is  shipped.  Before  begin- 
ning stowage  get  full  particulars  from  the  local  people.  Roughly, 
if  engaging  a  cargo  of  wool  by  cable,  figure  200  cubic  feet  to  the 
ton.  The  "  screwing  "  of  wool  and  cotton  cargoes  is  no  longer 
practiced  as  the  bales  are  sufEiciently  compressed  to  make 
this  practice  unnecessary. 

XII 

Casks'" 

The  time-honored  formula,  "  bung  up  and  bilge  free  "  sums 
up  the  whole  of  cask  stowage.  When  casks  are  supported  by 
beds  under  their  quarters,  and  the  second  tier  stowed  in  the 
cuntlines  of  the  lower  tier,  ends  wedged  off  in  the  wings,  little 
damage  will  follow  with  sound  casks. 

*  To  calculate  the  capacity  of  a  cask,  multiply  half  the  sum  of  the  areas 
of  the  two  interior  circles,  viz. :  at  the  bung  and  head  by  the  interior  length, 
for  the  contents  in  cubic  inches,  which  stmi,  divided  by  277.27  (the  number 
of  cubic  inches  in  a  gallon),  reduces  the  result  to  that  measure. 


A  dirty  cask  covered  with  grease  or  tar  is  often  found.  The 
bung  will  be  hidden  but  this  is  always  in  a  line  with  the  rivets 
on  the  hoops,  and  the  heads  of  the  casks 
run  up  and  down  when  the  bung  is  on 

top. 
The  staves  of  a  cask  projecting  beyond 

the  heads  form  a  ridge  called  the  chimes. 
When  the  chimes  are  broken  the  cask 
should  be  sent  to  the  cooper  for  repairs 
before  stowing.  A  cooper  should  always 
be  at  hand  when  taking  on  a  cargo  of  casks. 
Be  careful  not  to  get  the  bung  down. 

Casks  are  usually  stowed  fore  and  aft, 
working  out  to  the  wings  from  the  keelson 
and  foreward  and  aft  from  amidships. 
Care  should  be  taken  that  the  casks  are 
also  "  bilge  free  "  at  the  side.  Nothing 
should  be  touching  but  the  quarters.    Stow  "bilge  and  cuntline." 


Cask  stowage 


Hogsheads  contain    63  gallons 
Puncheons       "         84 
Pipes  "       126 


(t 


iC 


Hogsheads  may  be  stowed  to  six  tiers,  puncheons  to  four 
tiers,  and  pipes,  or  buts  to  three  tiers. 

When  casks  are  stowed  with  heads  pointing  to  the  wings  they 
are  said  to  be  "  a  burton." 

A  great  deal  of  loss  will  be  avoided  by  careful  attention  to  the 
stowage  and  slinging  of  casks.  The  writer  has  a  vivid  recollec- 
tion of  a  huge  puncheon  of  stuffed  Spanish  olives  slipping  from  a 
sling  when  well  up  above  the  hatch  on  a  vessel  discharging  in 
San  Francisco.  Hundreds  of  stevedores  filled  their  pockets  with 
olives  and  the  thirst  raised  in  consequence  was  simply  con- 
suming. 

Asphalt 

Holds  are  smeared  with  mud  before  loading,  on  the  same 
principle  that  pans  are  greased  before  baking.  The  cargo  con- 
solidates on  the  voyage  north,  and  is  then  dug  out.  Of  course 
all  holds  are  lined,  the  mud  prevents  the  cargo  from  adhering 
to  the  lining. 


I 

r 

if 


I 
k 


268 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


STOWAGE 


26Q 


xm 

Lumber 

Lumber  in  moderate  lengths  and  sizes  will  stow  through  deck 
hatches,  but  where  heavy  baulks  of  timber,  running  forty  feet 
or  more  and  twelve  to  fourteen  inches  square,  are  to  be  shipped, 
bow  ports  may  have  to  be  employed,  or,  if  the  hatches  permit, 
the  stuff  has  to  be  lowered  and  dragged  into  the  holds  one  piece 
at  a  time  and  stowed  by  hand,  with  pinch  bars  and  jiggers. 

In  taking  on  a  cargo  of  lumber  the  Master  will  do  well  to  see  the 
exact  sizes  and  assure  himself  of  proper  stowage.  Schooners  in 
this  trade,  working  their  long  sticks  in  and  out  through  the  bow 
ports,  using  a  tackle  from  the  end  of  the  bowsprit,  are  best 
fitted  for  the  carriage  of  large  sizes. 

As  a  straight  lumber  cargo  will  not  send  a  vessel  down  to  her 
marks,  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  this  cargo  is  often 
carried  on  deck.  Usually  the  deck  load  is  not  covered  by 
insurance. 

The  greatest  care  should  be  exercised  in  properly  securing 
the  deck  load  when  carried,  due  regard  being  given  to  the  season 
of  the  year  and  the  trade.  A  clear  space  should  be  preserved 
between  the  bulwarks  and  the  bulwark  stanchions  for  the 
passage  of  water.  Also  see  that  all  freeing  ports  are  working 
clear.  Great  care  should  be  taken  that  the  uprights  are  secure 
and  that  none  of  the  pipe  lines  or  wheel  chains  are  in  danger  of 
being  rendered  useless  by  shifting  of  the  deck  load.  The  pre- 
cautions are  strictly  up  to  the  officers  of  the  vessel. 

All  chains  should  be  shackled  to  the  deck  eye  bolts  before  the 
lower  tier  of  timbers  is  placed.  The  deck  lashings  should  be  so 
passed  that  extra  frapping  turns  can  be  taken,  swiftering  in  the 
lashing  if  need  be  to  hold  down  the  load  if  it  works  loose. 

No  specific  rules  can  be  given  as  vessels  differ  so,  but  in 
securing  the  deck  load  make  no  mistake  in  regard  to  safety. 
When  it  starts  to  go  it  will  be  too  late. 

The  use  of  wedges  is  doubtful  on  a  deck  cargo. 

Long  timbers  are  the  safest  for  deck  stowage. 

Keep  steam  winches  clear. 

Keep  hatch  covers  clear  so  you  can  get  at  wedges. 

Don't  trust  the  stevedores  with  the  lashings;  they  will  not  be 
out  to  sea  with  you  when  the  ball  begins. 


Mahogany  logs  are  irregular  and  generally  of  large  size. 
Being  a  very  dense  wood,  it  is  well  to  rig  special  gear.  Most  of 
the  trade  in  mahogany  logs  is  from  Central  America,  Mexico,  the 
West  Coast  of  Africa.  Some  come  from  Cuba.  A  few  winters 
ago  the  writer  watched  two  French  barks  discharging  cargoes  of 
African  mahogany  in  Pensacola.  Some  of  the  logs  running  as 
high  as  ten  tons.  The  loading  of  this  cargo  is  difficult,  usually 
by  ship's  gear  alone  and  in  open  roadsteads.  This  sort  of  cargo 
calls  for  seamanship  of  a  high  order. 

XIV 
General  Cargo 

This  may  include  anything,  and  as  the  term  implies  is  a  general 
assortment  of  cargo,  weight  and  measurement.  When  such 
cargo  is  well  assorted  the  vessel  will  be  able  to  earn  her  maxi- 
mum freight  money,  filling 
every  space  and  going  down  to 
her  load  marks  with  ballast 
tanks  empty  and  bunkers  full. 

Rules  for  loading  are  based 
upon  common  sense.  Each 
cargo  will  require  different 
handling,  each  port  will  bring 
its  own  problems.  As  shown 
at  the  beginning  of  the  chap- 
rte,  the  method  of  stowage 
will  often  be  subject  to  condi- 
tions upsetting  all  fixed  rules. 

The  following  general  idea  should  be  kept  in  mind. 

Keep  accurate  diagrams  of  mixed  stowage  to  be  discharged 
at  several  ports. 

Keep  a  balance  between  weight  and  measurement  stuff. 

Weights  down  in  holds,  light  stowage  up.  Heavy  stowage  in 
'tween  decks,  for  a  tier  or  two.  Cargo  giving  off  odors  to  be 
kept  separate.  Cargo  to  be  protected  from  wet.  Cargo  to  be 
ventilated.  Keep  a  sharp  lookout  for  pilfering.  Look  out  for 
loose  stowage.  Stevedores  say  a  vessel  is  "  blown  up  "  when 
they  manage  to  "  get  away  "  with  this  sort  of  stowage. 


Case  Goods  makes  good  beam  and 
hatch  filler 


270 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


STOWAGE 


271 


UM.  ^^^-^ 


«  ^ 

I-  o 

^.  o 
w  o 

I  ^ 


blocked  off   in   the   number   two 
"  stevies  "  in  Frisco  wondered  at 


Cargo  Diagrams 

Cargo  diagrams  are  of- 
ten of  great  use  when  a 
vessel  is  to  discharge  at 
two  or  more  ports,  or  where 
she  carries  a  general  cargo 
and  it  may  become  neces- 
sary to  jettison,  or  break 
out  cargo  for  any  other  rea- 
son. And,  by  the  way,  it  is 
a  good  plan  to  always  throw 
overboard  the  least  valu- 
able cargo,  taking  it  by 
weight,  if  there  is  any 
choice,  when  the  necessity 
for  jettisoning  cargo  arises. 
Here  the  cargo  diagram 
may  be  very  useful. 

The  diagram  shown  here 
is  the  usual  fore  and  aft 
section,  somewhat  exag- 
gerated as  to  depth.  Of 
course  any  cargo  diagram 
is  worthless  unless  pre- 
pared carefully  and  from 
actual  knowledge  of  the 
stowage.  The  officer  in 
charge  of  the  hold  should 
prepare  this  diagram  him- 
self. Where  goods  liable 
to  pilferage  are  "  blocked 
off "  by  less  tempting  cargo, 
the  diagram  shows  when 
and  where  to  be  extra 
careful  while  discharging. 
The  writer  recalls  a  cargo  of 
Canadian  Club  whisky  (.') 
lower  'tween  decks.  The 
the  extra  precautions  when 


they  began  to  "  break  out  "  the  cases  of  wooden  ware  in  front 
of  the  whisky.* 

An  elaborate  cargo  diagram  is  used  by  some  in  which  the 
hold  and  'tween  deck  is  shown  in  sections  all  lettered,  and  the 
plan  is  shown  in  squares,  each 
one  given  a  number.  Cargo 
is  accurately  placed  by  hold 
number  and  by  letter  and 
number  on  the  stowage  dia- 
gram. This  seems  to  be  a 
bit  too  "  scientific  "  for  the 
average  seagoing  mate. 

Talleying   is   often  neces- 
sary.   A  small  hand  counter 

is  very  useful  on  board  ship  both  for  cargo  talleying  as  well  as 
for  checking  on  board  stores,  etc. 

In  China  the  talley  stick  is  still  in  use.    When  discharging 
flour,  as  shown  in  the  photograph,  the  Chinaman  touched  each 


I 


A  hand  counter. 


Passing  talley  sticks. 
*  The  agent  sent  down  a  few  bottles  with  his  compliments  after  talleying 


1. 


t 


<■     i 


the  whole  lot  ashore  without  loss. 
10 


272 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


STOWAGE 


273 


bag  with  a  stick  as  he  handed  it  to  the  young  man  with  the  golf 
cap  (the  supercargo).  The  chinaman  is  very  honest  but  he 
thinks  it  a  good  joke  if  he  can  avoid  passing  over  his  stick  as  a 
bag  slides  past  him.  When  loading  he  very  often  is  absent- 
minded  and  hands  over  two  thin  bamboo  sticks  at  once. 

Before  concluding  his  remarks  on  General  Cargo,  the  writer 
wishes  to  say  a  word  about  Department  of  Conmierce  publica- 
tion. Miscellaneous  Series,  92,  "  Stowage  of  Ship  Cargoes," 
by  Thomas  Rothwell  Taylor.*  This  book  of  three  himdred  and 
fifty  pages  is  filled  with  valuable  data.  Stowage  factors — 
regulations — and  general  information.  Ship's  officers  and 
stevedores  should  have  it  handy  at  all  times.  Sailors  may  find 
some  fault  with  Mr.  Taylor's  rather  musty-looking  splices 
(hooks  without  thimbles,  etc.)  but  we  can  easily  forgive  him  this 
as  long  as  we  have  Standard  Seamanship  at  hand  to  show  us 
the  shipshape  way  to  do  these  things.  The  Department  of 
Commerce  is  to  be  distinctly  congratulated  on  the  production 
of  this  work.  Let  us  hope  the  Department  will  be  more  than 
thankful  to  Mr.  Taylor. 

XV 
Dangerous  Cargo 

Dangerous  cargo  includes  explosives,  shipped  under  strict 
government  supervision  in  magazines.  When  shipping  ex- 
plosives ascertain  their  exact  nature  before  taking  on  board  and 
get  full  directions  for  stowage. 

In  a  general  way,  if  taking  on  explosives  abroad  without  direct 
supervision,  the  following  points  should  be  observed : 

Nature  of  cargo. 

Keep  away  from  fire ;  there  must  be  a  compartment  with  steel 
bulkheads  between  stowage  and  the  engine  room  or  fire  room. 

Bank  furnace  fire  before  starting  to  ship.  See  that  no  sparks 
are  coming  from  the  vessel's  or  any  other  funnel. 

See  that  hoisting  gear  is  new — use  new  manila  nets,  place 
wooden  skids  on  deck  for  landing.  Have  reliable  men  at  hatch 
and  winches  and  in  the  magazine. 

Lower  drafts  easily.  Do  not  allow  boxes  to  be  dropped. 
Avoid  all  hurry. 

*  Price  35  cents,  from  Supt.  of  Docxunents,  Government  Printing  Office, 
Washington,  D.  C. 


No  smoking. 

Take  special  care  against  all  fire  risks.  Do  not  permit  sky- 
larking of  any  kind.    Be  careful  of  tally. ' 

Acids.  Acids,  through  danger  of  leakage  because  of  broken 
carboys,  are  the  most  uncertain  of  cargo.  Sulphuric  acid  forms 
the  bulk  of  this  sort  of  cargo,  which  also  includes  hydrochloric, 
hydrocyanic,  nitric,  etc.  The  milder  acids,  citric,  acetic,  etc., 
are  not  so  dangerous. 

Where  carboys  are  cased,  the  bottles  are  usually  packed  in 
whiting  or  chalk  upon  which  the  acid  expends  itself  in  the  event 
of  leakage.  When  shipped  m  carboys  without  chalk,  this 
material  should  be  used  liberally  in  stowage.  A  hundred  tons 
of  sulphuric  acid  blocked  off  in  the  'tween  decks,  should  be 
bedded  in  at  least  ten  tons  of  chalk.  Of  course  all  other  cargo 
liable  to  damage  would  have  to  be  protected,  a  very  difficult 
thing  to  do.     This  cargo  shotdd  be  well  ventilated  to  carry  off 

all  fumes. 
Do  not  allow  men  to  pick  up  leaking  acid  cases  with  their  bare 

hands. 

Acids  are  usually  carried  on  deck  where  they  are  securely 
lashed  and  can  be  thrown  overboard  when  damaged.  Such 
cargo  is  taken  on  deck  "  at  shipper's  risk  and  expense." 

Where  sulphuric  acid  is  shipped  in  steel  drums,  they  may  be 
carried  under  hatches  if  bedded  in  coal  of  sufficient  amoimt  to 
take  up  any  acid  that  may  leak  out.  A  foot  of  coal  at  least  must 
be  bedded  for  each  hundred  pounds  carried  in  the  largest  drum. 
This  is  a  very  safe  way  of  carr3ring  acid. 

Nitrate  of  Soda,  This  is  not  combustible  unless  in  contact 
with  carbon  or  wood.  The  bags  in  which  it  is  shipped  offer  a 
certain  amount  of  carbon  for  the  support  of  combustion. 

To  extinguish  nitrate  fires  a  mixture  of  nitrate  and  water  is 
employed.    This  is  the  aqua  viega  of  the  West  Coast. 

At  Iquiqui  nitrate  bags  rxm  200  lbs.  each  and  are  taken  on 
board  six  bags  to  a  sling. 

The  following  memoranda  are  taken  from  the  instructions 
relating  to  dangerous  cargo  issued  by  the  British  Board  of  Trade. 

Sulfuric  acid.  When  sulfuric  acid  escapes  into  the  bed  of  coal 
beneath  the  drums  in  which  it  may  be  stowed  spontaneous  com- 
bustion will  not  take  place  within  the  region  of  the  leakage. 


274 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


If 


Sulphurous  acid  vapor  will  extinguish  a  coal  fire. 

Coal  that  has  been  wetted  with  sulphuric  acid  shotild  not  be 
used  for  firing. 

Carbolic  acid.  There  is  great  danger  of  death  from  absorption 
of  this  acid  through  the  skin.  Casks  containing  it  should  be 
specially  sound  and  carefully  handled. 

Phosphoric  acid.  This  can  be  carried  under  deck  if  con- 
tained in  strong  stoppered  bottles  packed  with  wool  or  sawdust 
and  not  more  than  six  to  a  case. 

Picric  acid.  The  Board  of  Trade  have  advised  their  surveyors 
that  this  acid  may  be  carried  under  deck  without  a  magazine  in 
ships  other  than  emigrant  ships,  if  the  following  conditions  are 
complied  with — 

1.  The  packages  must  be  of  sufficient  strength  not  to  allow 
any  of  their  contents  to  escape  when  subjected  to  rough  usage. 

2.  It  must  be  stowed  away  from  boilers  and  strong  mineral 
acids,  paints,  etc.,  and  not  in  contact  with  lead. 

3.  Each  package  must  be  marked  as  follows: 

Explosives  Class  lU,  Division  2 

Picric  acid,  (If  not  crystals  state  percentage  of  water.)  To 
be  stowed  away  from  boilers,  also  strong  mineral  acids,  paints, 
etc.,  and  not  in  contact  with  lead. 

4.  Subject  to  these  provisions  the  total  quantity  of  picric 
acid  to  be  stowed  on  board  any  one  ship  is  limited  to  not  more 
than  ten  tons  in  each  separate  hold  or  compartment. 

Nitre  cake.  Nitre  cake  is  a  byproduct  of  the  manufacture  of 
nitric  acid  and  contains  free  sulphuric  acid  and  sulphate  of  soda, 
with  a  small  percentage  of  free  nitric  acid.  When  dry  it  is 
harmless,  but  it  absorbs  moisture  very  readily  from  the  air  and 
when  wet  will  corrode  wood  and  iron.  It  will  also,  when  in 
contact  with  iron,  cause  hydrogen  gas  to  be  given  off.  Masters 
should  always  be  informed  of  these  qualities  of  the  substance. 

It  should  be  packed  perfectly  dry  in  airtight  vessels. 

Coastwise  it  may  be  shipped  in  bulk,  if  perfectly  dry.  After 
this  cargo  the  hold  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed. 

Chlorate  of  potash.  Although  incombustible  itself  chlorate 
of  potash  is  an  ardent  supporter  of  combustion  and  some  of  the 
mixtures  with  this  substance  are  subject  to  spontaneous  com- 
bustion.   All  such  mixtures  are  sensitive  to  percussion. 

Many  mixtures  of  chlorate  of  potash  will  be  set  on  fire  if 
acted  upon  by  strong  sulphuric  acid. 

The  following  rules  are  given  for  its  handling. 

1.  Pack  in  iron  drums  or  in  strong  paper-lined  casks  capable 
of  rough  handling. 

2.  Do  not  stow  in  the  same  hold  with  other  combustible 
material. 


■  < 


STOWAGE 


275 


3.  Keep  away  from  strong  mineral  acids. 

4.  Not  more  than  ten  tons  should  be  carried  in  one  hold. 
Amorphous  phosphorus.    This  form  of  phosphorus  also  known 

as  "  red  "  or  "  Schrotter*s  "  phosphorus  is  not  liable  to  spon- 
taneous combustion  and  does  not  take  fire  in  the  air  until  heated 
to  500  degrees  Fahrenheit.  ^    ,   .,       ,    j  . 

There  is  no  objection  to  its  stowage  below  deck  if  packed  m 
tin.  Shipments  are  usually  made  in  ten  pound  tins,  ten  tins  to  a 
case.    Unlike  yellow  phosphorus,  it  need  not  be  kept  under 

water.  x-  vi     x 

Sulphide  of  sodium  and  sulphide  of  potassium.  Liable  to 
spontaneous  combustion.  Should  be  packed  dry  in  strong  air- 
tight drums  of  steel. 

In  the  hydrated  condition  these  chemicals  are  not  subject  to 
spontaneous  combustion  and  there  is  no  objection  to  their  ship- 
ment on  this  accoimt. 

Peroxide  of  sodium.  Not  explosive  by  itself  but  dangerous 
when  in  contact  with  any  combustible  substance.  Pack  in  steel 
drums,  not  too  large  and  stow  away  from  combustibles. 

Caustic  potash.  Packed  in  steel  drums  and  stowed  where 
possible  leakage  will  not  come  in  contact  with  passengers  or 

crew. 

Bisulphide  of  carbon.  This  is  considered  "Dangerous 
Goods  "  under  the  meaning  of  the  Merchant  Shipping  Act,  and 
should  be  so  marked.  . 

It  is  a  colorless  heavy  mobile  liquid,  which  evaporates  qmcWy 
and  produces  a  pressure  in  any  vessel  containing  it.  It  easily 
passes  through  the  smallest  opening. 

It  has  a  bad  odor,  as  of  decaying  vegetables. 

The  vapor  will  ignite  on  a  warm  surface  and  flash  back,  ignitmg 
the  liquid.    This  has  been  known  to  happen  across  a  distance  of 

20  feet.  , 

It  should  be  carried  in  strong  drums,  packed  two  to  a  case  and 

cases  perforated. 

It  should  only  be  carried  as  deck  cargo.  Take  the  greatest 
care  to  keep  it  out  of  the  sun's  rays.  Do  not  cover  with  black 
tarpaulin.    Keep  away  from  all  steam  pipes. 

Inspect  every  day  for  the  odor  of  leakage.  If  any  odor  throw 
drums  overboard. 

Sulphur  dioxide.    Carry  on  deck,  not  dangerous  however. 

Liquid  ammonia,  Ammoniacal  gas  compressed  into  liquid 
form  should  be  classed  with  dangerous  goods.  It  is  liable  to 
explosion,  and  the  vapors,  when  released,  are  dangerous. 

Should  be  carried  in  steel  "  bottles  "  tested  to  a  pressure  of 
at  least  675  lbs.  per  square  inch. 

The  aqueous  solution  of  ammonia  should  be  carried  in  drums 
not  exceeding  12  gallons  capacity,  with  an  empty  space  equal  to 
5.33  per  cent,  left  in  each  drum. 


\ 


H. 


276 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Stow  away  from  fires  or  engine  room  and  apart  from  living 
quarters. 

Dinitrobenz  l.  Although  a  constituent  of  certain  powerful 
explosives,  it  is  not  dangerous  in  itself  and  no  special  rules  are 
necessary  with  regard  to  its  carriage. 

Napthalene.  Not  an  explosive;  no  special  risks  attach  to  its 
conveyance. 

Liquified  carbonic  acid.  Must  be  carried  in  steel  cylinders 
of  approved  strength. 

Matches.  May  not  be  carried  on  emigrant  ships.  No  objec- 
tion to  shipment  in  cargo  vessels.  Should  be  packed  in  tin-lined 
airtight  cases. 

Safety  matches  may  be  carried  on  emigrant  ships  if  packed  in 
zinc-  or  tin-lined  hermetically  sealed  cases  and  stowed  in  the 
square  of  the  hatchway. 

Oiled  materials.  Should  be  soldered  in  metal-lined  cases 
after  the  goods  have  been  "  seasoned  "  for  at  least  a  month. 

Stow  in  a  cool  place. 

Inodorous  felt.    Liable  to  spontaneous  combustion. 

Should  always  be  marked  in  red  letters  l^A": 

INODOROUS  FELT 

Roofing  and  sheathing  felt.  Black  felt  made  from  coal  tar 
and  pitch  is  safe.  Brown  felt,  made  from  jute  waste  is  liable  to 
spontaneous  combustion  if  the  rolls  are  stowed  in  the  hold  of  a 
ship  before  they  have  cooled  to  the  temperature  of  the  sur- 
rounding air. 

Lampblack.  Spontaneous  combustion  extremely  rare,  but 
stow  near  hatchways.  Printed  paper  should  not  be  used  for 
packing  this  material.  Packed  in  cases  or  casks  lined  with 
clean  dry  paper  it  is  safely  carried. 

Carbon  papers.  Containing  fatty  substances  and  finely 
divided  carbon,  these  are  liable  to  spontaneous  combustion 
under  certain  conditions. 

In  limited  quantity  packed  in  airtight  tins  there  is  no  objec- 
tion to  them  as  "  general  cargo." 

If  not  packed  in  tins  they  should  be  carried  on  deck. 

Glue  pieces.  Liable  to  spontaneous  combustion.  Be  care- 
ful in  stowage  away  from  combustible  cargo  and  near  square  of 
hatch. 

Calcium  carbide.  Calcium  carbide  or  carbide  of  calcium  may 
be  transported  on  passenger  vessels  when  the  same  is  contained 
in  steel  drums  or  steel  receptacles,  the  seams  of  which  are 
laired  and  properly  riveted  or  fastened  in  such  manner  as  will 
insure  the  maximum  strength  of  the  joints  and  when  the  said 


STOWAGE 


277 


drum  or  receptacles  are  fitted  with  double  covers,  so  that  such 
drums  or  receptacles  shall  be  watertight  and  airtight,  during 
such  transportation.  For  packages  of  110  pounds  or  less,  such 
drums  or  receptacles  shall  be  made  of  open-hearth  steel  of  not 
less  than  No.  26  gauge.  For  packages  of  more  than  1 10  pounds, 
such  drums  or  receptacles  shall  be  made  of  open-hearth  steel 
of  not  less  than  No.  24  gauge.  Calcium  carbide  or  carbide  of 
calcium  may  also  be  transported  on  passenger  vessels  in  cans 
containing  not  more  than  ten  pounds  each. 

Regulations  of  the  Board  of  Underwriters  of  New  York 
for  the  Loading  of  "  Calcium  Carbide  " 

"  Calcium  Carbide,"  may  be  stowed  under  deck  of  General 
Cargo  Vessels  in  quantities  not  exceeding  ten  (10)  per  cent,  of  a 
vessels  net  registered  tonnage. 

The  packages  to  be  of  one  (1)  cwt.  Drums  crated  and  two  (2) 
cwt.  Drums  incased  in  wood.  Same  to  be  stowed  in  between 
decks  close  to  the  Hatches  (but  not  under  them),  with  no  other 
cargo  on  top,  and  as  far  from  the  Ventilators  as  possible. 

In  Smgle  Deck  Vessels,  to  be  stowed  close  to  the  Hatches 
(but  not  under  them)  with  no  other  cargo  on  top,  and  not  within 
eight  (8)  feet  of  the  bottom  of  the  hold.  ^ 

Not  to  be  stowed  in  fore  or  after  peaks,  and  not  to  be  used  for 
broken  stowage,  not  to  be  distributed  in  various  parts  of  the 
vessel,  but  to  be  stowed  in  one  compartment  if  possible. 

The  compartment  must  always  be  well  ventilated,  the  packages 
to  be  stowed  on  their  ends,  clear  of  all  steam,  fire,  scupper  pipes 
and  deadlights,  and  in  the  forward  ends  of  compartments  where 
bunkers  adjoin,  and  not  in  the  empty  bunker  space  below. 

"  Calcium  Carbide  "  should  be  stowed  in  Poop  and  Bridge 
spaces  when  practicable. 

This  commodity  must  always  be  stowed  under  the  personal 
supervision  of  a  Surveyor  of  this  Board. 

Construction  of  Magazines  for  the  Stowage  of  High  and 

Low  Explosives 

Regulations  of  Board  of  Underwriters  of  New  York 

All  iron  work  inside  carefully  covered  by  wood,  planed  on 
one  side,  and  all  nails  to  be  of  Copper. 

Iron  decks  are  to  be  covered  with  feather-edged  boarding 
which  is  to  be  an  inch  on  one  edge  and  one-quarter  of  an  inch 
on  the  other,  and  to  lap  over  two  inches. 

Uprights  are  to  be  fitted  to  cargo  battens  and  bulkheads 
before  sheathing. 


V 


278 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


STOWAGE 


279 


Magazines  are  always  to  be  built  in  between  decks  if  possible, 
and  must  be  so  placed  that  the  doors  are  easily  accessible  from  a 
hatchway. 

All  electric  lights  running  through  compartments  where  maga- 
zmes  are  fitted  must  be  disconnected  at  the  bulkhead. 

Iron  decks  may  be  covered  with  tongued  and  grooved  boards 
mstead  of  feather-edged  boarding  in  constructing  magazines  as 
noted  above. 

The  following  amendments  to  the  rules  of  the  Board  regulatmg 
the  construction  of  magazines  for  the  stowage  of  high  and  low 
explosives,  have  been  adopted  : 

1.  Cover  all  iron  with  fair  quaUty  V'  unplaned  lumber,  properly 
secured  with  wire  nails,  heads  counter-sunk,  and  fully  protected 
by  putty  and  paint,  or  thoroughly  covered  with  saw-dust.  Deck 
to  be  sheathed  with  same  quality  of  lumber  laid  on  V  thwartship 
strips  about  2'  apart.  Use  sufficient  saw-dust  on  deck  to  prevent 
possibility  of  friction. 

2.  Black  powder  in  steel  drums  to  be  stowed  on  heads  with 
strips  of  lath  between  each  tier.  All  to  be  thoroughly  secured 
with  dunnage  in  every  possible  way  to  prevent  possibility  of 
moving.  An  8"  air  space  must  be  constructed  against  fire-room 
bulkhead,  when  explosives  are  carried  in  a  compartment  adjacent 
to  such  bulkhead. 

The  old  rules  of  the  Board  relative  to  the  construction  of 
magazmes  were  to  be  modified,  until  further  notice,  only  with 
respect  to  the  above  two  amendments,  otherwise  the  rules  were 
to  apply  as  heretofore. 

Hazardous  cargo.  The  following  rule  has  been  adopted  by 
the  Commissioner  of  Docks,  New  York. 

"  The  loading  or  discharging,  or  keeping  on  any  wharf,  pier 
or  bulkhead,  or  any  lighter,  barge  or  other  craft  moored  to  any 
wharf,  pier  or  bulkhead  in  the  city,  of  benzol,  toluol,  or  explosives 
or  explosive  material  in  excess  of  the  amount  required  for  the 
vessePs  own  use  for  signaling  or  life-saving  purposes  shall  not 
be  permitted,  without  a  written  permit  therefor  being  first  had 
and  obtained  from  the  Commissioner  of  Docks." 

The  limit  of  weight  of  explosives  which  may  be  loaded  at  the 
docks  is  one  ton.  All  explosives  above  this  weight  must  be 
transferred  to  ship  from  Ughter  only  in  anchorages  in  Gravesend 
Bay  or  Sandy  Hook  bight.  No  transfer  of  explosives  can  be 
made  except  under  the  supervision  of  the  captain  of  the  port. 
The  latter  has  directed  that  where  small  quantities  of  explosives 
are  transferred  to  ship  at  her  loading  pier,  it  must  be  from  lighter 
on  the  offshore  side. 


Every  package  containing  explosives  or  other  dangerous 
articles,  when  presented  to  a  common  carrier  for  shipment,  must 
have  plainly  marked  on  the  outside  thereof  the  contents  thereof; 
and  it  is  unlawful  for  any  person  to  deliver  or  cause  to  be  de- 
livered to  any  common  carrier  engaged  in  interstate  or  foreign 
commerce  by  land  or  water,  for  interstate  of  foreign  transporta- 
tion, or  to  carry  upon  any  vessel  or  vehicle  engaged  in  interstate 
or  foreign  transportation  any  explosive  or  other  dangerous  article 
under  any  false  or  deceptive  marking,  description,  invoice, 
shipping  order  or  other  declaration,  or  without  informing  the 
agent  of  such  carrier  of  the  true  character  thereof,  at  or  before 
the  time  such  delivery  for  carriage  is  made.  Anyone  who  know- 
ingly violates  or  causes  to  be  violated  any  provision  of  this 
section  may  be  fined  not  more  than  $2,000  or  imprisoned  not 
more  than  eighteen  months,  or  both. 

The  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor  has  decided  that 
"  Commercial  alcohol,  including  grain,  wood  and  denatured,  is 
not  a  like  explosive  burning  fluid  or  a  like  dangerous  article  to 
the  several  articles  enumerated  in  the  statute,  covering  the 
carriage  of  such  articles  by  passenger  steamers,  and  hence  its 
carriage  as  freight  or  use  as  stores  on  passenger  steamers  is  not 
prohibited  by  Section  4472,  of  the  Revised  Statutes." 

Shipments  of  varnish  may  be  accepted  by  steamers  carrying 
passengers,  subject  to  the  following  requirements:  Varnish  with 
a  flash  point  not  lower  than  50  degrees  F.  may  be  shipped  when 
contained  in  securely  closed  metal  cans  containing  no  more  than 
5  gallons  in  each  can;  or  with  a  flash  point  of  not  less  than  20 
degrees  F.  in  securely  closed  bottles  or  cans  containing  not  more 
than  1  gallon  in  each  vessel.  The  cans  or  bottles  to  be  packed 
in  strong  boxes  or  barrels,  and  described  as  "  Varnish  in  metal 
cans  "  or  "  Varnish  in  glass."  Shipping  receipts  must  state  as 
part  of  the  description  of  the  articles  therein  "  No  label  re- 
quired." They  must  also  bear  the  following  certificate  signed 
by  the  shipper  or  his  authorized  agent.  "  This  is  to  certify  that 
the  above  articles  are  properly  described  by  name,  and  are 
packed  and  marked  and  in  proper  condition  for  transportation 
according  to  the  regtilations  prescribed  by  the  Interstate  Com- 
merce Commission." 


280 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


XVI 
Case  Oil 

The  five-gallon  oil  tin  came  into  being  originally  to  cut  down 
cost  in  transportation.  Case  oil  is  stowed  in  wooden  boxes, 
two  five-gallon  rectangular  tins  to  a  case.  The  cases  cut  trans- 
portation charges,  for  the  vessel  taking  out  case  oil  is  able  to 
get  a  return  cargo  from  a  foreign  port  (not  always  possible  in 
tankers)  and  the  cases  are  very  handy  for  primitive  transport 
after  landing,  as  on  the  rivers  of  China,  and  on  mule  back  inland. 

Case  oil  stows  quickly,  can  be  used  as  a  "  filatter  "  stowed  on 
its  side  as  "  beam  filling." 

Recently  a  stevedore  was  reported  (in  The  Oracle^  the  Ori- 
ental Navigation  Company's  house  paper)  to  have  taken  in 
10,000  cases  of  oil  in  seven  hours  through  one  hatch  on  the  S.S. 
West  A  venal. 

Case  oil  is  taken  on  board  in  **  drafts  "  of  eight  cases  and  is 
run  to  the  wings  of  the  hold  and  'tween  deck  on  light  trucks,  a 
draft  to  a  truck  load.  The  work  is  very  rapid.  The  cases  are 
stowed  singly  with  little  waste  room  or  chocking. 


Ruling  as  to  the  Loading  of  Gasolene,  Naphtha  and/or  Benzine 

By  New  York  Board  of  Underwriters 

When  one  or  more  holds  and  'tween  decks  are  completely 
filled  with  Oil  and  Gasolene,  Naphtha  and/or  Benzine,  8,000 
cases  of  Gasolene,  Naphtha  and/or  Benzine  will  be  allowed  as 
the  maximum  amotmt  to  be  carried  under  deck  of  any  one 
General  Cargo  steamer,  it  being  understood  that  when  8,000 
cases  have  been  loaded  in  a  hold,  no  Gasolene,  Naphtha  and/or 
Benzine  can  be  carried  in  any  other  enclosed  space,  whether 
that  space  be  a  poop,  bridge,  fore  peak,  or  otherwise. 

Any  amount  consistent  with  proper  stowage  and  the  stability 
of  the  steamer  can  be  carried  on  the  open  deck. 

Owners  and  Agents  of  steamers  desiring  to  load  Gasolene, 
Naphtha  and/or  Benzine  in  any  other  manner  than  allowed  as 
above,  should  lay  all  the  facts  of  each  such  case  before  the 
Surveyor  who  is  to  inspect  the  said  steamer,  describing  the  kind 
of  steamer  and  the  compartment  in  which  it  is  desired  to  take 
the  Gasolene,  Naphtha  and/or  Benzine,  the  manner  of  ventila- 
tion, etc.,  when,  after  investigating  each  such  case,  same  will  be 
passed  upon  and  a  decision  rendered  by  the  Surveyor. 


STOWAGE 


281 


xvn 

Grain  Cargoes 

The  carriage  of  grain  is  one  of  the  most  important  functions 
of  a  merchant  marme.  Grain  is  the  very  life  blood  of  the  people 
of  all  lands  and  involves  the  most  basic  transaction  of  our 
civilized  world.  Explicit  rules  have  been  set  for  the  stowage 
and  carriage  of  grain,  for  the  cargo  flows  like  water  and  many 
vessels  have  been  lost  in  consequence  of  careless  stowage. 
Grain  is  carried  in  bulk  and  in  bags.  It  finds  its  way  into  every 
corner  of  the  hold  and  great  precaution  must  be  taken  in  pre- 
paring for  its  reception. 

Grain  is  taken  on  board  from  elevators  and  as  much  as  twenty- 
five  thousand  tons  will  be  shot  on  board  ships  in  the  course  of 
twenty  four  hours.    It  is  often  discharged  by  suction  apparatus. 

A  vessel  carrying  more  than  one  third  of  her  net  tonnage  in 
grain  is  considered  to  be  "  laden  with  a  grain  cargo." 

The  regulations  of  the  various  boards  of  underwriters  and  of 
the  New  York  Produce  Exchange  are  given.  These  regulations 
should  be  thoroughly  understood  by  the  master  and  officers  of  a 
vessel  about  to  load  grain.  A  great  deal  of  trouble  will  be  saved 
if  the  rules  are  studied  beforehand. 

Grain  shipped  from  different  ports  should  confirm  to  the  local 
requirements  for  stowage  and  the  master  should  inform  himself 
of  these  regulations  before  taking  on  cargo.  The  Port  Warden 
will  usually  be  able  to  supply  the  required  information. 

The  Rules  of  the  National  Board  of  Marine  Underwriters  at 
New  York  are  very  comprehensive.  They  are  given  in  full. 
These  rules  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  Board  of  Underwriters 
of  New  York,  and  the  New  York  Produce  Exchange. 

The  Rules  of  the  Board  of  Underwriters  of  New  Orleans,  of  the 
Mobile  Board  of  Underwriters,  of  the  Wheat  Tariff  Association, 
San  Francisco  and  of  the  Port  Warden's  Office  of  Montreal, 
Canada,  may  be  cited.  When  loading  grain  at  these  ports  these 
rules  will  hold.    Essentially  they  are  similar  to  the  rules  quoted. 

Shifting  Boards.  The  regulations  regarding  the  placing  of 
shifting  boards  are  very  precise  and  the  actual  fitting  of  these 
should  receive  the  greatest  attention.  Barden's  method  of 
fitting  shifting  boards  is  shown  in  the  illustrations.    In  Europe 


*  I 

^1 


282 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


this  method  has  been  widely  adopted  and  has  received  the 
approval  of  the  New  York  Board  of  Underwriters  and  the  British 
Board  of  Trade. 


S 


^^-g^-g 


:e: 


E^ 


I 


'*Shifiinq  Boards*''' 
Z'Thick 


^^^^:>;^i:.^.i:^-i^^^b^:^.^^ 


.^^ftJ 


Method  of  fitting  shifting  boards  in  a  forward  hold  and  over  the 

shaft  alley  in  an  after  hold. 

The  Stanchions  consist  of  a  combination  of  four  angle  irons 
and  a  web  plate  forming  a  slot  on  each  side  of  the  web  into  which 
the  shifting  boards  are  shipped.    The  manner  of  operation  is 

shown  by  the  cuts. 

There  is  a  considerable  saving  in  time 
and  trouble  when  this  system  is  employed. 
The  illustrations  are  taken  from  the  Mc- 
Nab  Encyclopedia  of  Marine  Appliances. 
Bags,  Grain  bags  should  be  of  the  best 
quality  and  well  sewn.  The  stowage  where 
bag  grain  is  used  on  top  of  bulk  cargo 
should  be  carefully  made  and  where  this 
cargo  is  used  as  end  stowage  the  bags  must  be  "  boulked." 
However  this  is  also  a  dangerous  practice  and  solid  bulkheads 
should  be  fitted  instead. 


w^m 


A  shifting  board 
stanchion. 


STOWAGE 


283 


Grain  cannot  be  adequately  secured  on  a  slope  or  level  by 
use  of  tarpaulins,  with  weights  on  top  of  them. 

Loading  and  Discharging,  Grain  cargoes  are  rapid  and  the 
vessel's  draft  should  be  watched  and  lines  attended  carefully 
during  the  period  of  loading  and  discharging. 

Rules  for  Loading  Grain 
By  the  National  Board  of  Marine  Underwriters 

1.  The  Free-Board  shall  be  measured  from  top  of  deck  at 
side  of  the  vessel  to  the  water's  edge  at  the  center  of  the  load 
Water-Line ;  Vessels  having  Free-Boards  assigned  by  the  Rules 
of  the  Board  of  Trade  (Marine  Department),  London,  shall  not 
be  loaded  deeper  than  permitted  by  those  rules.  No  grain  shall 
be  carried  in  the  fore  and  after  peaks  except  in  bags. 

2.  Shifting  Boards  (except  as  provided  for  in  Rule  11)  must 
extend  from  the  upper  deck  to  the  floor  when  grain  is  carried  in 
bulk,  and  must  be  grain-tight,  with  grain-tight  fillings  between 
the  beams,  and  are  to  extend  to  the  top  of  all  amidship  feeders. 
When  grain  is  carried  in  bags  the  shifting  boards  must  extend 
from  deck  to  deck  in  the  between  decks,  and  not  less  than  four 
feet  downward  from  the  beams  in  the  lower  hold. 

3.  Shifting  Boards  referred  to  in  all  rules  shall  be  of  two  (2) 
inch  yellow  pine,  or  of  three  (3)  inch  spruce  (or  equivalent). 

4.  All  hatch  feeders  and  end  bulkheads  must  be  boarded  on 
the  inside. 

5.  The  grain  must  be  well  trimmed  up  between  the  beams  and 
in  the  wings,  and  the  space  between  them  completely  filled. 

6.  No  coal  shall  be  carried  on  deck  of  steamers  sailing  between 
the  1st  of  October  and  the  1st  of  April  beyond  such  a  supply  as 
will  be  consumed  prior  to  vessels  reaching  the  ocean. 

7.  Care  must  be  taken  that  when  grain  in  bags  or  other  cargo 
is  stowed  over  bulk  grain,  the  bulk  grain  must  be  covered  with 
two  thicknesses  of  boards  placed  fore  and  aft  and  athwartships, 
with  spaces  between  the  lower  boards  of  not  more  than  four  (4) 
feet,  and  between  the  upper  boards  of  not  more  than  nine  (9) 
inches.  Care  must  be  taken  that  all  the  bags  are  properly 
stowed,  in  good  order,  and  well  filled  and  that  the  tiers  are  laid 
close  together. 

8.  Grain  in  poop,  peaks  and/or  bridge  deck  must  have  such 
grain  in  bags  and  have  proper  dunnage  and  shifting  boards. 

9.  Steamers  having  water  ballast  tanks  must  have  them  cov- 
ered with  a  grain-tight  platform  made  of  21/2  or  3  inch  sotmd 
and  dry  planks,  but  this  platform  may  be  dispensed  with  where 
the  top  of  the  tanks  are  of  heavy  plates  and  precautions  are 
taken  against  overflow  from  the  bilges. 


^1 


k 


284 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


10.  Steamships  without  ballast  tanks,  having  a  cargo  plat- 
form in  good  order,  will  not  be  required  to  fit  a  grain  floor  over  it, 
otherwise  such  grain  floor  will  be  required. 

11.  Vessels  carrying  small  quantities  of  grain  in  bulk  must 
have  shifting  boards  to  the  top  of  the  grain,  and  the  bulk  must 
be  properly  covered  with  boards  before  any  other  cargo  is  stowed 
over  it. 

12.  Single  deck  Steamers  with  a  continuous  hold  forward 
will  be  required  to  have  a  closed  bulkhead  to  divide  the  same. 
This  rule  will  also  apply  to  the  after  hold. 

13.  Shifting  boards  must  be  properly  secured  to  stanchions, 
or  shored  every  eight  feet  of  length  and  every  five  feet  of  depth 
of  hold,  including  hatchways.  Shores  may  be  3x8,  4x6, 
5  X  7V^,  5Vi  X  8,  or  6  x  8Vi  inches  according  to  their  lengths, 
which  are  not  to  exceed  13.6,  18,  25,  27.6,  or  30  feet  respectively. 

14.  The  use  of  Grain-tight  Divisions,  Shifting  Boards,  Shores 
and  Wire  Rope  Stays  when  already  fitted  and  in  good  condition 
will  be  permitted  if  as  set  out  in  paragraphs  21  and  24  to  28 
inclusive,  pages  41  to  45  inclusive  of  the  Memorandum  relating 
to  Grain  Cargoes  1914  issued  by  the  Board  of  Trade,  London. 

15.  No  bulk  grain  or  seeds  in  bulk  (except  Oats  and/or  Cotton 
Seed,  as  hereinafter  provided  m  Rules  22, 23  and  24)  to  be  carried 
in  between  decks,  nor  where  a  ship  has  more  than  two  decks, 
between  the  two  upper  decks,  unless  in  feeders,  properly  con- 
structed, to  fill  the  orlop  and  lower  hold.  Bulk  grain  may  be 
carried  on  orlop  or  third  deck  below,  provided  said  orlop  has 
wing  openings  and  amidship  feeders  to  feed  same. 

16.  Steamers  with  two  or  more  decks  not  having  sufficient  and 
properly  constructed  wing  and  ^midship  feeders,  will  be  required 
to  leave  sufficient  space  above  the  bulk  in  lower  hold  not  less 
than  5  feet  under  deck  beams  to  properly  secure  it  with  bags  or 
other  cargo;  the  bulk  to  be  covered  with  boards  as  in  Rule  7. 
If  an  orlop  deck  has  sufficient  openings  to  the  lower  hold  the 
orlop  and  lower  hold  may  be  considered  as  one  hold  and  loaded 
accordingly. 

17.  Steamers  having  one  deck  and  beams  may  carry  bulk  to 
such  a  height  as  will  permit  the  stowage  over  it  of  not  less  than 
four  (4)  tiers  of  bags  or  other  suitable  cargo.  All  bags  or  other 
cargo  to  be  stowed  on  two  tiers  of  boards  as  provided  for  in 
Rule  7. 

18.  Steamers  with  laid  between  decks  must  have  hatchway 
feeders,  and  if  the  distance  in  the  lower  holds,  between  the 
forward  bulkhead  in  said  holds  and  the  nearest  end  of  the 
hatchway  feeders  exceeds  sixteen  (16)  feet  (unless  in  the 
opinion  of  the  Surveyor  the  distance  should  be  less)  then  vessel 
must  have  a  wing  feeder  on  each  side  provided  in  the  between 
decks  to  feed  this  space.    If  there  are  no  openings  in  the  between 


STOWAGE 


285 


decks  for  wing  feeders,  four  (4)  heights  of  bags  must  be  put  on 
top  of  the  bulk  grain  from  the  bulkhead  to  within  sixteen  (16) 

feet  of  the  feeders. 

The  same  rule  applies  when  the  distance  between  the  after 
end  of  the  hatchway  feeders  and  the  after  bulkhead  in  lower 
holds  exceeds  sixteen  (16)  feet. 

19.  All  bags  stowed  in  between  decks  must  be  dunnaged. 

20.  Steamers  of  the  type  known  as  "Turret"  with  single 
deck  or  single  deck  and  beams,  may  load  full  cargoes  of  grain 
in  bulk,  but  must  have  shifting  boards  as  required  in  Rules  2, 
3  and  13,  and  if  required  by  Surveyor,  trimming  bulkheads  for- 
ward and  aft  extending  from  deck  to  floor,  or  if  coming  under 
hatches  to  top  of  coaming  as  directed  by  the  Surveyor,  and  sub- 
stantially fitted  under  their  supervision.  The  loose  grain  m  the 
end  compartments  to  be  secured  by  not  less  than  four  tiers  of 
bags  on  boards  properly  laid,  as  provided  for  in  Rule  7. 

21.  Steamers  that  are  partly  single  deck  and  partly  double 
deck  known  as  Switchback  and  as  part  Awning  Deck  steamers 
may  load  all  bulk  grain  in  the  lower  holds  of  their  double  deck 
compartments,  providing  proper  midship  feeders  and  wing  feed- 
ers are  fitted,  but  the  space  in  the  between  decks  around  the 
feeders  must  be  filled  with  bagged  grain  or  general  cargo,  but 
if  the  vessel  is  too  deep  to  carry  any  grain  or  other  cargo  in  the 
between  decks  the  feeders  are  to  be  shored  or  properly  secured 
to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Surveyor. 

If  there  are  no  openings  in  between  decks  for  wing  feeders  and 
the  bulkheads  are  more  than  sixteen  (16)  feet  away  from  the 
nearest  end  of  the  midship  feeders  four  (4)  heights  of  bags  must 
be  put  on  top  of  the  bulk  grain  from  the  bulkheads  to  within 
sixteen  (16)  feet  of  the  feeders,  unless  in  the  opinion  of  the 
Surveyor  the  distance  should  be  less. 

Bunker  hatches  may  be  used  as  feeders  when  feasible.  The 
quantity  of  bulk  grain  in  the  feeders  must  be  at  least  two  and 
one-half  per  cent.  (21/2%)  of  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  hold. 

22.  Full  cargo  of  oats  and /or  cotton  seed.  Steamers  with 
double  bottoms  for  water  ballast  may  carry  a  full  cargo  of  Oats 
and/or  Cotton  Seed  (except  as  provided  for  in  Rule  8),  but  if 
with  two  or  more  decks  must  have  tight  wing  and  hatch  feeders 
to  feed  the  lower  hold  or  orlop  as  provided  for  in  Rule  18. 

23.  Part  cargo  of  oats  and/or  cotton  seed.  When  the  quan- 
tity of  Oats  and/or  Cotton  Seed  carried  in  bulk  between  the 
two  upper  decks  exceeds  60%  of  the  capacity  of  said  deck,  the 
excess  over  50%  may  be  stowed  in  bulk  in  compartments  fitted 
with  wing  shifting  boards  extending  from  bulkheads  at  each 
end  of  hold  to  within  four  (4)  feet  of  the  hatches,  one  of  such 
compartments  shall  be  the  largest  between  deck  compartments; 
or  where  a  steamer  has  four  or  more  compartments  in  between 


286 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


decks  Oats  and/or  Cotton  Seed  may  be  loaded  in  bulk  in  all  of 
these  compartments  if  they  are  provided  with  wing  feeders  of 
increased  size  to  reach  from  the  forward  and  after  bulkhead  to 
within  four  feet  of  hatches.  The  hatch  feeders  or  feeders  for 
lower  hold  must  be  capped  boxed  feeders,  five  or  six  feet  in 
depth.    All  holds  are  to  be  so  fitted. 

24.  In  Single  Deck  Steamers  Oats  and/or  Cotton  Seed  may 
be  loaded  oyer  heavy  grain  with  proper  separations  in  two  holds, 
but  the  grain  in  all  other  holds  must  be  properly  secured  with 
bagged  grain  or  other  cargo  easily  handled.  This  Rule  applies 
also  to  Steamers  where  some  holds  are  double  and  some  single 
deck. 

25.  Modem  two  (2)  deck  steamers  with  large  trimming 
hatches  may  have  properly  constructed  feeders,  not  to  exceed 
twelve  by  sixteen  (12  x  16)  feet. 

26.  Stoke  Hold  Bulkheads  and  Donkey  Boiler  recesses  are 
required  to  be  sheathed  with  wood  and  made  grain-tight,  with 
an  air  space  between  the  iron  and  the  wood,  when  exposed  to 
heat  from  fire-room  or  donkey  boiler.  When  already  properly 
sheathed  Surveyor  may  pass  the  vessel,  but  not  less  than  nine 
(9)  inches  of  space  will  be  required  where  the  sheathing  is  to  be 
erected  or  renewed.  This  rule  applies  where  the  fires  are  liable 
to  cause  damage  by  excessive  heat  from  the  stoke  hold  or  donkey 
boiler. 

27.  Single  Jbeck  Steamers  with  high  hatch  Coamings  loading 
full  or  part  cargoes  of  Grain  in  hulk. 

1.  The  Hatch  Coamings  may  be  used  as  feeders  and  must  be 
of  sufficient  size  to  admit  of  not  less  than  two  and  one-half  per 
cent.  (21/2%)  of  the  total  grain  in  the  hold  being  stowed  within 
the  coamings;  otherwise  the  bulk  grain  must  be  secured  by 
four  (4)  heights  of  bags. 

2.  When  Hatch  Coamings  are  utilized  for  feeders  and  such 
coamings  extend  into  the  hold  a  foot  or  more  below  the  main 
deck,  such  coamings,  in  the  part  below  the  deck,  are  required  to 
have  two  (2)  two-inch  openings  in  the  coamings,  between  the 
beams,  to  allow  the  grain  to  feed  into  the  wings  and  ends  of  the 
hold. 

3.  The  Hatch  Coamings  must  be  properly  supported  by  heavy 
Iron  cross  beams  and  fitted  with  fore  and  aft  shifting  boards. 

4.  The  Hatch  Coamings  must  be  so  placed  that  they  are  cap- 
able of  feeding  the  center  and  both  ends  of  the  holds. 

Sailing  Vessels 

28.  Vessels  being  loaded  with  grain  in  Bags  shall  be  dunnaged 
from  six  to  twelve  inches  on  the  floor  and  from  six  to  fifteen 
inches  on  the  bilges,  according  to  the  form  of  the  ship's  bottom; 
and  two  (2)  inches  at  the  sides. 


STOWAGE 


287 


' 


The  between  decks  shall  be  dunnaged  two  (2)  inches  from  the 
sides  and  decks. 

The  dunnage  in  the  hold  must  be  laid  over  with  boards  and 
entirely  covered  with  sails,  or  approved  mats,  so  as  to  prevent 
any  of  the  loose  grain  from  running  down  on  to  the  floor  of  the 
vessel  and  thence  to  the  pump-well.  K  sails  are  used  they 
must  be  of  good  quality  and  free  from  holes.  The  sails  and 
mats  must  cover  the  keelsons. 

29.  Bulk  or  loose  grain  must  be  taken  in  Bins  prepared  for  that 
purpose.  Materials  for  Bins  must  be  of  well  seasoned  stock; 
unseasoned  lumber  must  not  be  used  where  it  will  come  in 
contact  with  the  grain. 

30.  The  floor  of  the  Bin  must  be  laid  on  sleepers  of  scantling 
2 Vi  by  4  inches  in  size,  sixteen  inches  apart  from  center  to  center, 
supported  by  studs  of  corresponding  size,  also  sixteen  inches 
from  center  to  center. 

It  must  be  raised  from  six  to  twelve  inches  over  the  floor  of 
the  vessel — in  the  bilge  from  six  to  fifteen  inches,  and  in  vessels 
that  are  very  flat  or  sharp,  may  be  increased  or  diminished  at  the 
discretion  of  the  Surveyor. 

In  no  case  shall  the  floor  of  the  bin  be  laid  on  loose  dunnage. 

The  floor  is  considered  as  extending  from  the  keelson  to  &e 
turn  of  the  bilge.  It  must  be  laid  with  two  thicknesses  of  one 
inch  boards,  so  that  they  will  break  joints  at  the  edges  and  ends, 
and  care  must  be  taken  that  it  be  grain-tight.  Vessels  tmder 
three  himdred  (300)  tons  register  may  be  permitted  to  have  a 
single  floor  laid  with  one  inch  boards  placed  edge  and  edge  and 
seams  covered  with  battens  two  by  one  (2  x  1)  inch,  or  edges 
lapped  one  inch. 

31.  The  studs  for  the  forward  and  after  Bulkheads  for  vessels 
not  exceeding  fourteen  (14)  feet  depth  of  hold  must  be  equal  to 
four  by  six  (4  x  6)  inches  in  size ;  for  vessels  of  a  greater  depth 
than  fourteen  (14)  feet,  they  must  be  equal  to  four  by  eight 
(4x8)  inches.  They  must  be  set  twenty  (20)  inches  apart 
from  center  to  center,  firmly  secured  at  the  top  and  bottom,  and 
properly  braced,  in  the  center,  also  cleated  on  the  ceiling  to 
resist  the  pressure  of  the  grain,  and  made  grain-tight. 

32.  All  air  strakes  and  open  seams  must  be  closed  and  the 
sides  of  the  vessel  above  the  turn  of  the  bilge  must  be  sealed 
after  the  manner  of  clapboarding  reversed,  and  not  furred  where 
it  can  be  avoided.  When  furring  is  used  the  ceiling  must  be 
made  grain-tight  at  the  bilges  and  sides.  All  lodging  and  bosom 
knees  not  fitted  tight  to  the  deck  must  be  cleated  grain-tight 
arotmd  the  face  of  the  knees. 

33.  Vessels  with  single  deck  or  with  one  deck  and  beams 
carrjring  a  full  cargo  of  grain  are  required  to  have,  in  addition  to 
the  forward  and  after  end  bulkheads,  two  trimming  bulkheads 


i 


288 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


(thus  making  a  division  of  three  compartments),  to  extend  from 
the  upper  deck  to  within  two  feet  from  the  bottom  of  the  vessel, 
except  where  the  between  decks  are  laid  aft,  the  after  one  may 
extend  only  to  the  lower  deck,  and  be  so  placed  that  in  loading 
the  middle  compartment  will  be  entirely  filled  and  the  end  ones 
left  to  trim  the  vessel.  If  the  end  compartments  are  not  entirely 
filled  care  must  be  taken  that  the  cargo  be  properly  covered  and 
secured  on  top  to  prevent  shifting.  The  studs  of  the  trimming 
bulkheads  to  be  not  less  than  three  by  six  (3  x  6)  inches  and  set 
twenty-two  (22)  inches  from  the  centers,  and  all  studs  to  be 
firmly  secured  at  top  and  bottom  and  properly  braced  and 
cleated. 

34.  Vessels  carrying  bulk  and  bags,  must  not  carry  bulk  higher 
than  to  admit  of  the  stowage  of  one-quarter  of  the  cargo  in  bags 
or  not  less  than  five  heights  of  bags  over  it  (except  the  vessel  be 
under  five  hundred  (500)  tons  register  when  the  height  may 
be  regulated  by  the  Surveyor). 

35.  Vessels  with  two  decks  having  bulk  grain  in  hold  as  high 
as  the  between  deck,  shall  have  strakes  of  between  deck-plane 
opened  on  each  side  over  the  bulk  in  the  wings  and  amidships, 
and  have  three  or  four  feet  of  bulk  grain  in  wing  and  amid- 
ship  feeders,  upon  which  sufficient  grain  in  bags  or  other  cargo 
may  be  stowed  over  board  coverings,  as  provided  for  in  Rule  7. 
When  the  hold  is  not  filled  with  bulk  grain  to  the  between  deck, 
enough  space  must  be  left  and  sufficient  cargo  stowed  over  it  to 
properly  secure  it,  as  provided  for  in  Rule  7. 

36.  The  Pump-Well  must  be  sufficiently  large  to  admit  of  the 
passage  of  a  man  to  the  bottom  of  the  hold,  and  with  room  to 
work  conveniently  when  there,  say  not  less  than  four  (4)  feet 
fore  and  aft,  and  five  (5)  feet  athwartships  (reference,  however, 
must  be  had  to  the  size  of  the  keelson  and  assistant  keelsons), 
and  must  be  grain-tight  and  ceiled. 

37.  Access  to  the  pump-well  must  be  had  either  by  a  man- 
hole through  the  upper  deck  or  by  a  clear  passage-way  between 
decks  from  the  after  hatch.  In  no  case  must  it  be  from  the 
main  hatch. 

38.  Masts,  Water-Tanks  and  Pumps,  either  of  wood  or  iron, 
must  be  properly  cased,  to  prevent  damage  from  leakage,  and 
mast  coats  must  be  strong  and  tight. 

39.  The  between  deck  hatches  must  be  kept  off,  and  the 
scuppers  safely  plugged  to  prevent  loose  grain  from  running 
down  the  ship's  timbers. 

Iron  or  Steel  Sailing  Vessels 

40.  The  foregoing  rules  are  also  to  apply  to  Iron  or  Steel 
Sailing  Vessels,  excepting  that  in  cases  where  the  floor  and 


STOWAGE 


28<) 


ceiling  are  in  such  good  condition  as  to  warrant  it,  the  extra 
floor  and  ceiling  may  be  dispensed  with,  and  if  the  stanchions 
are  not  over  four  (4)  feet  apart  and  are  double,  two  or  three 
inch  plank  can  be  fitted  between  them  for  shifting  plank. 

Vessels  having  iron  or  steel  between  decks  without  openings 
for  wing  feeders,  the  bulk  grain  in  the  lower  hold  must  be 
secured  by  at  least  five  heights  of  bags  or  its  equivalent  in  other 
cargo  laid  over  board  coverings  as  provided  in  Rule  7. 

41.  In  the  event  of  unusual  construction  of  vessels  which  may 
necessitate  deviation  from  the  foregoing  Rules,  the  Surveyor 
must  obtain  the  approval  of  the  Inspection  Committee  of  the 
Board. 

Rice.  The  stowage  of  rice  follows  that  of  other  grains  with 
regard  to  shifting  precautions.  In  addition  rice  should  be 
specially  protected  against  damp  air;  and  ventilation  provided 
for  as  in  the  carriage  of  jute.  Rice  readily  absorbs  odors  and 
should  be  kept  clear  of  hides,  saltpeter,  etc. 

Dunnage  carefully  keeping  all  bags  free  from  contact  with 
ironwork. 

Rice  is  of  two  general  kinds,  clean  rice^  and  paddy  rice,  the 
latter  being  lighter  as  the  husk  is  still  on  the  kernel. 

Rice  bags  run  from  100  to  250  lbs.  depending  upon  the  kind 

of  grain. 

Dampness  and  wet  of  all  kinds  are  fatal  to  rice.  When  com- 
ing to  a  cold  weather  port  be  careful  in  taking  off  hatches.  A  rush 
of  warm  air  from  the  hold,  if  up  from  the  tropics,  is  followed  by 
cold  air  going  down  from  the  decks.  Condensation  takes  place 
and  dripping  sweat  from  the  beams  rains  down  on  the  cargo. 


I 


xvra 

special  Cargo 

While  the  freight  rate  on  ordinary  cargo  is  based  on  either 
weight  or  measurement,  what  is  called  "  special  cargo,"  such 
as  revolvers,  jewelry,  boots  and  shoes,  and  goods  of  an  unusual 
value  according  to  bulk,  have  always  to  pay  an  extra  rate^  based 
on  a  small  percentage  of  the  value,  in  addition  to  the  regular 
freight  rate.  This  extra  charge  is  made  because  of  the  necessity 
of  special  stowage  for  its  protection.  In  some  cases  cargo  of  this 
character  is  delivered  specially  to  the  captain  personally,  and 


290 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


is  placed  under  the  care  of  the  purser  or  some  other  responsible 
officer  of  the  ship.  The  extra  rate  may  vary  anywhere  from  one 
per  cent,  to  three  and  one-half  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  the 


Loading  a  locomotive. 

shipment.  Sometimes,  the  extra  charge  is  made  on  the  basis 
of  so  much  extra  per  40  cubic  feet,  and  sometimes  on  the  basis 
of  so  much  ad  valorem,  whichever  produces  the  most  revenue 
for  the  steamship  company. 


STOWAGE 


291 


Ship*s  option  {weight  or  measurement).  When  a  steamship 
company  makes  a  freight  quotation  "  per  ton,  weight  or  measure- 
ment, ship's  option,"  it  is  understood  that  the  charge  will  be 
made  on  a  weight  basis  if  the  weight  of  the  shipment  exceeds 
the  cubic  measurement  of  same  or  on  «  measurement  basis 
should  the  cubic  measurement  exceed  the  weight.  While 
practically  all  the  foreign  stean;ship  lines  quote  freight  rates  on 
the  basis  of  2,240  pounds  or  40  cubic  feet  measurement  to  the 


Special  cargo — loadiiig  a  forty- ton  sampan  at  Yokohama. 

ton,  such  companies  as  the  Panama  Railroad  Co.  and]theTAmeri- 
can-Hawaiian  Steamship  Co.  (which  also  do  a  domestic  business) 
figure  the  ton  as  2,000  pounds.  Transpacific  business  handled 
by  the  Southern  Pacific  Company  and  other  transcontinental 
lines,  is  also  done  on  the  basis  of  2,000  pounds  to  the  ton. 
These  companies  usually  quote  rates,  however,  at  so  much  per 
100  pounds,  or  so  much  per  cubic  foot,  so  that  it  is  practically 
immaterial  whether  they  figure  the  ton  as  2,240  pounds  or  2,000 
pounds. 


292 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Cargo  marked  "  fragile,"  "  handle  with  care,"  etc.  Shippers 
should  appreciate  the  fact  that  it  is  quite  useless  to  mark  in 
English  onlyf  such  expressions  as  "  handle  with  care,"  "  this 
side  up,"  etc.,  on  packages  intended  for  foreign  countries,  where 
English  is  not  spoke]}  or  understood  by  those  who  will  handle 
the  freight.  If  such  instructions  are  necessary,  they  should 
be  made  in  the  language  of  the  country  for  which  they  are 
destined,  as  well  as  in  English. 

Heavy  packages.  Unless  otherwise  stated  it  is  understood 
that  the  freight  rates  quoted  by  the  steamship  companies  apply 
to  packages  not  exceeding  two  tons  weight.  When  packages 
exceed  this  weight  provision  must  be  made  by  the  shipper  either 
to  put  the  pieces  aboard  the  steamer  through  direct  arrangement 
with  a  hoisting  company  or  to  arrange  with  the  steamship  com- 
pany for  freight  rates  to  include  the  hoisting  charges.  Similar 
extra  charges  are  liable  to  be  made  at  the  port  of  destination 
or  at  transshipping  points,  so  that  shippers  should  be  careful 
to  find  out  when  shipping  heavy  pieces  just  what  the  freight  rate 
covers. 

XIX 

Pilfering 

The  constantly  increasing  amount  of  theft  and  pilferage  from 
cargoes  of  merchandise  has  compelled  insurance  experts  all  over 
the  world  to  consider  ways  and  means  for  correcting  it,  as  losses 
from  this  source  are  declared  to  equal  if  they  do  not  exceed 
marine  losses  from  all  other  sources  combined, 

"No  port  in  the  world,"  says  World*  s  Markets,  "  is  free 
from  this  evil  and  the  records  of  many  are  very  discouraging. 
Organized  pilferage  is  carried  on  in  New  York  with  the  utmost 
effrontery;  in  fact,  it  has  become  so  extensive  in  certain  in- 
stances as  to  render  questionable  the  wisdom  of  keeping  certain 
lines  of  transportation  open.  Shoes  and  leather  are  the  articles 
most  frequently  stolen,  but  other  commodities  are  by  no  means 
immune.  Longshoremen  fill  their  blouses  with  crude  rubber 
and  dispose  of  it  over  the  nearest  '  speak-easy '  bar  at  the  rate 
of  about  50  per  cent,  of  its  market  value. 

"  Frequently  cases  of  silk  destined  for  foreign  markets  are 
emptied  of  their  contents  and  filled  with  worthless  junk  of  equal 


STOWAGE 


293 


weight  before  they  are  delivered  to  the  ship.  The  truckman 
receives  a  clean  bill  of  lading  and  the  loss  is  not  discovered  until 
the  merchandise  is  delivered  at  the  foreign  port.  The  only 
way  to  beat  the  game  is  to  watch  the  goods  until  they  are  stowed 
away  in  the  steamer's  hold — and  sometimes  even  after  that, 

"  A  foreign  agent  in  Guayaquil  writes:  *  I  regret  to  have  to 
report  a  most  serious  system  of  robbery  on  the  wharf  and  in  the 
Guayaquil  Custom  House,  which  the  government  does  nothing 
to  repress.  The  officials  of  the  Custom  House  even  pretend  to 
refuse  to  grant  a  certificate  of  such  robberies  on  grounds  that 
this  would  enable  the  consignees  to  make  claims  against  the 
officials  on  the  wharf  of  the  Custom  House.* 

"Havana  importers  state:  *  Theft  and  pilferage  of  goods 
consigned  to  this  port  are  of  daily  occurrence,  and  no  efficient 
measures  have  been  taken  to  prevent  it.  Sometimes  whole 
packages  are  missing,  which  the  agents  of  the  steamer  certify 
they  have  delivered,  while  the  warehouse  authorities  certify  that 
delivery  has  not  been  made.  It  is  argued  that  the  insurance 
interests  doing  business  in  Havana  should  appoint  a  lawyer  to 
take  care  of  their  difficulties  of  this  nature.'  " 

Supervision  of  loading  and  discharging  is  up  to  the  ship's  offi- 
cers. Every  hold  working  cargo  liable  to  damage  or  pilfering 
should  be  watched  at  all  times.  Holds  should  be  under  the 
responsible  care  of  a  deck  officer.  Under  him  certain  reliable 
quartermasters  and  seaman  should  always  be  on  the  job  study- 
ing the  stowage,  watching  the  slings  and  gear,  looking  out  for 
the  interests  of  the  ship.  These  men,  keeping  notes  of  stowage 
and  discharging,  calling  the  mate  at  every  breakage,  getting 
marks  and  numbers,  and  protecting  the  ship  against  loss,  also 
protect  the  shipper  and,  indeed,  perform  a  still  larger  service. 
Such  vigilant  work  on  the  part  of  officers  and  crew  results  in  a 
real  national  gain  to  commerce.  The  money  loss  from  pilfering 
and  careless  breakage  is  exceeded  and  added  to  by  the  business 
loss  that  follows  non  delivery  of  the  goods.  On  an  efficient 
honest  ship  the  whole  crew  are  worth,  and  earn  every  dollar 
they  get — every  sensible  owner  knows  this. 

Duty  to  Cargo  should  always  be  foremost  in  the  minds  of  the 
ship's  complement.  The  ship  is  liable  for  loss  from  the  time 
her  tackles  take  hold  of  the  cargo  for  loading  to  the  time  they 
release  it,  without  damage,  for  discharge. 


294 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


STOWAGE 


295 


I 


i 


Analysis  of  Hoisting  Cargo 

The  cycle  of  a  full  tmloading  operation  is  analysed  as  follows : 

Slinging  (in  hold  or  'tween  decks) seconds 

Drag  to  hatch " 

Hoist « 

Swing  over  side " 

Lowering ' " 

Landing " 

Return  of  hook  to  hold  or  'tween  deck .  . . " 

Total " 

In  loading  the  cycle  is  as  follows : 

Hooking seconds 

Hoisting  and  swinging  inboard " 

Lowering  into  hatch " 

Landing " 

Return  of  hook  to  dock  or  lighter " 

Total " 

Note, — Number  of  men  in  hatch,  on  deck,  on  dock;  kind  of 
cargo,  weight  per  draft,  etc. 

A  stop  watch  in  the  palm  of  the  hand  and  a  note  book  will  give 
an  officer  a  great  deal  of  important  information  with  regard 
to  his  hatches,  the  kind  of  work  going  on,  and  the  comparative 
speed  of  hatches  and  gangs. 

To  get  a  correct  average.  Take  each  operation  ten  times  on 
stop  watch  then  divide  by  10. 

Of  course  most  men  know  whether  a  hatch  is  going  to  capacity, 
but  a  great  deal  can  be  found  out  by  a  study  of  the  longer 
time  taken  to  adjust  poorly  made  slings  and  nets.  An  hour  lost 
each  day  through  poor  gear  is  an  expensive  proposition.  The 
writer  has  seen  stevedores  fussing  around  with  worn  out  nets 
(good  enough  for  light  cargo)  and  wasting  valuable  time.  Such 
work  makes  hold  duty  interesting  and  also  adds  a  lot  of  valuable 
data  to  an  officer's  note  book. 

XX 

Rats  and  Cargo 
The  old  adage  about  the  rats  leaving  a  sinking  ship,  brings  a 
sort  of  friendly  feeling  to  the  minds  of  many  with  regard  to  these 


ancient  rodent  voyagers.  If  there  are  plenty  of  rats  on  board, 
all  is  well,  etc.  The  author  is  indebted  to  Mr.  S.  S.  Rosen, 
General  Manager  of  the  Guarantee  Exterminator  Company,  of 
New  York,  for  the  data  given  in  this  section  of  the  chapter  on 
Stowage. 

A  rat  consumes  its  weight  in  food  every  week. 

Rats  spoil  more  cargo  than  they  consume. 

Rats  increase  at  an  alarming  rate — the  figures  are  almost 
unbelievable.  Dr.  Rucker,  Assistant  Surgeon  General  of  the 
U.  S.  Public  Health  Service  has  computed  the  actual  increase  of  a 
pair  of  rats  for  five  years  at  940,369,969,152,  assuming,  of  course, 
that  we  organized  a  special  truck  and  carting  service  to  bring  in 
their  food,  and  passed  and  obeyed  a  few  hundred  laws  against 
killing  rats.  But,  with  this  in  mind,  it  is  no  wonder  that  they 
appear  numerous  and  grow  rapidly  in  places  such  as  ships'  holds 
when  they  are  often  left  alone. 

The  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey  tells  a  lot  about  the  rat  that 
has  nothing  to  do  with  cargo  directly,  but  we  understand  from 
their  learned  report  that  the  rat  is  a  first-class  pest  and  carries 
practically  all  diseases,  many  of  them  fatal  to  man. 

Out  of  46,000  bags  of  grain  a  steamer  recently  lost  40,000 
bags  on  a  twenty-nine-day  voyage  due  to  the  depredations  of 
rats.  Flour  is  a  favorite  food  with  rats.  Rats  wallow  in  the 
flour  and  from  time  to  time  shake  themselves  free  from  it, 
filling  the  cargo  with  germs.  Cargo  partly  touched  by  rats 
should  be  condemned.    It  is  a  total  loss. 

Fire  risk.  Rats  add  greatly  to  the  fire  risk  on  board  ship. 
They  collect  oily  rags,  and  form  nests  where  spontaneous  com- 
bustion may  take  place.     Use  rat  guards — Fumigate, 

XXI 

Refrigerating  Ships 

Vessels  with  one  or  more  holds  or  compartments  lined,  and 
insulated  and  fitted  with  refrigerating  machinery*  are  now  very 

*  "  Operations  of  a  refrigerating  machine.  Apparatus  designed  for  re- 
frigerating is  based  upon  the  following  series  of  operations : 

Compress  a  gas  or  vapor  by  means  of  some  external  force  (the  compressor), 
then  reUeve  it  of  its  heat  so  as  to  diminish  its  voltmie  further  (cooling  coils 
circulating  sea  water  through  hot  compressed  gas),  next,  cause  this  com- 


1  I 


296 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


STOWAGE 


297 


I 


I 


common.    Such  vessels  are  used  mainly  for  the  carriage  of 
frozen  and  chilled  meat. 

Insulated  compartments  are  constructed  by  bolting  wooden 
furring  pieces  to  the  framing.  One-inch  tongued  and  grooved 
planking  is  placed  inside  the  shell  plating  on  two  by  two  studs, 
leaving  a  two-inch  air  space ;  eight  to  ten  inches  inside  of  this, 


Freezing  pipes  in  a  refrigerating  hold, 

a  wall  is  built  up  of  two  layers  of  tongued  and  grooved  plank, 
the  one  next  the  furring  pieces  ^//^"  thick  and  the  covering  I" 
thick.  The  space  between  is  filled  with  the  insulating  material. 
Sheet  zinc  is  used  for  a  lining  inside  of  plank  next  shell  plates. 
Underdeck  insulation  is  placed  against  the  deck  without  the 
air  space. 

pressed  gas  or  vapor  to  expand  so  as  to  produce  mechanical  work  and  thus 
lower  the  temperature  of  surroimding  brine  (brine  coils).  The  absorption  of 
heat  from  the  brine  when  the  gas  or  vapor  resumes  its  original  volume  consti- 
tutes the  refrigerating  effect  of  the  apparatus. — Adapted  from  Kent's  Mechan-. 
ical  Engineer's  Pocket  Book. 

Air,  ammonia,  sulphur-dioxide,  carbonic  acid  gas  (CO2),  are  among  the 
agents  used  for  mechanical  refrigeration. 


Flooring  over  tank  tops  is  placed  between  two  casings  of  two 
and  a  half  inch  tongued  and  grooved  plank.  The  strength 
being  required  to  support  the  cargo  to  be  carried.  In  chill  rooms, 
where  beef  is  hung,  means  must  be  provided  for  the  hanging  of 
hooks  and  chains  from  the  beams  above. 

Insulating  materials  generally  used  are  as  follows: 

Charcoal,  silicate  of  cotton,  or  slagwool,  granulated  cork, 
pumice,  sawdust  and  balsa  wood.  For  small  refrigerating  spaces 
felt  and  cow  hair  are  sometimes  used.  This  material  was  used 
in  some  of  the  storage  spaces  on  the  older  interned  German 
liners  and  was  evil-smelling  stuff  when  ripped  out. 

Charcoal  is  highly  combustible,  and  absorbs  odors. 

Balsa  wood  is  coming  into  use  as  an  insulating  material.  The 
following  data  is  supplied  by  the  American  Balsa  Company: 

Balsa  possesses  a  high  insulating  efficiency,  comparing  about 
equally  with  cork,  and  it  has  the  advantage  that  the  encysting 
and  water-proofing  treatment  causes  it,  by  the  exclusion  of 
dampness,  to  retain  its  insulating  qualities  indefinitely  and 
preserves  it  against  rot  and  the  attacks  of  insects  and  bacteria. 

Though  only  recently  in  use  for  this  purpose,  balsa  has  already 
been  employed  as  the  insulating  material  for  the  refrigerated 
spaces  on  about  fifty  ships,  including  fourteen  of  the  new  535  ft. 
passenger-and-cargo  vessels  now  being  completed  for  the  U.  S. 
Shipping  Board  (1920). 

Added  advantages  over  other  high-grade  manufacturing 
materials  are  its  combined  strength  and  light  weight,  and  the 
saving  of  labor  and  of  the  greater  part  of  the  usual  supplementary 
material  required  for  installation,  such  as  sheathing  and  water- 
proof paper. 

Balsa  for  insulation  is  supplied  in  sections  up  to  24  in.  x  8  ft. 
X  3  in.,  cut  to  the  required  sizes,  each  section  separately  water- 
proofed. The  sections  are  made  up  of  individual  pieces  of 
balsa  dovetailed  by  special  machinery  to  form  solid,  airtight 
planks.  These  large  sections  are  erected  in  one  or  a  very  few 
thicknesses.  The  relatively  small  number  of  shiplap  joints  are 
practically  air-tight,  thereby  reducing  the  required  number  of 
layers  of  water-proof  paper  from  the  now  usual  twelve,  to  one 
or  two. 


i 


298 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


STOWAGE 


299 


Where  lower  holds  are  insulated  trunk  hatches  are  usually 
fitted  and  these  are  insulated  also  and  provided  with  removable 
brine  coils  under  hatches. 


Brine  coils  under  hatches. 

Frozen  cargo.  This  requires  a  temperature  of  15  degrees  F. 
and  usually  includes  the  following,  sheep,  poultry,  fish,  butter, 
milk.  The  contents  of  the  hold  is  frozen  solid.  Stowage  is  close. 
Sheep  carcases  admit  of  air  circulation  through  their  centers. 

Chilled  cargo.  This  requires  a  temperature  ranging  from 
29  degrees  F.  to  42  degrees  F. 

Beef  and  other  large  meats  are  carried  at  29  degrees  F.  and 
must  be  hung  from  the  deck  above  so  as  to  allow  a  free  circu- 
lation of  cold  air. 

Eggs  require  a  temperature  of  33  degrees  F. 

Tinned  meats  suid  fruits  require  a  temperature  of  38  degrees  F. 

Beer  and  wine  are  carried  in  a  temperature  of  42  degrees  F, 

General  remarks.  Officers  in  charge  of  refrigerator  ships 
should  take  the  time  to  learn  the  details  of  their  operation.  The 
master  should  at  all  times  know  the  condition  of  the  refrigerating 
plant,  and  should  require  full  information.*    Cases  have  recently 

*  Two  hundred  and  fifty  quarters  of  frozen  beef  are  reported  to  have  been 
damaged  on  the  steamer  Muscatine  because  of  the  brine  pipes  being  out  of 
order,  which  occurred  while  the  vessel  was  bound  from  Buenos  Aires. 

Oct.  25,  1920. 
This  is  a  moderate  case.    When  a  refrigerator  ship  breaks  down  in  a 
tropical  port  with  a  full  cargo  the  story  is  different.     The  Polar  Sea  disaster  is 
still  remembered. 


occurred  where  heavy  losses  have  been  suffered  through  the 
breaking  down  of  the  cold  storage  system  with  cargoes  of  valu- 
able meats  thrown  on  an  inadequate  market  in  tropical  ports. 

Proper  care  and  use  of  the  refrigerating  plant  will  result  in 
saving  and  comfort  for  those  on  board.  The  chambers  should 
be  kept  sealed,  and  cold  storage  rooms  for  ship's  use  should 
only  be  unlocked  once  a  day  under  proper  supervision. 

The  American  Bureau  of  Shipping  requires  that  the  machine 
room  is  to  be  efficiently  ventilated  and  drained;  it  is  to  be 
effectively  separated  from  the  insulated  spaces  by  watertight 
plating. 

The  insulation  of  the  containing  walls  and  floors  and  all  metal 
which  might  otherwise  come  in  contact  with  the  cargo  is  to  be 
complete  and  the  insulating  material  in  thoroughly  efficient 
condition.  Full  particulars  of  the  nature  and  construction  of  the 
insulation  are  to  be  reported  to  the  Bureau's  Committee  and 
approved. 

All  pipes,  trunks,  etc.,  in  insulated  spaces  are  to  be  well 
placed,  secured  and  protected  from  risk  of  damage  from  cargo. 
All  bilge  suction,  sounding  and  air  pipes  which  pass  through 
instdated  spaces  are  to  be  properly  insulated,  and  bilge  suctions 
from  the  engine  room  are  to  be  fitted  with  non-return  valves. 

All  thermometer  tube  flanges  and  covers  are  to  be  of  brass  and 
arranged  so  that  water  cannot  enter  and  freeze  in  the  tubes. 

Sluice  valves  should  not  be  fitted  in  bulkheads  of  insulated 
spaces,  and  if  fitted  are  to  have  brass  non-return  valves  and  are 
to  be  accessible  at  all  times. 

Provision  is  to  be  made  for  the  ready  examination  of  the 
bilges,  rose  boxes,  etc.,  and  it  is  recommended  that  the  bottoms, 
sides  and  coamings  of  all  hatches  and  limbers  be  varnished. 

Cargo  battens  are  to  be  fastened  to  the  sides  and  bottom  of  all 
insulated  cargo  spaces  before  shipping  the  cargo  to  be  refriger- 
ated. The  battens  on  the  bottom  are  to  be  at  least  2"  by  2", 
and  those  on  the  sides  by  2"  by  lYz'y  while  their  spacing  is  to 
be  about  12". 

The  refrigerating  machinery  is  to  be  of  approved  construction 
and  of  sufficient  power  to  maintain  the  required  temperature  in 
the  cargo  spaces  when  in  tropical  climates  and  with  the  machines 
running  18  hours  per  day.     Duplex  or  duplicate  machines  are  to 


300 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


STOWAGE 


301 


be  fitted  where  the  refrigerated  spaces  have  a  greater  capacity 
than  70,000  cubic  feet.  Upon  completion  the  machinery  is  to 
be  tested  under  working  conditions,  the  time  and  fall  of  tempera- 
ture being  noted.  After  the  spaces  are  considered  to  be  properly 
refrigerated  the  machinery  should  be  stopped  for  at  least  two 
hours,  or  two  and  a  half  hours  with  a  brine  installation,  and  a 
note  taken  of  the  rise  in  temperature  at  the  end  of  the  period  of 
stoppage. 

Spare  gear  is  to  be  supplied  as  required  and  is  to  be  stowed 
where  readily  accessible.  Where  two  sections  or  compartments 
are  each  cooled  by  machines  of  the  same  pattern  only  one  set  of 
spare  gear  will  be  required.  Where  two  machines  are  fitted, 
each  being  capable  of  keeping  the  whole  of  the  refrigerated 
spaces  at  the  required  temperature  in  tropical  climates,  when 
nmning  18  hours  per  day,  no  spare  parts  will  be  required,  pro- 
vided all  similar  parts  are  interchangeable. 

Brine  and  water  circulating  pumps  should  be  in  duplicate,  or 
there  should  be  independent  connections  to  auxiliary  pumps. 
Spare  piston  rings,  pump  valves  and  rods,  for  independent  pumps, 
should  be  carried. 

When  the  air,  circulating,  and  feed  pumps  are  all  worked  by 
one  independent  engine  and  there  are  no  independent  connec- 
tions to  the  main  engine  pumps,  the  following  additional  3pare 
gear  is  to  be  carried. 

1  piston  rod,  complete,  of  each  pattern. 
.  1  set  piston  rings  of  each  pattern  for  steam  cylinders. 
1  eccentric  strap  and  rod  of  each  pattern. 
1  slide  valve  spindle,  complete,  of  each  pattern. 
1  set  connecting  rod  and  crosshead  bolts  and  nuts. 
A  sufficient  supply  of  spare  liquid  and  calcium  chloride  is  to 
be  carried  to  ensure  an  ample  margin  for  any  leakage  in  the 
refrigerating  plant  during  the  voyage. 

All  brine  regulating  valves  are  to  be  fitted  outside  the  insulated 
spaces  so  as  to  be  accessible  without  entering  these  spaces. 

Before  the  Certificate  of  Survey  is  issued  all  the  insulation  is  to 
be  carefully  examined  and  tested  for  dryness  and  fullness  and 
all  test  holes  subsequently  closed.  All  limbers  and  hatches  are 
to  be  removed,  the  limbers  cleared,  and  the  suctions,  sluices 
and    soimding   pipes    examined.    All   hatches,   trunks,    ther- 


mometer tubes,  ventilator  coamings,  and  deck  connections  are  to 
be  examined,  and  water-tight  doors  to  be  worked.  Where  brine 
may  escape  to  the  bilges,  the  cement  is  to  be  examined  at  each 
survey. 

It  is  recommended  that  the  machinery  be  examined  and  tested 
at  a  home  port,  before  the  cargo  is  fully  discharged,  but  in  all 
cases  all  parts  of  the  refrigerating  machinery,  pumps,  steam  and 
water  pipes,  condensers,  coolers,  coils  and  connections,  brine 
pipes  and  tanks  are  to  be  opened  out  and  examined,  and  the 
condensers,  coolers,  coils  and  brine  pipes  tested  if  considered 
necessary;  in  the  case  of  condensers  containing  iron  or  steel 
coils,  the  coils  are  to  be  withdrawn  from  the  casing  and  tested 
at  intervals  of  not  more  than  four  years ;  corroded  parts  should 
be  tinned  or  otherwise  made  good;  the  coils  are  to  be  scraped, 
cleaned  and  painted  with  good  anti-corrosive  paint.  The 
machinery  is  to  be  afterwards  tested  under  working  conditions. 

A  further  survey  is  to  be  made  at  the  port  of  shipment  of  the 
cargo  to  be  refrigerated,  in  order  to  ascertain  that  the  dunnage 
battens  are  in  good  order,  that  the  insulation  has  not  sustained 
damage  since  the  home  port  survey,  and  also  to  test  the  re- 
frigerating machinery  under  working  conditions,  the  temperature 
in  the  holds  being  noted. 

At  ports  where  the  services  of  a  Surveyor  to  the  Society  are 
not  available,  a  report  of  survey  by  a  reliable,  practical  Surveyor 
will  be  accepted  by  the  Committee,  or  if  such  a  Surveyor  is  not 
available,  they  will  accept  a  report  of  survey  made  by  two  com- 
petent Engineers  of  the  Vessel. 

Ventilation;  Fruit— Oranges,  Lemons,  The  ventilation  of 
cargo  spaces  is  becoming  more  thoroughly  understood.  Forced 
draft  ventilation  is  perhaps  the  best  for  certain  kinds  of  cargo. 
Fruit  cargoes,  shipped  green  will  heat  rapidly  and  decay  unless 
well  ventilated.  Bananas  are  carried  in  racks  on  their  sides  the 
bunches  and  foliage  together.  Great  care  and  experience  is 
needed  in  the  handling  of  this  fruit,  and  vessels  in  the  trade  are 
specially  fitted  for  it.  Oranges  and  lemons  are  packed  in  boxes. 
Where  stowed  together  place  lemons  on  bottom,  being  heavier. 

Bananas,  The  carriage  of  bananas  has  become  a  highly 
specialized  business.  Vessels  are  loaded  and  tmloaded  by  con- 
veyors, generally  through  large  side  ports  or  over  the  deck 
through  hatches.    The  fruit  steamers  are  usually  painted  white. 


302 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


Loading  bananas  by  conveyor 


William  Fawcett,  in  the  "  The  Banana,  Its  Cultivation,  Dis- 
tribution and  Commercial  Uses,"  gives  this  description  of  the 

general  arrangement  of  the 
SS.  Barranca  J  one  of  the 
ships  which  carry  United  Fruit 
Company's  bananas  to  Eur- 
ope: 

"  The  refrigerating  machin- 
ery   and    cooling    appliances 
are   in   deck-houses   on  the 
upper  deck,  thus  leaving  the 
spaces    below    as    clear    as 
possible  for  the  cargo.    There 
are    three    decks    for    fruit 
forward  and  aft  respectively, 
and  each  deck  has  a  run  of 
about  130  feet  between  bulk- 
heads, making  six  fine  cham- 
bers, each  taking  about  10,000 
large  bunches,  the  total  of  60,000  being  about  thJee  times  the 
number  carried  by  the  Port  Morant,  which  initiated  the  service 
in  1901. 

"  The  fruit  comes  on  board  within  a  few  hours  of  cutting,  and 
is  stored  without  covering  of  any  kind,  the  lowest  bimches  being 
arranged  with  the  stems  vertical,  with  a  final  layer  placed  hori- 
zontally, this  giving  the  best  results  both  in  utilizing  space  and 
freedom  from  damage.  Every  cargo  space  is  divided  into  bins 
by  portable  horizontal  sparring  fitted  into  vertical  posts,  thus 
checking  the  movement  of  the  fruit  in  rough  weather.  Sparred 
gratings  are  laid  on  the  steel  decks  to  carry  the  fruit  clear  of  the 
plating,  and  to  allow  the  air  to  circulate  below  and  up  through 
the  fruit.  The  ship's  sides  and  bulkheads  and  the  highest  and 
lowest  decks  are  insulated  with  granulated  cork  and  wood 
boardings,  forming  a  complete  envelope  about  seven  inches 
thick.  Along  each  side  trunks  convejring  the  cool  air  are  formed 
by  boarding,  in  which  are  a  number  of  openings  fitted  with  ad- 
justable slides,  and  spaced  at  suitable  intervals  and  levels. 

"  Powerful  fans  of  the  centrifugal  type,  arranged  in  pairs  and 
coupled  with  electric  motors,  draw  the  air  from  the  fruit  chambers 
through  the  suction  chambers  on  one  side,  pass  it  over  closely 
nested  brine  piping,  thereby  cooling  and  drying  it,  and  returning 
it  through  the  delivery  trunks  on  the  opposite  side.  The  cooler 
pipes  are  electrically  welded  into  grid  form,  there  being  no 
screwed  joints  except  those  on  the  headers,  the  brine  flow  being 
regulated  by  valves  controlling  a  number  of  separate  groups  of 
grids.  The  cooling  surface  is  properly  proportioned  to  the 
work  to  be  done,  and  the  cooler  with  its  fans  is  completely  insu- 


STOWAGE 


303 


lated.  Ventilators  are  provided,  enabling  the  air  in  the  fruit 
spaces  to  be  changed  in  as  few  minutes  as  may  be  found  desir- 
able from  time  to  time,  the  fresh  air  passing  through  the  cooler 
before  reaching  the  fruit,  and  the  vitiated  air  being  discharged 
to  the  atmosphere.  The  brine  pumps  are  of  the  vertical  duplex 
type,  two  in  number,  either  one  capable  of  performing  the  full 
duty  in  emergency. 

"  The  machines  and  fans  are  run  during  the  last  day  or  so 
of  the  outward  voyage  to  cool  down  the  spaces  in  readiness  to 
receive  the  fruit.  Stowage  is  rapid,  owing  to  the  use  of  power- 
driven  conveyors,  and  discharges  even  more  rapid,  some  of  the 
fruit  in  the  square  of  the  hatches  being  stowed  in  special  cribs, 
which  are  lifted  out  by  the  ship's  derricks  immediately  the 
hatches  are  ofif,  leaving  space  for  the  discharging  elevators, 
which  are  promptly  lowered  into  position.  During  the  first  two 
days  of  the  homeward  voyage  the  plant  is  rim  continuously  to 
extract  the  sun  heat  from  the  fruit  and  to  retard  ripening.  The 
condition  of  the  fruit  is  kept  under  close  observation,  tempera- 
tures being  taken  at  regular  intervals  day  and  night,  the  captain, 
assisted  by  the  ship's  officers— all  carefully  trained  men— 
personally  attending  to  these  duties.  After  a  few  days  at  sea 
the  temperatures  are  generally  well  in  hand,  and  care  then  has 
to  be  taken  to  avoid  the  risk  of  chilling,  the  machine  being  slowed 
down,  and  probably  one  of  the  compressors  disconnected,  just 
sufficient  power  being  developed  to  maintain  the  temperature  at 
about  55°  F." 

Pumps — ^Bilges — ^Rose  Boxes 

A  vessel  having  frozen  holds  is  liable  to  have  her  bilge  suctions 
freeze  up  and  in  the  event  of  a  leak,  or  a  collision,  be  unable  to 
pump  out  the  refrigerator  compartments.  This  might  even 
happen  in  very  warm  weather,  so  far  as  the  outside  temperature 
is  concerned.  The  following  requirements  from  the  A.B.S.  Rules 
cover  this  possible  condition. 

All  pipes,  trunks,  etc.,  in  insulated  refrigerator  spaces  are  to  be 
well  placed,  secured  and  protected  from  risk  of  damage  from 
cargo.  All  bilge  suction,  sounding,  and  air  pipes  which  pass 
through  insulated  refrigerator  spaces  are  to  be  properly  insu- 
lated, and  bilge  suctions  from  the  engine  room  are  to  be  fitted 
with  non-return  valves. 

All  thermometer  tube  flanges  and  covers  are  to  be  of  brass  and 
arranged  so  that  water  cannot  enter  and  freeze  in  the  tubes. 

Sluice  valves  should  not  be  fitted  in  bulkheads  of  insulated 
spaces,  and  if  fitted  are  to  have  brass  non-return  valves  and  are 
to  be  accessible  at  all  times. 

Provision  is  to  be  made  for  the  ready  examination  of  the  bilges, 
rose  boxes,  etc.,  and  it  is  reconmiended  that  the  bottoms,  sides 
and  coamings  of  all  hatches  and  limbers  be  varnished, 
II 


Wi 


304 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


STOWAGE 


305 


xxn 


Ore  Carriers 

Ore    Cargoes,     Ves- 
sels   designed  for   the 
carriage  of  ore,   as   in 
the  Great  Lakes  grade, 
have  specially  designed 
holds  and  hatchways  ad- 
mitting of  exceptionally 
rapid  loading  and  dis- 
charging.   In    fact   the 
mechanical  handling  of 
this  sort  of   cargo   has 
reached  a  high  state  of 
perfection  in   the   lake 
ore  ports,  and  is  now 
being  adopted    on   the 
Atlantic  seaboard  with 
increasing  satisfaction. 
The  ore  unloaders  are 


;§    now  designed  to  handle 


«0 

(J 


O 

>>> 


as  much  as  eigjit  hun- 
dred tons  per  ho^ur.  Ris- 
ing labor  costs  and  the 
striving  for  moi(-e  rapid 
turn  around  is  iworking 
wonders  toward  ^the  use 
of  heavy  machiijiery  for 
this  kind  of  cargjo  hand- 
ling. 

The  many  (hatches 
shown  in  the  phonograph, 
and  further  illustrated 
on  the  succeedingr  pages, 
enable  these  machines 
to  work  with  maximum 
efficiency.  50  seconds  is 
required  for  the  [bucket 


to  dip  mto  the  hold  pick  up  17  tons  of  ore  or  8  tons  of  coal,  lift 
It  clear  of  the  hold,  slide  back  and  drop  it  into  cars,  or  hoppers, 
and  agam  return  for  another  "  bite  "  of  the  cargo 


A  battery  of  fifteen  ton  Hulett  Automatic  Ore  Unloaders  at  work  in  the 

hatches  of  a  Great  Lakes  ore  carrier. 

Mr.  H  T.  Simmons,  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Wellman-Seaver- 
Morgan  Co.  of  Cleveland,  manufacturers  of  the  Hulett  unloading 
machines  has  kindly  suppUed  me  with  operation  data  and  this 
and  the  succeeding  photograph. 

Only  two  men  are  required  for  the  entire  operation  of  one  of 
these  machines.  One  of  the  operators,  whose  station  is  in  the 
bucket  leg  directly  over  the  ^ucket  shells,  controls  all  of  the 
motions  of  raising  and  lowering  the  bucket,  of  traveling  the 
trolley  back  and  forth,  and  moving  the  machine  along  the  dock 
from  one  hatch  to  another.  The  second  operator  is  stationed 
m  a  cab  on  the  larry*  and  from  this  station  he  controls  the  move- 
ment of  the  larry,  the  operation  of  the  larry  gates,  and  the 
weighmg  of  the  ore.  ^  6       i      u  luc 

Some  idea  of  the  capacities  of  unloading  by  this  method  may 
be  derived  from  a  record  which  was  made  in  Ashtabula  by  eieht 
machines  of  this  type,  having  a  capacity  of  fifteen  tons  each, 
unloadmg  seven  boats  having  a  total  capacity  of  70,000  tons  m 

*  The  weighing  car  into  which  the  oar  is  dumped  by  the  bucket  Tl,.  i.r™ 
weighs  the  ore  as  it  transports  it.  pea  oy  uie  bucket.    The  larry 


306 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


twenty-two  hours'  actual  time.  At  other  points,  four  machines 
working  in  boats  having  capacities  up  to  13,000  tons  have  un- 
loaded these  cargoes  in  about  three  hours  and  twenty-five 

minutes. 

In  addition  to  the  vertical  movement,  which  is  given  to  the 
bucket  leg  by  means  of  the  walking  beam,  it  also  has  a  motion 
of  rotation  around  its  vertical  axis.    This  motion  is  introduced 


'  ii 


i' 


Buckets  cleaning  up  in  hold  of  a  lake  vessel    Note  man  in  bucket  leg. 

to  enable  the  machine  to  reach  along  the  keel  of  the  boat  and 
clean  up  ore  between  hatches.  The  distance  from  point  to  point 
of  bucket  shells  when  open  is  approximately  twenty-one  feet. 
About  97  per  cent  of  the  ore  is  removed  from  the  hold  without 

hand  labor. 

The  machines  are  all  operated  by  electric  power.  Machines 
are  also  being  used  on  the  Atlantic  Coast. 

Records  of  fifty  machines  in  operation  indicate  that  this  t3rpe 
of  machine  will  handle  ore  at  21/2  to  41/2  cents  per  ton,  including 
all  fixed  charges,  and  records  of  as  high  as  783  tons  of  ore  per 
hour  per  machine  from  tie-up  to  cast-off  of  boat  have  been  made. 


STOWAGE 


307 


Ore  and  coal  is  loaded  by  lifting  the  car  and  turnmg  it  over 
sliding  the  ore  into  the  hold.  Dumping  direct  from  car  to  ship 
saves  breakage. 

Where  vessels  are  not  specially  designed  for  the  carriage  of 
ore  a  cargo  in  a  four-hold  vessel  can  usually  be  stowed  in  a  very 
satisfactory  manner  by  the  following  method: 

Run  ore  into  the  middle  holds.  No.  2  and  No.  3,  then  trim  the 
vessel  for  sea  with  No.  1  and  No.  4. 

If  a  vessel  is  well  constructed  she  will  suffer  no  straining  from 
this  method  of  loading.  Where  no  cargo  is  carried,  other  than 
the  ore,  a  trunk  should  be  built  up  in  the  lower  No.  2  and  No.  3, 
or  a  certain  amount  of  the  cargo  should  be  carried  in  the  'tween 
decks  of  these  hatches. 

The  weights  should  be  kept  fairly  well  up  and  back  from  the 
ends,  making  the  vessel  less  crank  in  bad  weather  with  a  beam 
sea.  By  trimming  back  from  the  ends,  fore  and  aft,  the  vessel 
will  be  more  sea  kindly  when  meeting  a  head  sea  or  running 
before  a  sea  aft,  or  on  the  quarter. 

Ore  cargoes  present  certain  difficulties  and  before  taking  ore 
on  board,  especially  in  a  foreign  port,  the  master  will  do  well  to 
find  out  its  characteristics. 

Certain  sulphur  ores  are  subject  to  a  process  of  kiln  drying 
and  are  liable  to  fire  and  as  the  ore  contains  a  large  proportion 
of  sulphuric  acid,  water  played  on  the  cargo  will  not  always  quench 
the  fire  and  may  cause  the  loss  of  the  vessel.     (See  page  755). 

The  greatest  care  must  be  taken  in  arranging  for  cargoes  of 
this  kind  in  foreign  ports.  In  the  very  excellent  work  on  Sea- 
manship by  the  late  Captains  Todd  and  Whall  the  following 
incident  is  cited : 

"  The  writer  once,  many  years  ago,  was  coming  from  Huelva, 
bound  to  the  river  Tjme  with  a  cargo  of  mineral.  In  the  No.  1 
hold  was  placed  160  tons  of  such  mineral  described  as  above. 
When  nearing  our  destination  oflf  Flamborough  Head  this  160 
tons  was  discovered  to  be  a  mass  of  fire.  Water  was  freely 
poured  down  on  it,  with  the  effect  that  it  kept  the  ship's  deck 
and  upper  works  from  breaking  into  a  blaze,  and  placed  a  dark 
crust  over  the  mineral  on  fire.  But  that  was  all,  it  did  not 
quench  the  fire. 

"  The  mineral  was  afterwards  discharged  on  fire  into  iron 
lighters,  and  burnt  itself  out  on  shore.    Unfortunately  for  the 


! 


308 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


vessel,  the  water  poured  down  on  the  mineral  had  circulated 
through  her  ballast  tanks  to  the  engine-room,  where  it  was 
pumped  out  by  the  donkey  ballast  pump.  This  water,  being 
highly  charged  with  sulphuric  acid,  attacked  all  iron  with  which 
it  came  in  contact,  the  result  being  that  chemical  action  took 
place  in  all  iron  in  the  ship*s  bottom  improtected  by  cement,  and 
caused  serious  deterioration  to  many  of  her  plates,  floors,  and 
tank  divisions,  which  cost  a  round  sum  of  money  to  replace. 
Therefore,  before  any  vessel  ships  kiln-dried  mineral  of  the 
above  description,  fire  should  be  warily  guarded  against.  Whole 
cargoes  of  such  mineral  are  seldom  shipped,  and  when  packages 
of  it  are  carried  it  should  be  bedded  on  other  mineral,  and 
isolated  from  the  sides  of  the  vessel.  This  mineral  is  shipped 
in  small  bags  containing  about  100  lbs.  each." 

Cargo  liable  to  absorb  gases  should  not  be  placed  near  holds 
containing  ore.  The  temperature  of  hold  loaded  with  ore  should 
be  taken  regularly  and  surface  ventilation  should  be  resorted  to. 
In  general,  the  rules  for  the  care  of  coal  cargo  will  apply  to 
cargoes  of  ore. 

The  danger  of  ore  shifting  is  very  great.  Where  trunks  are 
built  up  of  empty  barrels  (a  poor  practice)  the  collapse  of  the 
trunk  may  mean  the  loss  of  the  vessel.  A  shifting  ore  cargo  is 
about  the  worst  proposition  to  be  met  with  at  sea. 

Trunks,  The  construction  of  trunks,  in  single-hold  vessels, 
and  in  the  large  holds  of  steamers  or  motor  vessels  should  be 
most  carefully  provided  for,  with  extra  heavy  bracing  and  ceiling.* 

The  Cyclops,  The  following  extract  from  a  paper  by  Lieu- 
tenant Commander  Mahlon  S.  Tisdale,  U.  S.  Navy,  printed  in 
the  Proceedings,  U,  S,  Naval  Institute,  sheds  some  interesting 
side  lights  on  the  possible  fate  of  the  U.  S.  Collier  Cyclops  one 
of  the  unsolved  mysteries  of  the  World  War.  The  Cyclops  was 
carrying  a  cargo  of  manganese  ore. 

After  describing  the  custom  of  keeping  the  topside  tank  man- 

*  A  recent  development  in  the  field  of  ocean-going  ore  carriers  is  the 
combination  of  ore  and  coal  carriers,  fitted  for  either  kind  of  cargo,  and  the 
combination  of  ore  and  oil,  that  is,  a  tanker  with  expansion  trunks  in  the 
wings,  and  ore  tnmk  amidship. 

Such  vessels  have  been  designed  by  Mr.  Hugo  P.  Frear,  naval  architect, 
Bethlehem  Shipbuilding  Corporation. 

Of  cotirse  they  do  not  carry  both  cargoes  at  the  same  time.  Two  of  each 
of  this  type  are  tmder  construction,  D.W.  tonnage  about  20,000. 


Ml 


STOWAGE 


309 


hole  openings  uncovered,  Commander  Tisdale  draws  the  fol- 
lowing conclusions : 

"  Now  let  us  take  the  case  of  the  Cyclops  on  her  ill-fated 
voyage  of  last  year  when  she  was  lost.  She  was  carrying 
manganese  ore  (according  to  newspaper  reports  we  received 
abroad  at  the  time).  Due  to  the  great  weight  per  cubic  foot  of 
this  ore  as  compared  to  coal  it  is  probable  that  her  cargo  holds 
were  loaded  by  weight  and  not  by  volume  and  were  therefore 
far  from  full.  Perhaps  the  cargo  was  braced  to  prevent  shifting — 
but  this  would  have  required  very  strong  braces,  far  beyond  the 
capacity  of  the  ship's  carpenter.  Unless  these  braces  were 
installed  at  the  loading  port  they  were  probably  not  installed 
at  all.     Now  the  matter  sizes  up  as  follows : 

"  The  ship  was  heavily  loaded — ^hence  deep  in  the  water  with  a 
correspondingly  small  freeboard— but  her  holds  were  not  full  by 

volume. 

"  It  was  customary  to  leave  the  manhole  plates  off  the  topside 
tanks  according  to  the  statement  of  the  captain  (she  had  the 
same  captain  when  I  made  my  cruise  on  her  as  she  had  when 
she  was  lost)  in  order  to  *  preserve  the  bitumastic' 

"  Due  to  her  load  her  sea  connections  from  the  topside  tanks 
were  probably  submerged.  These  were  in  the  skin  of  the  ship 
and  led  from  the  bottom  of  the  tank. 

"  In  any  sort  of  a  storm  it  was  always  customary  in  the  colliers, 
due  to  their  liveliness  and  to  their  great  amoimt  of  top  hamper, 
to  secure  everything  for  sea.  I  have  seen  even  the  huge  iron 
sister-blocks  which  are  shackled  to  the  fore  and  aft  girder, 
lashed  together  to  prevent  pounding. 

"  Is  it  not  plausible  to  assume  that  the  cargo  may  have  shifted, 
perhaps  only  a  little,  but  enough  to  increase  the  average  list 
sufficiently  to  cause  the  free  water  in  the  double  bottoms  to 
rush  toward  the  down  sidfe  thus  further  increasing  the  list? 
Suppose  the  heavily  laden  Cyclops  now  shipped  a  sea.  Would 
not  this  sea  run  into  the  open  manholes  of  the  topside  tanks 
and  immediately  give  the  ship  a  tendency  to  capsize? 

"  This  could  all  occur  in  a  few  seconds  and  the  ship  would  be 
bottom  up  before  any  one  could  abandon  ship.  Some  few  men 
from  the  bridge  and  poop  might  have  been  thrown  clear  of  the 
ship.  But  with  everything  secured  for  sea  there  would  be  little 
wreckage.  Remember  that  there  would  be  nothing  adrift  except 
such  gear  as  would  be  free  to  float  off  during  the  few  seconds 
during  the  turn.  There  would  be  no  debris  such  as  always 
follows  a  sinking  due  to  other  marine  casualty,  as  in  the  case  of 
striking  a  mine  or  torpedo.  There  would  have  been  no  time  for 
an  *  S.  O.  S.'  There  would  have  been  no  time  for  anything. 
The  few  men  in  the  water  could  not  have  lived  long  of  their  own 


I 


310 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


STOWAGE 


311 


accord.  Such  small  gear  as  did  float  off  would  have  been  lost  in 
the  vastness  of  the  ocean  long  before  the  rescue  vessels  started 
their  search. 

"  This  seems  to  me  a  plausible  solution  of  the  loss  of  the 
Cyclops,  Of  course  it  is  only  a  theory  based  upon  several 
assumptions,  some  of  which  may  be  faulty.  As  several  officers 
have  said,  *  Yours  seems  to  be  the  only  plausible  theory,'  it 
occurred  to  me  that  the  service  as  a  whole  might  be  interested." 

Caution.  When  an  exceptionally  high  rate  of  freight  is  being 
offered  for  an  ore  cargo,  or  any  other  unknown  cargo,  be  very 
careful  and  obtain  all  particulars  with  regard  to  its  characteristics. 

The  precaution  as  to  lines,  berth,  etc.,  should  be  observed 
when  ore  is  being  rapidly  loaded  or  unloaded  by  machinery. 

XXIII 
Carriage  of  Coal 

Coal.  The  stowage  and  ventilation  of  coal  cargoes  is  of  the 
utmost  importance.  No  cargo  of  coal  can  be  thoroughly  ven- 
tilated throughout  its  bulk  and  at  present  the  practice  is  to  make 
use  of  surface  ventilation  alone,  having  two  ventilators  in  each 
hold,  an  intake  and  an  uptake,  one  cowl  into  the  wind  and  one 
cowl  away  from  the  wind,  keeping  them  trimmed  properly  at  all 
times. 

The  following  questions  and  answers  from  a  pamphlet  by  Mr. 
H.  H.  Stoek  "  The  Safe  Storage  of  Coal "  published  by  The 
Department  of  The  Interior,  Washington,  D.  C,  are  of  interest 
in  connection  with  the  stowage  of  coal  cargoes : 

Prevention  of  Heating  of  Stored  Coal 

"  What  is  the  cause  of  spontaneous  combustion?  It  seems 
due  to  an  oxidation  of  the  coal  surface.  This  generates  heat. 
If  the  heat  is  not  dissipated,  the  temperature  will  continue  to 
rise.  The  oxidation  is  more  rapid  at  increased  temperatures, 
so  that  the  process  is  self-aggravating.  A  temperature  may 
finally  be  reached  where  the  coal  is  afire. 

"  How  may  heating  be  detected?  By  the  odor  given  off  from 
the  pile  or  by  thrusting  iron  rod  into  the  pile  and  feeling  them 
with  the  hand,  or  by  a  thermometer  Steam  should  not  be 
confused  with  smoke,  for  water  vapor  coming  out  of  the  pile  in 
winter  time  may  produce  visible  steam  when  there  is  no  appre- 
ciable heating  within  the  pile.    Temperature  tests  with  an  iron 


rod  should  be  made  if  possible ;  actual  temperature  determina- 
tions should  be  made  with  any  suitable  type  of  thermometer. 

"  What  temperature  is  dangerous?  When  the  temperature 
rises  above  140°  F.,  the  pile  should  be  carefully  watched.  If  it 
rises  rapidly  to  150°  or  160°  steps  should  be  taken  to  move  the 
coal  and  cool  off  the  heated  part. 

"  What  is  the  best  way  to  stop  heating  which  has  started? 
The  best  way  is  to  move  the  coal  as  quickly  as  possible  to  a  place 
where  it  can  cool  off.  It  should  be  allowed  to  become  thoroughly 
cooled  before  replacing  it  in  storage,  or,  better  still,  used  at  once 
and  not  returned  to  storage. 

"  Can  heating  be  stopped  by  putting  water  upon  the  pile? 
Only  if  the  water  is  applied  in  quantities  sufficient  to  extinguish 
the  fire  and  cool  the  mass.  The  water  must  reach  the  point  at 
which  heating  occurs,  for  it  can  do  little  good  if  the  stream  is 
played  only  on  the  surface  of  the  pile.  Most  bituminous  coal 
cokes  on  heating,  and  a  shell  of  tarry  material  forms  about  the 
hot  spot,  which  prevents  the  water  reaching  it.  To  be  sure  that 
the  water  reaches  the  burning  coal,  it  usually  is  necessary  to  dig 
into  the  pile  and  turn  it  over.  Generally  it  is  better  to  move  the 
coal  and  not  depend  on  water. 

^^Does  time  have  any  effect  on  the  heating  of  coal?  Three 
fourths  of  the  coal  fires  studied  have  occurred  within  90  days 
after  the  coal  was  placed  in  storage.  Oxidation  is  most  rapid 
on  a  freshly  broken  surface. 

"  What  effect  has  sulphur  on  the  heating  of  coal?  Oxidation 
of  the  pyrite  in  the  coal  also  produces  heat  and  assists  in  breaking 
up  the  lumps  and  thus  increases  the  amount  of  fine  coal  in  the 
pile.  Rise  in  temperature,  either  from  external  or  internal  causes 
promotes  the  oxidation  of  pyrite  and  thus  increases  the  liability 
of  the  coal  to  spontaneous  combustion.  It  is  wise  to  select  low- 
sulphur  coals  for  storage  if  these  are  procurable;  but  it  must 
not  be  taken  for  granted  that  a  low-sulphur  coal  will  necessarily 
store  well,  or  that  a  high-sulphur  coal  will  fire  in  storage. 

"  Is  it  bad  practice  to  mix  different  kinds  of  coal  in  storage? 
Such  mixing  is  generally  believed  to  be  bad  practice,  but  there 
seems  to  be  no  logical  basis  for  the  belief  except  in  so  far  as 
mixing  may  produce  conditions  within  the  pile  that  tend  to 

retain  heat. 

"  What  precautions  prevent  spontaneous  combustion?  Avoid 
storing  fine  coal.  Store  screened  nut  and  lump.  Avoid  external 
sources  of  heat,  such  as  steam  pipes,  warm  flues,  and  boiler 
settings.  Avoid  making  fresh  broken  surfaces  in  handling  the 
coal  into  storage. 

"Avoid  foreign  combustible  matter  which  may  itself  spon- 
taneously heat,  such  as  oily  rags,  paper,  waste,  etc. 

"  Avoid  sticks  and  timbers  in  the  pile,  as  these,  surrounded 


312 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


+ 


by  coarser  coal,  form  ducts  or  flues  that  concentrate  the  warm 
currents  from  the  coal  below." 

In  connection  with  the  carriage  of  coal,  it  is  well  to  remember 
that  the  master  is  held  responsible  for  the  proper  ventilation  of 
the  cargo,  and  any  fault  through  this  neglect  will  react  upon  him. 

As  cargoes  loaded  in  wet  weather  will  loose  from  21^  to  3% 
of  their  weight,  the  necessary  excess  weight  on  the  bill  of  lading 
weight  should  be  insisted  upon  under  these  conditions,  other- 
wise the  cargo  will  be  delivered  short  of  the  called  for  amount. 

Where  coal  is  loaded  in  a  lower  hold,  partly  filled,  stout  shifting 
boards  should  be  fitted  at  the  midship  stanchions.  Great  care 
must  also  be  taken  with  the  limbers  and  the  pump  wells,  all 
chance  of  clogging  must  be  guarded  against. 

Temperature.  A  pipe  with  perforated  end,  preferably  two  of 
them,  should  be  let  down  into  the  body  of  the  coal  and  ther- 
mometers lowered  each  watch  and  temperature  recorded.  Coal 
is  supposed  to  absorb  twice  its  own  volume  of  oxygen  in  ten  days, 
and  this  is  most  rapid  on  a  freshly  broken  surface. 

Coal  dust.  Special  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  dam- 
age of  other  cargo  by  coal  dust.  After  a  hold  has  been  used  for 
coal,  special  care  should  be  taken  in  cleaning  it  for  the  next  cargo. 
The  bilges  should  be  completely  free  from  the  dust. 

Never  close  up  ventilators  leading  to  a  coal  hold  to  keep  down 
the  dust. 

Never  enter  a  coal  hatch  with  an  open  light. 

Uptakes,  The  heels  of  steel  masts  and  king  posts,  some- 
times fitted  with  a  ventilating  uptake,  should  be  closed  before 
stowing  coal.  Every  possible  point  of  up  take ,  should  be  stopped 
off.  Where  H  section  hold  pillars  are  fitted  see  that  no  dunnage 
boards  are  in  place  about  them  forming  possible  flues  from  the 
bottom  of  the  coal  cargo. 

Bunkering,  This  may  be  either  coal  or  oil,  both,  or  a  com- 
bination product  of  coal  dust  and  oil  called  colloidal  fuel. 

Coal  bunkering  is  the  most  common  and  is  carried  on  in  a 
number  of  different  ways.* 

Mechanical  bunkering  arrangements  are  provided  in  most 
ports  and  the  coal  is  shot  into  the  btmker  hatches  and  trimmed 
by  the  black  squad. 

*  43  cu.  ft.  =  1  ton  of  blinker  coal  (bituminous). 


iU 


STOWAGE 


313 


Coal  may  be  taken  from  lighters,  as  at  Coronel,  Chili,  using 
the  ships  winches,  special  cargo  booms,  or  pendants  and  spans. 

Coal  may  be  carried  on  board  by  coolies,  as  in  the  East  Indies, 
or  by  negroes  as  in  the  West  Indies.  Or  it  may  be  passed  up 
on  stages  in  small  baskets  lifted  from  hand  to  hand  as  in  Japan 
and  China.    This  is  a  very  rapid  way  of  coaling  and  involves  no 


Coaling  S.S.  Texan  at  Yokohama. 
The  women  carry  their  babies  on  their  backs  while  coaling. 

Special  effort  on  the  part  of  the  ship  except  to  see  the  lighters 
shifted,  if  in  the  stream,  and  to  keep  them  clear  of  gangway  and 
propellors. 
Oil  fuel  and  colloidal  fuel  is  pumped  on  board  through  a  hose. 

Carrjring  of  Coals  on  Deck  for  Use  as  Bunker  Coal,  from  Ports 
North  of  Hatteras  to  Ports  South  of  that  Latitude 

Board  of  Underwriters,  N.  Y. 

Steamers  of  the  three  (J)  deck  rule  and  spar  deck  vessels  are 
permitted  where  the  stability  and  spare  buoyancy  are  guaran- 
teed, to  carry  during  the  winter  montiis,  October  1st  to  April  1st, 
eight  (8)  or  ten  (10)  per  cent,  of  their  net  register  tonnage  of  coal 
on  deck  for  consumption  during  the  voyage. 

Well  deck  steamers.  If  the  coal  is  carried  on  the  raised 
quarter  deck  the  amount  is  not  to  exceed  seven  (7)  per  cent,  of 
the  net  register  tonnage,  but  if  stowed  over  the  bunkers,  on  the 
bridge  deck,  the  amotmt  not  to  exceed  five  (5)  per  cent,  of  the 
net  registered  tonnage. 


314 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Bulwarks  to  be  ceiled  up  leaving  a  clear  water  course  to  the 
scuppers  and  other  openings.  Steering  gear  to  be  free  of  any 
obstructions. 

Sufficient  coal  to  be  put  in  bags  to  secure  the  ends  and  cover  the 
loose  coal;  the  same  not  to  be  higher  than  the  rail. 

Where  suitable  bins  are  provided  of  a  moderate  size  the  coal 
in  bags  may  be  omitted. 

Grain  laden  vessels  are  not  permitted  to  carry  coal  on  deck 
beyond  sufficiency  to  carry  them  to  the  open  sea. 

Vessels  other  than  those  described  to  be  submitted  to  the 
Loading  Committee. 


Hoisting  coal  on  board  at  Coronely  Chiliy  using  canvas  slings. 

XXV 

The  Michener  Coaling  and  Trimming  Gear 

This  apparatus  is  designed  to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  dis- 
agreeable features  of  suppljring  ships  with  bunker  coal  and  to 
eliminate,  to  a  large  degree,  the  employment  of  men  in  the  actual 
handling  of  the  coal. 


STOWAGE 


315 


The  mechanism  falls  into  two  divisions,  the  first  the  transfer 
of  the  coal  from  the  coaling  lighter  alongside  to  the  coal-port 
of  the  ship.  The  second  the  stowage  of  the  coal  in  the  bimkers 
after  it  has  been  delivered  through  the  coal-port. 

The  mechanism  for  the  first  division  comprises: 

The  Michener  Portable  Elevator 

This  machine  is  a  self-contained  portable,  flexible-leg,  two- 
way  discharge,  electrically  driven  and  controlled  device  for  rais- 


Fig.  A,     Coaling  the  S.S.  George  Washington, 

ing  coal  from  a  lighter  alongside  delivering  it  to  the  side-ports 
or  deck-hatches  of  a  ship.  In  Photo  A  is  shown  four  of  these 
elevators  at  work  on  the  side  of  a  large  liner.  Each  of  the 
elevators  is  rigged  to  discharge  into  two  hoppers  at  two  coal- 
ports.  The  leg  of  the  right  hand  elevator  in  the  illustration  is 
raised  to  permit  the  removal  of  an  empty  lighter  and  the  replace- 
ment by  a  loaded  one. 


316 


STANDARD    SEAMANSHIP 


Referring  to  illustration  B,  the  machine  comprises  a  triangular 
head  2  which  is  hung  to  the  ship's  side  from  ears  3,  3,  and 
fended  off  by  rolls  4.  In  this  head  is  the  driving  mechanism 
including  an  electric  motor,  not  shown,  driving,  through  suitable 
reducing  gearing,  bucket  chain  main-shaft  6.    The  motor  is 


connected  by  an  insulated  wire  cable  with  a  portable  controller 
25  preferably  located  on  the  ship's  deck,  and  the  controller  is 
similarly  connected  with  the  source  of  power. 

Motmted  for  vertical  movement  through  head  2  is  leg  7,  having 
at  its  upper  and  lower  ends  suitable  sprockets  8  and  9,  respec- 
tively, for  the  endless  bucket  chain  10.    This  chain  carries  a 


liA 


STOWAGE 


317 


series  of  buckets  11,  11,  which,  as  the  chain  is  driven  down- 
wardly on  the  ofif  side  and  upwardly  on  the  near  side,  dig  into 
the  coal  in  the  lighter,  filling  the  buckets  which  travel  upward 
over  sprocket  13  and  dump  before  reaching  sprocket  14,  into 
hopper  15.  The  hopper  is  provided  with  a  two-way  discharge 
nose  16,  having  a  gate  whereby  the  stream  of  coal  may  be 
divided  and  directed  to  both  discharge  openings  of  nose  16, 
or  to  either  to  the  exclusion  of  the  other.  From  these  the 
coal  descends  by  gravity  down  chute  19  into  hopper  20  and  so 


on  through  the  coal-port  into  the  ship's  bunker.  As  the  buckets 
pass  around  the  lower  end  of  the  leg,  scooping  up  the  coal,  the 
pile  of  coal  is  correspondingly  reduced  and  the  elevator  leg  auto- 
matically descends  so  as  to  keep  the  buckets  constantly  in 
digging  relation  to  the  pile— compare  the  elevator  of  illustration  B 
with  the  elevator  of  illustration  C. 


318 


STANDARD    SEAMANSHIP 


The  lower  end  of  the  leg,  below  the  head,  is  provided  with  a 
telescopic  cover  which  shows  plainly  in  Photograph  Ay  and 
which  opens  out  as  the  leg  descends.  The  members  of  this 
telescopic  cover  are  connected  by  chains,  not  shown,  so  they 
can  never  slide  out  of  coacting  relation.  This  cover  and  fixed 
cover  22  at  the  back  of  the  leg  prevent  coal  from  falling  out  onto 
the  men  at  work  in  the  barge. 


^>v>:--;.,..-.V:.;;-;v:^ 


wm, 

J 

■■'  ■  '.  '"  -    : 

, 

Coaling 

Scale 


D. 

The  leg  is  raised  from  out  of  the  barge  when  desired,  as  for 
replacing  an  empty  barge  with  a  loaded  one,  by  means  of  gearing, 
not  shown,  but  mounted  on  the  elevator  and  operated  by  the 
elevator  motor  when  the  direction  of  drive  of  said  motor  is 
reversed  by  the  operator  through  the  controller  on  the  ship's 
deck.  Illustration  C  shows  the  elevator  htmg  from  a  rigging  on 
the  ship's  deck  so  as  to  discharge  into  a  high  port.  Illustration  D 
shows  the  Michener  Elevator  erected  for  over-deck  coaling. 
This  machine  is  delivering  coal  through  chute  19  to  a  midship- 
hatch  and  thence  into  the  lower  hold.    It  will  be  understood 


STOWAGE 


319 


that  the  coal  can  be  diverted  to  any  of  the  between-deck  side 
spaces  as  required. 

When  a  ship  at  sea  is  approaching  a  port  where  coal  is  expected 
to  be  received  by  means  of  this  apparatus  the  crew  will  have 
only  to  free  the  coal  ports  for  opening,  or  in  case  of  overdeck 
coaling,  illustration  Z>,  to  erect  shears  for  the  suspension  of  the 


E,     The  bunker  trimmer  discs, 

elevator.  Usually  the  elevators  will  be  erected  on  the  ship's 
side  from  a  barge  having  the  necessary  mast  and  boom  for 
handling  and  erecting  the  elevators  and  for  setting  the  hoppers 
at  the  coal  ports. 

Directing  attention  now  to  the  second  division  of  the  apparatus 
Photograph  E  shows  a  portion  of  an  installation  of 

The  Michener  Bunker  Trimmer 

This  apparatus  is  complementary  to  the  Michener  Elevator, 
which  raises  the  coal  from  the  barge  alongside  and  delivers  it  to 


u 


'  ^ 


i 


320 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


the  coal-port  and  thence  into  the  bunker.  The  bunker  trimmer 
is  permanently  installed  in  the  ship's  bunker,  is  electrically 
driven  and  controlled  and  is  efficient  for  distributing  the  coal, 
received  through  the  coal-port,  to  the  most  remote  portions  of 

the  bunker  and  for  piling  that  coal  up 
to  substantially  fill  the  bunker. 

The  apparatus  comprises  a  series  of 
rotating  discs  2,  illustrations  B  and  F, 
suspended  from  the  deck  beams  of  the 
bunker  ceiling,  and  connected  together 
and  with  the  driving  head  3  of  the  motor 
gearing  by  driving  chain  4.  The  motor 
is  preferably  located  near  the  principal 
hatch  or  port  so  as  to  be  easy  of  access 
at  all  times  and  the  controller,  not  shown, 
may  be  located  at  any  convenient  place 
in  the  bunker  or  just  outside.  The  motor 
5  drives  through  its  reducing  gearing  to 
disc  2a,  and  from  that  disc  power  is 
transmitted  to  the  other  discs  in  either 
direction. 

In  illustration  F  is  shown  a  plan  view 
of  one  of  the  bunkers  of  a  cargo  ship  of 
medium  capacity.  The  dotted  rectangles 
indicate  the  overhead  hatches  of  the 
bunkers  through  which  the  coal  is  re- 
ceived. It  will  be  noticed  that  some  of 
the  discs  are  arranged  so  that  their  peri- 
pheries come  close  to  the  hatch  openings,  in  one  instance  there 
being  three  discs  adjacent  the  hatch  edge.  It  will  also  be  no- 
ticed that  the  motor  5  is  located  near  the  principal  hatch,  so 
as  to  be  easy  of  access  at  all  times. 

As  the  coal  falls  through  the  hatches  which  have  discs  adjacent 
them,  that  coal  piles  up  on  the  bunker  floor,  presently  rising  to 
the  level  of  the  discs  and  then  crowds  over  onto  the  top  faces  of 
these  discs.  The  motor  is  then  started  and  these  discs  immedi- 
ately pass  the  coal  on  to  the  next  succeeding  disc,  and  from  which 
disc  it  is  scraped  off  by  fixed  plowsy  not  shown,  until  the  pile  rises 
at  that  point  sufficiently  to  be  delivered  to  the  next  disc  and  so  on 


F. 


STOWAGE 


321 


throughout  the  line.  The  small  angular  spaces  in  the  upper 
corners  of  the  bunkers  illustration  C  may  be  left  as  they  are,  or, 
if  it  is  desired  to  use  every  available  cubic  foot  of  bunker  space, 
one  or  two  men  with  shovels  can  quickly  flatten  out  the  angles  of 
the  pile  and  fill  even  the  remotest  corner  with  coal. 

It  will  be  understood  that  the  discs  do  not  operate  by  centri- 
fugal force,  throwing  the  coal  off  by  their  speed,  but  that  they 
rotate  slowly  and  the  coal  is  scraped  from  their  faces  by  the 
plows,  to  which  reference  has  been  made.  These  plows  are  of 
heavy  sheet  steel  and  about  six  inches  high  and  each  plow  may 
be  set  at  any  desired  location  about  the  axis  of  the  disc  so  as  to 
spill  the  coal  from  the  disc  at  any  desired  point.  Where  discs 
are  arranged  in  sequence  as  shown,  the  plows  are  set  so  as  to 
deliver  the  coal  from  disc  to  disc.  Assuming  that  the  coal  is 
delivered  first  to  that  disc  2a  which  gets  its  drive  directly  from 
the  motor,  the  coal  being  received  through  the  main  hatch  and 
all  the  discs  being  rotated  in  clockwise  direction,  such  coal  as  lies 
near  the  periphery  of  that  disc  will  encounter  a  plow,  which  will 
scrape  a  portion  of  the  coal  off  onto  the  next  adjoining  disc  above 
in  the  illustration.  That  disc  will  pass  its  load  on,  spilling  most 
of  it,  until  such  time  as  the  pile  from  the  floor  mounts  sufficiently 
to  form  a  wall,  when  that  second  disc  will  deliver  to  the  third  and 
so  on  to  all  the  discs  to  the  end  of  the  series.  One  motor  is 
shown  in  illustration  driving  seven  discs.  This  is  quite  sufficient 
as  it  takes  only  about  one  half  horse  power  per  disc  to  operate 
the  device. 

The  efficient  operation  of  the  elevator  in  delivering  coal  from 
the  barge  to  the  coal  port  is  governed  by  the  rapidity  with  which 
the  coal  is  removed  from  the  vicinity  of  that  port,  inside  the 
bunker.  The  trimming  mechanism  will  handle  up  to  150  tons 
per  hour  delivered  at  any  one  coal  port.  Speed  of  coaling  is 
governed  by  the  number  of  ports,  or  hatches,  that  can  be  worked 
at  one  time. 


i 


CHAPTER   10 


CARRIAGE  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


' 


•■ 

P 


I 


•.I 


Loading 

Where  cattle  is  walked  on  board  over  gangways  or  brows* 
the  matter  of  loading  is  simple  and  care  is  taken  to  portion  them 
properly  to  stalls  or  pens.    When  animals  are  to  be  lifted  on 

board  from  lighters  great  care  must  be  taken 
in  slinging.  Horses  and  other  heavy  cattle 
can  be  lifted  on  board  by  a  single  whip  and 
one  boom,  swinging  the  boom  inboard  by 
the  guys  as  the  animal  comes  over  the  side. 
It  is  often  best  to  blindfold  the  animals  if  the 
ship's  side  is  high  and  they  are  lively. 

Slings  are  generally  made  of  number  1 
canvaS)  roped,  and  fitted  with  breast  and 
rump  bridles  in  addition  to  the  sling  band 
terminating  in  stout  loops  of  the  sling  strop 
sewn  to  the  bands. 

Very  valuable  horses  or  cattle  are  often 
sent  on  board  in  a  padded  box,  the  horse 
being  secured  in  the  box  and  this  carefully 
slung  with  a  good  guy  rope  attached  to  each 
end. 

Homed  cattle  are  often  lifted  with  a  stout 
strap  around  the  base  of  the  horns. 

Horses  are  more  liable  to  kick  in  lifting 
and  should  be  slung  with  great  care. 

Very  valuable  horses  are  carried  in 
thwartship  padded  stalls.  They  are  pro- 
tected from  injury  by  slings  made  to  hang 
six  inches  below  their  bellies  when  standing.    These  slings  are  a 

*  Heavy  gangways  stretching  from  the  ship  to  a  dock. 

322 


Slinging  cattle 


r*      A 


.5: 

I 


ii.t 


CARRIAGE  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


323 


great  help  when  the  vessel  is  in  a  seaway  and  the  animals  rest 
their  weight  in  the  slings. 

Most  countries  have  stringent  laws  governing  the  carriage  of 
live  stock.  These  rules  should  be  obtained  by  a  master  before 
loading  and  strictly  complied  with.  The  regulations  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  prepared  by  the 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  are  very  comprehensive  and  should 
be  carefully  studied  by  the  master  and  mates  of  all  vessels 
engaged  in  the  carriage  of  horses  and  cattle.  These  regulations 
follow: 

n 

Regulations  Governing  the  Inspection,  Humane  Handling,  and 

Safe  Transport  of  Export  Animals 

General  Provisions 

Regulation  1.  Except  as  otherwise  herein  provided,  no  cattle, 
sheep,  swine,  or  goats  shall  be  exported  from  the  United  States 
to  any  foreign  country,  unless  and  until  the  same  have  been 
inspected  and  found  free  from  disease  or  exposure  thereto,  by 
an  inspector  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  of  this  depart- 
ment. Unless  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  have  waived 
the  requirement  of  a  certificate  of  inspection  for  the  particular 
country  to  which  such  animals  are  to  be  exported  no  clearance 
shall  be  issued  to  any  vessel  carrjdng  such  animals,  unless  and 
until  a  certificate  of  inspection  showing  freedom  from  disease  or 
exposure  thereto  shall  have  been  issued  by  the  Department  of 
Agriculture.  The  requirement  of  a  certificate  for  shipments  of 
such  animals  to  Cuba,  the  West  Indies,  Mexico,  Central  America, 
and  the  countries  of  South  America,  except  Argentina,  Uruguay, 
and  Brazil,  is  hereby  waived. 

Definition  of  Terms 

Regulation  2,  Whenever  in  these  regulations  the  following 
words,  names,  or  terms  are  used,  they  shall  be  construed  as 
follows : 

Inspector  of  port,  inspector,  assistant,  employee.  These 
terms  shall  mean,  respectively,  the  inspector  in  charge  of  the 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  station  at  the  port  from  which  the 
animals  are  to  be  exported,  and  inspectors,  assistants,  and 
employees  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

Lumber.  This  word,  unless  otherwise  stated,  shall  mean 
hard  pine,  spruce,  oak,  or  other  hardwood. 


324 


STANDARD    SEAMANSHIP 


Animals.    This  word  refers  to  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats ; 

also  horses,  unless  it  is  inapplicable  to  them  under  Regulation  3. 

Horses,    This  word  shall  include  generally  mules  and  asses. 

Horses 

Regulation  3.  Horses  shall  be  entitled  to  the  inspection  pro- 
vided for  in  these  regulations,  and  certificates  shall  be  issued 
whenever  required  by  the  country  to  which  the  horses  are  to  be 
exported,  but  horses  may  be  shipped  without  inspection  and 
certification,  at  shippers'  risk,  to  countries  which  do  not  demand 
such  inspection  and  certification  as  a  prerequisite  to  admission. 

Inspection  and  Shipment  (Canadian  Shipments) 

Regulation  4,  Only  animals  found  to  be  healthy  and  free 
from  disease  and  shown  not  to  have  been  exposed  to  the  con- 
tagion of  any  disease  shall  be  allowed  shipment,  and  all  animals 
inspected  and  passed  shall  be  loaded  into  clean  and  disinfected 
cars. 

All  dairy  and  breeding  cattle  must  pass  a  satisfactory  tuberculin 
test  either  by  an  inspector  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  or 
by  a  duly  authorized  representative  of  the  country  to  which  the 
animals  are  to  be  exported.  Animals  for  export  to  Canada  will 
be  inspected  at  any  point  the  bureau  may  direct.  All  animals 
shipped  on  ocean  steamers  shall  be  inspected  or  reinspected  at 
the  port  of  export.  Railroad  companies  will  be  required  to 
furnish  clean  and  disinfected  cars  for  the  transportation  of 
animals  for  export,  and  the  proprietors  of  the  various  stock- 
yards and  stables  located  at  the  ports  of  export  shall  keep  separ- 
ate, clean,  and  disinfected  stockyards,  and  pens  or  stables  for 
the  use  of  export  animals. 

Shipment  of  Animals  on  Ocean  Steamers 

Places  of  Inspection 

Regulation  5.  The  inspection  provided  for  animals  shipped 
on  ocean  steamers  will  be  made  at  any  of  the  following-named 
stockyards:  Chicago,  111.;  Kansas  City,  Mo.;  Omaha,  Nebr.; 
South  St.  Joseph,  Mo.;  National  Stock  Yards,  111.;  Indianapolis, 
Ind.;  Buffalo,  N.  Y.;  and  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  and  at  the  following 
ports  of  export:  Portland,  Me.;  Boston,  Mass.;  New  York, 
N.  Y.;  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  Baltimore,  Md.;  Norfolk  and  New- 
port News,  Va.;  New  Orleans,  La.;  and  Galveston,  Tex. 
Other  ports  may  be  designated  in  special  cases  by  the  Chief  of 
the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.  AU  animals  will  be  inspected 
at  ports  of  export,  regardless  of  the  fact  that  they  may  or  may 
not  have  been  inspected  at  the  above-named  stockyards. 


CARRIAGE  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


( 

Identification  of  Animals  and  Notification  of  Shipment 


325 


Regulation  6,  Shippers  shall  notify  the  inspector  in  charge  of 
the  yards  of  intended  shipments  of  animals  and  the  number  and 
designation  of  cars  in  which  they  are  to  be  shipped,  and  shall 
inform  said  inspector  of  the  locality  from  which  said  animals 
have  been  brought,  and  the  name  of  the  feeder  of  said  animals, 
and  shall  furnish  such  other  information  as  may  be  practicable 
for  the  proper  identification  of  the  place  from  which  said  animals 
have  come. 

Regulation  7,  The  inspector  after  passing  said  animals  shall 
notify  the  inspector  in  charge  of  the  port  of  export,  and  inspectors 
located  at  intermediate  cities  where  the  animals  may  be  un- 
loaded for  feeding  and  watering,  of  the  inspection  and  shipment 
of  such  animals,  the  number  and  kind  of  animals  shipped,  and 
the  numbers  and  designations  of  the  cars  containing  them. 

Transportation  from  Yards  to  Steamers 

Regulation  8.  Export  animals  shall  not  be  unnecessarily 
passed  over  any  highway  or  removed  to  cars  or  boats  which  are 
used  for  conveying  other  animals.  Boats  transporting  said 
animals  to  the  ocean  steamer  must  first  be  cleansed  and  disin- 
fected under  the  supervision  of  the  inspector  of  the  port,  and, 
before  receiving  said  animals,  the  ocean  steamer  shall  be 
thoroughly  cleansed  and  disinfected  in  accordance  with  the 
directions  of  said  inspector.  When  passage  upon  or  across  the 
public  highway  is  unavoidable  in  the  transportation  of  animals 
from  the  cars  to  the  boat  it  shall  be  under  such  careful  super- 
vision and  restrictions  as  the  inspector  may  direct. 

Animals  not  Allowed  Shipment  m 

Regulation  9.  Any  animals  that  are  offered  for  shipment  to  a 
foreign  country  which  have  not  been  inspected  and  transported 
in  accordance  with  these  regulations,  or  which,  having  been 
inspected,  are  adjudged  to  be  infected  or  to  have  been  exposed 
to  infection  so  as  to  be  dangerous  to  other  animals  or  to  be  other- 
wise unfit  for  shipment,  shall  not  be  allowed  upon  any  vessel  for 
exportation. 

Supervision  to  Steamers — Clearance  Papers 

Regulation  10,  The  supervision  of  the  movement  of  animals 
from  cars,  yards,  and  stables  to  the  ocean  steamer  at  the  port  of 
export  will  be  in  charge  of  the  inspector  of  the  port. 

The  inspector  at  the  port  of  export  shall  notify  the  collector  of 
the  port,  or  his  deputy,  of  the  various  shipments  of  animals  that 
are  entitled  to  clearance  papers. 


326 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Notification  to  Inspectors  of  Intended  Shipments  on  Steamers 

Regulation  11.  The  exporters  of  animals,  the  owner  or  agent, 
desiring  to  transport  animals  from  any  port  of  the  United  States 
to  a  foreign  country  shall  notify  the  inspector  in  charge  of  the 
port  from  which  said  vessel  is  to  clear,  of  such  intended  ship- 
ment at  least  two  days  in  advance  thereof,  and  if  the  regulations 
prescribed  have  been  complied  with,  a  clearance  shall  be  author- 
ized by  such  inspector. 

Space  on  Vessels 

Regulation  12.  Export  animals  must  not  be  carried  on  any 
part  of  the  vessel  where  they  will  interfere  with  the  proper 
management  of  the  vessel,  or  with  the  efficient  working  of  the 
necessary  lifeboats,  or  with  the  requisite  ventilation  of  the  vessel, 
and  may  be  carried  only  as  hereinafter  specified. 

Cattle 

Regulation  13.  Cattle  must  have  6  feet  vertical  space  by  not 
less  than  8  feet  in  depth  on  all  decks  free  of  all  obstructions. 
Cattle  may,  however,  be  placed  on  raised  floors  over  pipes  and 
other  similar  obstructions  where  the  vertical  space  is  not  less 
than  5  feet  6  inches  from  under  edge  of  beam  overhead  to 
flooring  underfoot.  Cattle  over  850  pounds  in  weight  must  be 
allowed  a  space  of  2  feet  6  inches  in  width  by  8  feet  in  depth  and 
no  more  than  4  head  of  such  cattle  will  be  allowed  in  each  pen, 
except  at  the  end  of  rows  where  five  may  be  allowed  together. 
Cattle  of  850  pounds*  weight  or  less  must  be  allowed  a  space 
of  at  least  2  feet  in  width  by  8  feet  in  depth  and  5  may  be  allowed 
in  each  pen.  Calves  and  young  stock  or  yearlings  may  be 
stowed  %t  the  discretion  of  the  inspector.  Cattle  standing 
between  stanchions,  sounding  tubes,  ventilators,  and  other 
obstructions,  though  in  continuous  pens,  must  be  allowed  3  feet 
in  width.  Cattle  carried  in  crates  or  single  stalls  must  be 
allowed  not  less  than  3  feet  in  width  by  8  feet  in  depth.  Addi- 
tional space  and  separate  stalls  may  be  required  by  the  inspector 
for  large  dairy  and  breeding  cattle  and  for  cows  in  advanced 
pregnancy.  Large  cows,  in  the  discretion  of  the  inspector,  may 
be  placed  3  in  a  pen  of  10  feet  in  width  by  8  feet  in  depth.  Special 
permission  for  carrying  cattle  on  the  steerage  deck  must  be 
obtained  from  the  inspector  and  will  be  granted  in  cases  where 
said  deck  is  provided  with  sufficient  ventilation  as  hereinafter 

prescribed. 

Sheep  and  Goats 

Regula  tion  14.  The  space  for  each  sheep  or  goat  shall  be  4  feet 
long  by  14  inches  wide,  and  for  lambs  or  goats  under  100  pounds 
in  weight  4  feet  by  12  to  13  inches. 


CARRIAGE  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


327 


Sheep  pens  shall  not  exceed  20  feet  by  8  feet,  where  two  tiers 
are  carried,  and  each  tier  shall  have  a  clear  vertical  space  of 
not  less  than  3  feet.  During  the  summer  season  sheep  shall 
not  be  loaded  in  tiers  imder  decks,  but  during  the  winter  season 
two  tiers  may  be  placed  in  each  wing  and  only  one  tier  amid- 
ships. One  single  deck  of  sheep  may  be  carried  upon  the  roof 
over  cattle  when  said  roofs  are  permanently  built  and  are  com- 
posed of  2-inch  tongue-and-groove  boards,  provided  such  sheep 
fittings  do  not  conflict  with  Regulation  13.  Sheep  pens  on  roof 
of  cattle  fittings  shall  not  exceed  12  feet  in  width  and  must  be 
supplied  with  athwartship  partitions  every  14  feet.  Such  fittings 
shall  be  secured  to  roof  of  cattle  fittings  by  placing  outboard 
stanchions  and  bolting  through  both  outboard  stanchions  with 
not  less  than  three  %-inch  bolts. 

Stanchions  for  sheep  pens  must  rim  up  through  cattle-fittings 

roof  to  the  required  height  for  the  sheep  pens.    These  stanchions 

shall  not  be  less  than  4  by  4  inches.    Space  for  sheep  and  goats 

for  breeding  purpose  shall  be  not  less  than  5  feet  in  length  by 

20  inches  in  width. 

Swine 

Regulation  15.  The  space  for  swine  not  exceeding  150  pounds 
in  weight  shall  be  the  same  as  that  specified  for  breeding  sheep 
and  goats,  and  for  those  under  100  pounds  in  weight  the  same 
as  for  lambs  and  for  goats  of  less  than  100  potmds  in  weight. 
Additional  space  and  suitable  pens  shall  be  required  by  the 
inspector  for  unusually  large  hogs  or  for  swine  for  breeding 
purposes. 

Horses 

Regulation  16.  All  horses  must  have  not  less  than  6  feet 
3  inches  clear  vertical  space  from  beaims  of  deck  overhead  to 
deck  underfoot,  and,  so  far  as  possible,  ^hall  be  placed  between 
the  overhead  athwartship  beams.  Each  horse  must  be  allowed 
a  space  2  feet  6  inches  in  width  by  not  less  than  8  feet  in  depth. 
Division  boards  shall  not  be  less  than  2  by  9  inches  and  shall  be 
of  sound  lumber,  planed,  upper  comers  rounded  and  placed 
horizontally  between  2  horses,  except  that  horses  may  be  placed 
in  pens  of  4  each  on  application  of  owner  or  shipper.  Additional 
space  shall  be  required  by  the  inspector  for  very  large  horses. 
The  8-foot  depth  of  stalls  for  horses  may  be  reduced  to  7  feet 
for  medium-sized  horses  in  order  to  avoid  losing  a  row  of  stalls 
in  the  forward  and  after  ends  of  the  ship,  abreast  of  hatches, 
alongside  of  engine  and  boiler  casings,  etc.  Additional  stalls, 
distributed  in  the  different  compartments  or  decks  in  which 
horses  are  carried,  must  be  provided  for  use  as  hospital  stalls 
for  sick  animals,  as  follows :  One  additional  stall  2  feet  6  inches 
in  width  by  8  feet  in  depth  for  the  first  4  to  10  horses  shipped. 


T  r 


I 


328 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Two  additional  stalls,  of  5  feet  in  width  by  8  feet  in  depth,  for 
the  first  25  horses  shipped  and  2  feet  6  inches  in  width  by  8  feet 
in  depth  for  each  additional  25  horses,  allowing  four  extra  stalls 
for  each  100  horses  shipped. 

Separate  stalls  will  not  be  required  for  unbroken  filhes  and 
mules.  When  horses  are  placed  directly  under  athwartship 
beams,  the  beams  must  be  guarded  by  4-inch  strips  of  wood. 
When  placed  in  the  same  compartment  with  cattle,  horses  must 
be  separated  by  fore-and-aft  alleyways  and  temporary  athwart- 
ship bulkheads,  the  length  of  which  shall  not  be  less  than  the 
depth  of  the  stalls.  Small  numbers  of  horses  may  be  shipped  in 
boxes  or  portable  stalls  of  sufficient  size  and  strength  to  carry 

same  safely. 

Upper-deck  Fittings 

Regulation  17.  No  anhnals  shall  be  allowed  within  20  feet 
of  the  breakwater  on  the  spar  deck,  between  the  1st  of  October 
and  the  1st  of  April,  except  on  ships  provided  with  houses  con- 
structed of  iron  in  each  wing  and  of  sufficient  width  and  height 
to  protect  the  fittings,  when  the  fittings  may  be  constructed  to 
abut  such  houses.  Horses  may  be  carried  upon  the  bridge  deck 
of  steamers  having  a  strong  rail  outboard  to  secure  the  fittings. 
No  cattle  or  horses  shall  be  carried  upon  the  upper  decks  where 
the  outside  rails  are  not  of  sufficient  strength  to  hold  fittings 
securely  and  measure  less  than  3  feet  in  height  from  the  deck. 
When  animals  are  carried  upon  the  upper  decks,  strong  break- 
waters shall  be  erected  at  each  end  and  on  both  sides.  Perma- 
nent fittings  may  be  constructed  of  either  iron  or  wood,  as  here- 
inafter specified. 

Alleyways 

Regulation  IS.  All  steamers  engaged  in  carrying  animals  for 
export  will  be  required  to  provide  alleyways  as  provided  by  this 
regulation.  Alleyways  in  front  of  and  between  pens  used  for 
feeding  and  watering  cattle  must  have  a  width  of  3  feet ;  however, 
for  a  distance  not  to  exceed  12  feet  at  end  of  alleyways  in  bow 
and  stern  of  ship,  and  where  obstructions  less  than  3  feet  in 
length  occur,  the  width  may  be  reduced  to  a  minimum  of  18 
inches.  Alleyways  in  front  of  and  between  pens  used  for  feed- 
ing and  watering  horses  must  have  a  minimum  width  of  4  feet 
except  in  bow  and  stern  of  ship,  where  the  alleyways  may  be 
reduced  to  a  width  of  not  less  than  3  feet.  Two  or  more  athwart- 
ship alleyways  at  least  18  inches  wide  in  the  clear  must  be  left 
on  each  side  of  upper  deck,  so  that  the  scuppers  can  be  readily 
reached  and  kept  clear  of  obstructions.  Three  or  more  alley- 
ways at  least  18  inches  wide  must  be  left  open  on  each  side  in 
'tween  or  other  under  decks,  where  deck  is  not  divided  into 
compartments.    Where  'tween  or  other  under  decks  are  divided 


CARRIAGE  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


329 


into  compartments,  one  or  more  athwartship  alleyways,  18  inches 
wide  on  both  sides  of  ship  and  in  every  compartment,  must  be 
left  clear  and  open  so  that  the  scuppers  can  be  readily  reached 
and  cleared  of  all  obstructions.  In  forward  compartments  the 
allejrways  to  scuppers  must  be  placed  at  after  end  of  compart- 
ments. In  after  compartments  the  alleyways  to  scuppers  must 
be  in  forward  ends  of  compartments.  Athwartship  alleyways 
not  less  than  2  feet  in  width  must  be  provided,  so  that  the 
attendants  may  cross  ship's  deck  with  feed  and  water  for  animals, 
and  for  other  purposes.  When  animals  are  not  carried  in  the 
decks  beneath,  passage  from  side  to  side  of  ship  can  be  made 
by  crossing  over  hatches  where  the  coamings  do  not  exceed 
18  inches  in  height.  Sufficient  space  must  be  left  at  the  sides 
of  hatches  to  permit  of  the  feed  in  decks  beneath  being  readily 
removed  and  handled.  Where  animals  are  carried  in  xmder 
decks,  proper  brows,  or  runs,  must  be  placed  in  hatches,  on 
which  animals  may  be  walked  in  loading  or  discharging.  Where 
horses  are  carried  on  upper  deck  and  in  tmder  deck,  said  brows 
must  remain  shipped,  in  hatches,  so  that  horses  may  be  led 
from  deck  to  deck  during  voyage. 

Wooden  Stanchions  and  Rump  Boards 

Regulation  19.  Stanchions  at  least  3  inches  higher  than  the 
required  vertical  space  for  cattle  must  be  of  4  by  6  inch  clear, 
hard  pine  or  4  by  6  inch  good,  sound  spruce,  set  at  5  feet  from 
centers  against  the  ship's  rail,  or  at  points  midway  between  two 
animals,  and  inside  stanchions  in  their  proper  place  must  be  in 
line  with  outboard  stanchions,  and  set  up  so  that  the  6-inch 
way  of  the  stanchions  shall  set  fore-and-aft.  A  3-inch  shoulder 
may  be  cut  on  head  of  stanchion  to  receive  beam  and  must  be 
bolted  through  and  through  with  %-inch  bolts  for  all  stanchions, 
or  stanchions  may  be  of  same  height  as  required  vertical  space 
for  cattle  to  butt  up  square  to  beams  with  2  by  8  inch  cleat  butted 
against  both  sides  of  stanchions  and  well  nailed  to  beams,  and 
1  by  6  by  24  inch  angle  braces  properly  placed  and  nailed  to  secure 
each  stanchion  to  its  beam.  Inboard  stanchions  supporting 
roof  fittings  shall  be  2  inches  higher  than  outboard  or  rail  stanch- 
ions. In  amidship  fittings  and  where  fittings  are  brought  for- 
ward to  clear  rigging  bitts,  etc.,  the  rtmip-board  stanchions  may 
be  3  by  4  inch  braced  or  cleated  to  beam  or  roof  or  deck  as 
required.  A  piece  2  by  3  inch,  or  2-inch  plank,  shall  be  fastened 
to  the  outside  of  the  stanchion  and  run  up  to  underneath  the 
rail  to  chock  down  the  stanchion  and  prevent  lifting  when  the 
beam  is  sprung  to  the  crown  of  the  deck.  Open-rail  ships  shall 
be  blocked  out  on  backs  of  stanchions  fair  with  the  outside  of 
rails  to  receive  the  outside  planking.    Where  upper-deck  fittings 


<  i> 


330 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


are  not  permanent,  the  heels  of  outside  stanchions  shall  be 
secured  by  a  bracing  of  2  by  3  inch  lumber  from  the  back  of  each 
stanchion  to  sheer  streak  of  waterway,  the  heels  of  inside 
stanchions  being  properly  braced  from  and  to  each  other. 

Rump  boards  must  be  provided  on  all  decks,  and  when  cover- 
ing bitts,  rigging,  braces,  or  other  obstructions  located  at  a 
distance  from  ship's  sides,  rump  boards  must  be  brought  forward 
to  cover  same,  with  a  solid  partition  behind  the  animals;  and 
when  necessary  to  extend  fittings  opposite  bitts,  rigging,  braces, 
etc.,  fittings  for  two  or  more  animals  must  be  brought  forward. 
Rump  boards  in  such  cases  shall  be  not  less  than  iVs  inches  in 
thiclmess,  tongued  and  grooved,  and  built  to  a  height  of  4  feet 
6  inches  from  the  deck.  Where  deck  is  clear  and  without 
obstructions,  such  as  braces,  etc.,  rump  boards  maybe  set  on  the 
inside  of  rail  stanchions.  In  such  case  and  where  beef  cattle 
stand  rump  to  rump  in  amidship  stalls  18  inches  (or  two  boards 
of  1^4  by  9  inches)  of  tongue  and  groove,  good,  sotmd  spruce 
or  hard  pine  will  be  used.  In  'tween-decks  when  ship's  ribs 
are  of  the  bulb-edge  type,  or  of  channel-iron  type,  the  above- 
mentioned  rump  board  may  be  used.  When  ribs  are  of  the 
thin-edge  type  close  backing  shall  be  run  down,  same  as  in 
offsets  on  upper  deck,  or  ribs  may  be  .covered  with  wood.  Where 
ship's  cargo  battens  are  in  good  order  same  may  be  used  as 
backing  or  rump  boards  by  filling  in  spaces  between,  when 
necessary.  Stanchions  for  horses  will  be  placed  as  hereinafter 
specified. 

Iron  Stanchions 

Regulation  20,  Iron  stanchions  may  be  used  in  place  of 
wooden  stanchions  and  shall  not  be  less  than  2  inches  in  diam- 
eter, set  in  iron  sockets  above  and  below,  and  fastened  with 
%-inch  bolts.  For  horses  the  same  number  of  iron  stanchions 
are  required  as  when  wooden  stanchions  are  used. 

Hook  Bolts  or  Clamps 

Regulation  21,  Hook  bolts  or  clamps  must  be  made  of  %- 
inch  wrought  iron,  with  hook  on  outboard  end  and  thread  and 
nut  on  inboard  end  to  pass  over  and  under  rail  and  through 
outboard  stanchion  and  set  up  on  the  inside  of  same  with  a  nut. 
These  bolts  may  be  double  or  single.  If  double,  no  thread  or 
nut  is  necessary,  but  the  stanchion  will  lie  shipped  through  it, 
thus  double-hooking  the  rails.  This  will  be  foimd  very  useful 
where  funnels  or  other  deck  fittings  come  in  the  way  of  beams 
passing  from  side  to  side  of  ship. 

Beams 

Regulation  22,  Beams  must  be  of  good,  sound  spruce  or 
hard-pine  lumber,  3  by  6  inches,  to  run  clear  across  the  ship's 


CARRIAGE  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


331 


\ 


beam  where  practicable.  Should  any  house  or  deck  fittings  be 
in  the  way,  the  beams  should  butt  up  closely  to  the  same.  When 
there  are  no  stalls  amidship  a  stanchion  must  be  set  under  beam 
at  center  of  ship's  deck  and  be  properly  secured. 

Braces   * 

Regulation  23,  Diagonal  braces  shall  be  fastened  on  each 
stanchion  on  both  sides  of  same,  running  up  to  top  side  of  beam 
and  properly  secured  by  nailing  well  to  both  stanchions  and  beam. 
Where  stanchion  is  gained  out  to  receive  beam,  a  piece  of  2  by  3 
will  be  nailed  on  side  of  stanchion  to  flush  with  beam,  and 
diagonal  brace  will  be  nailed  on  beam  and  on  the  2  by  3. 

Breast  Boards 

Regulation  24.  Breast  boards  shall  be  not  less  than  \^/^  by 
9%  inches  dressed  lumber,  or  2  by  10  inches  rough,  of  good, 
clear  spruce  or  hard  pine  and  secured  at  every  stanchion  by 
%-inch  screw  bolts  passing  through  same  and  set  up  with  nuts. 
All  breast  boards  must  butt  on  the  stanchions.  An  iron  plate 
one-quarter  of  an  inch  thick  and  3  inches  square  shall  be  placed 
over  the  boards  like  a  butt  strap,  bolt  passing  through  same. 
All  breast  boards  shall  have  1-inch  holes  bored  through  them 
at  proper  distances  for  tying  the  animals. 

Footboards 

Regulation  25,  Footboards  shall  be  of  wood  and  of  not  less 
than  2  by  9  inches  in  the  rough,  and  shall  be  properly  nailed  or 
bolted  to  stanchions. 

Division  Boards  for  Cattle  ^ 

Regulation  26.  Division  boards  for  cattle  shall  be  2  by  8  inch 
boards,  sound  spruce  or  hard  pine,  and  so  arranged  as  to  divide 
the  animals  into  lots  of  four,  except  at  the  ends  of  rows,  thus 
making  compartments  for  that  number  all  over  the  vessel. 
Division  boards  shall  be  four  in  number  at  ends  of  hatches, 
passageways  across  ship,  at  allejrways  to  scuppers,  and  for 
dairy  and  breeding  cattle,  whether  divided  into  lots  of  four  or 
placed  in  single  stalls.  Division  boards  shall  be  placed  hori- 
zontally with  3-inch  openings  between  and  fitted  perpendicularly. 
All  division  boards  must  be  portable. 

Division  Boards  for  Horses 

Regulation  27,  Division  boards  for  horses  shall  not  be  less 
than  2  by  9  inches  of  good,  sound  spruce  or  hard  pine,  dressed 
on  both  sides,  with  top  edges  rounded,  and  placed  horizontally 


332 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


CARRIAGE  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


333 


between  the  horses.  All  division  boards  must  be  portable. 
Fittings  at  ends  of  hatches,  alleyways,  etc.,  must  conform  to 
Regulation  26. 

Flooring  for  Horses  and  Breeding  Cattle 

Regulation  28,  Ships  with  iron  decks  shall  be  sheathed  with 
1  or  2  inch  spruce  or  hard  pine,  but  if  1-inch  lumber  is  used  the 
footlocks  shall  be  3  by  4  inches  and  laid  so  that  they  will  properly 
secure  the  1-inch  boards,  thus  preventing  them  from  slipping 
and  at  the  same  time  acting  as  footlocks  by  showing  a  surface 
of  2  by  4  inches.  It  is  optional  with  the  owners  whether  they 
permit  sheathing  to  be  used  on  their  ships  with  wooden  decks, 
or  whether  they  allow  footlocks  to  be  secured  to  the  deck,  but 
it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  sheath  iron  decks  before  putting 
down  footlocks  in  order  to  fasten  same.  Cement  diagonally 
scored  one-half  inch  deep  may  be  used  on  iron  decks  instead  of 
wooden  sheathing  if  the  footlocks  be  molded  in  the  same  and 
bolted  to  the  deck.  If  the  flooring  is  raised  on  any  of  the  decks, 
it  shall  not  be  less  than  2  inches  thick,  with  scantling  2  by  3 
inches  laid  athwartships  on  the  deck  not  more  than  2  feet  6  inches 
apart  with  2-inch  plank  for  flooring  nailed  to  them.  Flooring 
may  be  in  two  or  three  sections  in  th6  depth  of  the  stalls  so  as  to 
provide  for  its  removal  and  relaying  after  cleaning  and  disin- 
fecting of  decks  and  fittings,  or,  if  owners  prefer,  flooring  for 
horses  or  mules  may  be  made  with  2-inch  plank  laid  athwart- 
ships in  stalls  with  one-half  or  three-fourths  inch  openings 
between,  with  1-inch  cleat  at  each  end  and  nailed  to  same,  which 
will  allow  flooring  to  clear  lap  in  deck  plates  and  prevent  rocking. 
Footlocks  must  be  bolted  to  such  flooring.  This  flooring  may  be 
made  in  separate  sections,  one  for  each  animal.  On  upper  or 
exposed  decks  such  flooring  must  be  cleated  down  by  placing  a 
piece  of  2  by  3  inches  on  inside  of  footboard  and  on  stanchions 
in  rear  end  of  stalls  and  nailing  to  same.  For  breeding  and 
dairy  cattle  on  all  decks  where  these  animals  are  carried  the 
flooring  must  be  raised;  ly^  by  9  inch  lumber  may  be  used  as 
flooring  for  these  animals  with  2  by  3  inch  scantling  underneath, 
placed  not  more  than  2  feet  apart  and  the  flooring  nailed  to  each 
piece  of  scantling.  This  flooring  may  be  laid  in  portable  fore- 
and-aft  sections. 

Footlocks 

Regulation  29,  Footlocks  shall  be  of  good,  sound  spruce, 
hard  pine,  oak,  or  other  hardwood,  size  2  by  4  inches  (where 
2-inch  flooring  is  used),  laid  flat  side  down  and  fore-and-aft, 
placed  12  inches,  14  inches,  2  feet  2  inches,  and  14  inches  apart, 
the  first  one  distant  12  inches  from  the  inside  of  footboard. 
Where  temporary  fore-and-aft  footlocks  are  used,  they  shall  be 


filled  in  athwartships  opposite  each  stanchion,  properly  secured 
to  sheathing  or  deck,  and  secured  by  a  batten  of  spruce  or  hard 
pine,  size  2  by  3  inches,  to  go  over  all  from  stanchion  to  stanchion. 
This  batten  must  be  in  one  piece.  Pieces  2  by  3  inches  must  be 
nailed  on  stanchions  or  backing  over  batten  to  prevent  floor 
raising.  These  pieces  over  battens  over  all  will  not  be  required 
in  under  decks.  When  permanent  footlocks,  securely  bolted 
to  decks,  are  used,  the  athwartship  braces  between  footlocks 
from  stanchion  to  stanchion  and  batten  may  be  omitted  when  the 
stanchion  is  securely  fitted  in  iron  socket  bolted  to  the  deck. 
A  space  of  2  inches  will  be  left  between  the  ends  of  athwartship 
footlocks  and  fore-and-aft  footlocks  when  the  former  are  securely 
bolted  to  the  deck.  When  the  fore-and-aft  footlocks  are  perma- 
nent, a  3-inch  space  shall  be  left  between  the  ends  at  end  of 
each  section.  In  under  decks,  the  footlocks  will  be  1  by  4 
inches  above  the  flooring  where  cattle  for  dairy  and  breeding 
purposes  are  carried. 

Outside  Planking 

Regulation  30,  All  outside  planking  on  open  and  closed  rail 
ships  must  be  properly  laid  fore-and-aft  of  ship  and  nailed  to 
backs  of  stanchions  as  close  as  possible  for  the  cold  season,  and 
for  the  warmer  months  the  top-course  planking  shall  be  left 
ofif  fore-and-aft  of  ship  in  order  to  allow  a  free  circulation  of  air. 
Nothing  less  than  li/^-inch  tongue-and-groove  spruce  or  hard 
pine  will  be  allowed  for  this  purpose.  Outside  planking  may 
be  laid  in  mill-run  lengths,  butts  to  be  broken,  and  reinforced 
with  iVs-inch  lumber,  forming  butt  straps,  these  to  be  well 
nailed  and  nails  clinched. 

Roof  Planking 

Regulation  31,  The  planks  to  form  the  roof,  which  must  be 
erected  on  all  exposed  decks,  must  be  laid  fore-and-aft ;  1  Vs-inch 
sound  spruce  or  hard  pine  lumber,  tongued  and  grooved,  may  be 
used  suflicient  to  cover,  from  outside  planking  to  2  feet  beyond 
the  line  of  breast  boards.  These  planks  must  be  driven  tightly 
together  and  shall  be  well  nailed  to  the  athwartship  beams. 
It  will  be  optional  with  owners  whether  tar  paper  or  other  cover- 
ing will  be  laid  over  roofing.  Where  permanent  boat  platforms 
are  not  provided,  a  roof  of  2-inch  lumber  must  be  laid,  from 
which  boats  may  be  worked.  When  iVg-inch  tongue-and- 
groove  lumber  is  used  as  outside  planking,  or  for  roofing,  the 
butts  may  be  broken.  Where  butts  are  broken,  same,  must 
be  reinforced  by  iVg-inch  boards  well  nailed  to  underside  of 
roof.  The  nails  used  for  this  purpose  must  in  all  cases  be 
clinched. 


i 


li     < 


334 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


Cattle  Fittings  over  Spar  Deck 


Regulation  32.  No  cattle  fittings  shall  be  erected  over 
permanent  spar-deck  fittings  forward  and  aft  of  the  amidship 
sections  until  permission  has  been  obtained  from  the  Chief  of 
the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

Under-deck  Fittings 

Alleyways 

Regulation  33.  Alleyways  on  under  decks  shall  be  of  the 
same  dimensions  as  the  alleyways  on  the  upper  decks. 

Stanchions 

Regulation  34.  Stanchions  on  under  decks  shall  be  of  4  by 
6  inch  clear,  hard  pine  or  good,  sound  spruce,  set  6-inch  way 
fore-and-aft,  and  may  be  set  7  feet  6  inches  from  centers,  for 
three  animals,  provided  the  space  for  animals  is  2  feet  6  inches 
per  head.  If  space  for  animals  is  more  than  2  feet  6  inches  per 
head,  the  distance  between  stanchions  may  be  changed  accord- 
ingly. Thus,  if  two  cattle  or  horses  are  given  4  feet  each, 
stanchions  may  be  set  at  8-foot  centers  and  driven  tight  between 
the  decks,  securely  braced  with  2  by  3  inch  raking  shores  from 
stanchion  to  stanchion  and  sides  of  ship.  If  one  or  both  decks 
are  of  wood,  then  the  stanchions  may  be  secured  by  cleating 
well  to  one  or  both  decks,  at  heads  and  heels  of  same.  When 
3  by  10  inch  breast  boards  are  used,  4  by  6  inch  stanchions  may 
be  set  at  10-foot  centers. 

Breast  Boards,  Etc. 

Regulation  35.  Breast  boards  may  be  of  1%  by  9%  inch 
lumber  dressed,  or  of  2  by  10  inch  in  the  rough,  of  sound  spruce 
or  hard  pine,  when  stanchions  are  set  at  7  feet  6  inches  for 
3  animals.  In  no  case  will  1^4  inch  dressed,  or  2  by  10  inch 
rough  breast  boards  be  allowed  when  the  distance  between 
centers  of  breast-board  stanchions  is  more  than  8  feet.  Breast 
boards  of  2^/^  inches  by  9%  inches,  dressed,  or  3  by  10  inches  in 
the  rough,  may  be  used  when  stanchions  are  set  at  10-foot  centers 
for  4  animals,  and  the  distance  between  stanchions  to  centers 
will  in  no  case  exceed  10  feet.  Proper  gates  or  openings  in 
breast  boards  must  be  provided  at  convenient  distances,  so  as 
to  allow  animals  to  be  loaded  and  moved  from  pens  when  neces- 
sary. These  must  be  formed  of  breast  board  and  must  be 
properly  cleated  with  wood  or  iron  cleats,  with  stop,  or  chock, 
over  top  of  breast  board  to  prevent  raising.  These  gates  must 
be  on  all  decks  where  animals  are  carried. 


CARRIAGE  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


335 


Troughs 

Regulation  36.  Suitable  troughs  may  be  built  when  required 
for  cattle  on  either  deck,  by  placing  footboard  on  outside  of  front 
stanchions.  When  flooring  is  raised,  the  floor  forms  the  bottom 
of  trough,  the  footboard  the  outside,  and  2  by  3  inch  run  on 
2-inch  edge  on  first  footlock,  and  well  nailed,  forms  inner  side. 
In  'tween  deck  when  footlocks  are  of  1  by  4  inch  for  cows,  etc., 
the  first  footlock  inside  of  breast  board  will  be  2  by  4  inches 
showing  a  5-inch  depth  of  trough. 

When  flooring  is  not  raised  in  stalls,  the  first  section  of  floor- 
ing, or  the  section  between  footboard  and  first  footlock  shall  be 
raised  2  inches,  thus  forming  the  bottom  of  troughs,  then  built 
up  on  first  footlock  to  form  inner  side  of  trough.  Shippers  of 
cattle  may  use  metal  troughs,  when  same  are  desired.  Remov- 
able and  separate  troughs  must  be  used  for  horses.  They  may 
be  of  wood  or  metal,  and  must  have  hooks  for  hanging  same  on 
breast  board.  Suitable  troughs  for  grain  and  water  must  be 
provided  on  three  sides  of  each  sheep,  goat,  or  hog  pen. 

Pens  at  Ends  of  Hatches 

Regulation  37.  When  pens  or  stalls  for  horses  or  cattle  run 
up  to  the  ends  of  hatches,  4  athwartship  boards,  2  inches  thick, 
must  be  placed  to  prevent  animals  from  getting  out  of  such  pens. 
These  boards  must  be  portable.  When  stalls  or  pens  for  horses 
or  cattle  are  built  alongside  of  hatches,  rump  boards  will  be 
carried  down  to  line  of  coaming. 

Protection  from  Heat  of  Boilers  and  Engines 

Regulation  38.  No  animals  shall  be  stowed  along  the  alley- 
ways by  engine  and  boiler  rooms,  unless  the  sides  of  said  engine 
and  boiler  rooms  are  covered  by  a  tongue-and-groove  tight 
sheathing,  making  a  3-inch  air  space. 

Covering  for  Steering  Gear 

Regulation  39.  Raised  flooring  of  2-inch  plank  must  be  placed 
over  steering  gear  when  found  necessary.  This  may  be  made  up 
of  portable  sections  so  as  to  be  easily  removed  in  case  of  acci- 
dent.   It  must,  however,  be  properly  cleated  to  prevent  shifting. 


Sheep,  Pigs,  and  Goats 

Shelter  Deck 

Regulation  40.  A  single  tier  of  sheep,  pigs,  and  goats  may  be 
carried  on  the  shelter  deck.  Stanchions  shall  be  not  less  than 
3  by  4  inch  spruce  or  hard  pine,  set  5-foot  centers,  the  4-inch 

12 


336 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


way  of  stanchions  to  be  set  fore-and-aft,  with  l^/^-inch  shoulder 
to  be  gained  on  stanchions  to  receive  rafters.  Rafters  shall  be 
3  by  4  inch  spruce  or  hard  pine  set  on  3-inch  side,  and  bolted  to 
stanchions  with  %-inch  bolts.  On  open-rail  ships,  the  backs  of 
rail  stanchions  will  be  filled  out  to  flush  with  outside  of  rail,  on 
which  outside  planking  will  be  nailed.  Troughs  must  be  con- 
structed of  3  pieces  of  1  by  6  inch  lumber  nailed  together,  and 
fastened  between  stanchions.  Hayracks  shall  be  made  of  1  by  2 
inch  strips,  placed  fore-and-aft,  and  on  athwartship  partitions. 
One  by  2  inch  strips  will  be  used  for  f ootlocks.  Fronts  and  ends 
of  pens  shall  be  of  1  by  6  inch  spruce  or  hard  pine  and  sufficient 
in  number  properly  to  secure  the  animals  in  the  pens.  Roofing 
and  outside  planking  shall  be  not  less  than  iVg  inches  thick  and 
must  be  tongued  and  grooved.  Double  tiers  of  sheep,  pigs,  or 
goats  may  also  be  carried  on  the  shelter  decks  when  rail  is  of 
sufficient  height  and  strength,  as  for  cattle.  Fittings  shall  be 
of  same  dimensions  as  for  cattle.  Space  must  be  regulated  to 
suit  size  of  animals  to  be  shipped. 

Well  Decks 

Regulation  41,  Single  tiers  of  sheep,  pigs,  or  goats  may  be 
carried  on  well  decks,  the  same  as  on  shelter  deck,  except  on 
ships  with  closed  bulwarks.  Outboard  stanchions  must  be  cut 
at  least  4  inches  higher  than  bulwark,  and  must  be  hook-bolted 
to  rail.  Five-eighths-inch  hook  bolts  must  be  used  for  this 
purpose.  All  stanchions  must  be  not  less  than  3  by  4  inches. 
When  bulwark  is  of  sufficient  height  to  permit  of  rafters  running 
imderneath  the  head  of  rail,  this  will  be  done  by  cutting  out 
iVi  by  4  inches  of  side  of  stanchion  at  that  point,  allowing  same 
to  run  through  to  underneath  the  head,  thus  forming  check  to 
prevent  fittings  lifting.  This  will  bring  roof  of  pens  flush  with 
top  of  bulwark.  An  inner  backing  in  pens  on  these  decks  will  be 
required.  Not  less  than  1-inch  flooring,  raised  2  inches,  will  be 
allowed  on  these  decks. 

Two  tiers  of  sheep,  pigs,  or  goats  may  be  carried  on  well  deck, 
in  fittings  as  for  cattle,  as  per  Regulation  40. 

Under  Deck 

Regulation  42.  When  the  pens  for  sheep,  pigs,  or  goats  in 
under  decks  are  built  for  two  tiers,  stanchions  may  be  of  not  less 
than  3  by  4  inch  good  spruce  or  hard  pine  lumber.  Joists  not 
less  than  3  by  4  inch  spruce  or  hard  pine  must  be  used,  supported 
in  centers  by  2  by  3  inch  pieces  run  from  deck  to  underside  of 
joists,  securely  nailed  to  same.  The  flooring  shall  be  not  less 
than  %-mch  tongue-and-groove  spruce  or  hard  pine  and  1  by  2 
inch  battens  shall  be  laid  fore-and-aft  on  flooring  18  inches 


CARRIAGE  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


337 


apart  to  act  as  footlocks.    Troughs,  hayracks,  fronts  and  ends 
of  pens,  etc.,  will  be  as  provided  in  Regulation  40. 

Ventilation 

Regulation  43.    Each  under-deck  compartment  not  exceeding 

50  feet  in  length  must  have  at  least  four  bell-mouthed  ventilators 

of  not  less  than  18  inches  in  diameter  and  with  tops  exceeding 

7  feet  in  height  above  shelter  deck,  two  situated  at  each  end  of 

the  compartment.    Compartments  over  50  feet  long  must  have 

additional  ventilators  of  the  same  dimensions  or  efficient  fans. 

Animals  must  not  be  placed  at  greater  distance  than  10  feet 

beyond  ventilators. 

Spar  Deck 

Regulation  44.  When  the  fittings  on  the  spar  deck  are  perma- 
nent and  hatches  overhead  are  provided,  the  same  regiilations 
for  ventilation  shall  apply  as  provided  for  under  decks. 

Third  Deck 

Regulation  45.  When  it  is  desired  to  carry  animals  upon  the 
third  deck,  written  permission  must  be  obtained  from  the  in- 
spector of  the  port.  The  vessel  must  be  fitted  as  hereinbefore 
specified,  lighted  with  electric  lights,  and  properly  ventilated. 
One  set  of  ventilators  should  be  trimmed  to  the  wind  and  another 
set  in  the  opposite  direction.  The  ventilators  must  be  tested  and 
kept  in  easy  working  order. 

Hatches 

Regulation  46.  No  cattle,  horses,  sheep,  goats,  or  swine 
shall  be  loaded  upon  hatches  on  decks  above  animals,  nor  shall 
any  merchandise,  freight,  or  feed  for  animals  be  loaded  upon 
said  hatches,  but  said  hatches  shall  at  all  times  be  kept  clear. 

In  loading  animals  upon  exposed  decks,  such  as  bridge,  spar, 
well  decks,  etc.,  where  hatch  coamings  do  not  exceed  2  feet  in 
height  at  center  of  hatch,  animals  may  be  placed  on  hatches, 
provided  that  on  all  hatches  on  upper  decks  sufficient  space  be 
left  clear  so  that  entrance  to  deck  beneath  may  be  possible  at 
all  times.  There  must  also  be  left  clear  on  all  hatches,  under 
which  hay  and  feed  are  stowed,  space  for  the  proper  removal  and 
handling  of  same. 

When  animals  are  carried  in  the  'tween-decks,  animals  may 
be  placed  on  hatches.  In  no  case  will  horses  be  allowed  on 
hatches  when  the  vertical  space  between  beams  or  coamings 
overhead  and  flooring  underfoot  is  less  than  7  feet. 

In  no  case  shall  cattle  be  placed  on  hatches  when  the  vertical 
space  between  beams  or  coamings  overhead  and  flooring  tmder 
foot  is  less  than  5  feet  6  inches. 


I 


f 


338 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


I 


When  animals  are  carried  on  third  or  steerage  deck,  they  may 
be  carried  on  third-deck  hatches. 

In  carrying  animals  on  under-deck  hatches,  sufficient  space 
must  be  left  clear  on  hatches  for  passageway  across  ship,  for 
proper  removal  and  handling  of  hay  and  feed,  and  also  for  brow. 

Lighting 

Regulation  47,  All  vessels  designated  as  cattle  ships  must 
provide  at  all  times  electric  lights  for  the  proper  attending  of  all 
animals. 

Feed  and  Water 

Regulation  48,  All  vessels  not  provided  with  pipes  for  water- 
ing animals  shall  carry  casks  or  hogsheads  of  not  less  than  400 
ga^ons'  total  capacity  for  each  100  head  of  cattle  and  horses,  and 
an  additional  amount  in  equal  proportion  shall  also  be  carried 
for  sheep,  and  these  containers  shall  be  filled  with  fresh  water 
before  sailing  and  refilled  as  emptied.  All  water  tanks  for  use 
of  animals  must  be  filled  with  good,  fresh  water  before  sailing. 

Each  vessel  shall  carry  water  condensers  which  are  in  good 
working  order  and  of  sufficient  capacity  to  provide  8  gallons  of 
fresh,  cold  water  each  24  hours  for  each  head  of  cattle,  in  addition 
to  the  amotmt  required  by  other  animals  on  board  and  for  other 
purposes. 

Regulation  49,  Not  more  than  two  days'  feed  for  the  animals 
shall  be  allowed  to  be  carried  on  the  shelter  deck,  and  no  feed 
shall  be  carried  on  the  shelter  deck  when  same  interferes  with 
the  proper  care  of  sheep;  neither  shall  any  feed  be  stored  on 
top  or  inside  of  sheep  pens.  When  feed,  as  provided  above,  is 
placed  on  the  shelter  deck,  it  must  be  properly  covered  and 
shall  be  the  first  feed  used.  All  other  feed  shall  be  under 
hatches,  and,  so  far  as  possible,  shall  be  placed  in  the  holds 
contiguous  to  the  animals  on  board. 

Attendants 
Employment  and  Character 

Regulation  50.  The  employment  of  all  attendants  shall  be 
subject  to  the  approval  of  the  inspector  of  the  port,  and  men  so 
employed  shall  be  reliable  and  signed  as  a  part  of  the  ship's 
crew  and  under  the  control  of  the  captain  of  the  vessel.  They 
shall  be  furnished  with  heated,  well-lighted,  and  well-ventilated 
quarters  and  with  bedding  and  table  utensils.  Experienced  fore- 
men shall  be  in  charge  of  the  animals,  and  not  less  than  one-half 
of  the  attendants  must  be  experienced  men  who  have  made 
previous  trips  with  stock. 

The  shippers  of  export  animals,  or  their  agents,  shall  make 


CARRIAGE  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


339 


affidavit  concerning  the  character  of  the  attendants.  The 
attendants  shall  be  assembled  a  sufficient  time  before  the  sailing 
of  the  steamer  for  an  employee  of  this  department  to  examine 
them.  The  examination  shall  be  made  before  the  signing  of 
the  ship's  articles  by  the  attendants,  and  any  man  who  fails  to 
conform  to  the  following  conditions  shall  be  rejected:  (1)  The 
men  employed  must  be  able  to  speak  English  sufficiently  to  make 
themselves  understood,  or  to  understand  orders  given  them; 
(2)  they  must  know  for  what  purpose  they  are  employed  and  the 
duties  that  will  be  required  of  them;  (3)  they  must  be  able- 
bodied  and  physically  competent  to  perform  the  duties  required; 
(4)  each  man  entitled  to  return  passage  shall  be  supplied  with 
return  transportation  before  acceptance,  unless  he  informs  the 
inspector  that  he  does  not  wish  to  return.  The  department  has 
no  control  over  the  return  of  attendants.  Inspectors  in  charge 
of  the  ports  are  directed  to  enforce  carefully  the  above-enum- 
erated regulations. 

When  any  attendant  is  fotmd  to  be  incompetent,  intemperate 
or  otherwise  unfit  to  care  for  the  animals  properly,  the  captain 
of  the  vessel  is  requested  to  report  the  facts  to  the  inspector  of 

the  port. 

Cattle  Attendants 

Regulation  51,  There  shall  be  one  attendant  for  each  35  head 
of  cattle,  not  including  foremen,  upon  steamers  having  water 
pipes  extending  the  entire  length  of  both  sides  of  compartments; 
and  upon  steamers  not  so  fitted  there  shall  be  one  attendant  for 
each  25  head  of  cattle  shipped.  Provided,  however ,  That  when 
all  the  attendants  are  experienced  and  capable  men,  there  shall 
be  one  attendant  for  each  50  head  of  cattle  upon  steamers  having 
water  pipes  extending  the  entire  length  of  both  sides  of  com- 
partments, and  not  less  than  3  feet  in  width  of  alleyways,  if  a 
competent  watchman  for  night  duty  for  each  shipper  is  furnished 
in  addition;  and  upon  steamers  not  so  fitted  there  shall  be  one 
experienced  attendant  to  each  35  head  of  cattle  shipped,  together 
with  watchmen  as  provided  above;  except  that  for  fresh  cows 
and  forward  springers  the  number  of  attendants  must  be  in- 
creased in  proportion  to  the  number  of  animals  of  these  classes 
and  there  must  be  not  less  than  one  additional  experienced  at- 
tendant to  each  15  head  of  such  cows. 

Sheep  and  Goat  Attendants 

There  shall  be  one  man  in  charge  of  each  150  head  of  sheep 
and  goats  during  the  winter  season  (October  1  to  April  1),  and 
one  to  each  200  sheep  and  goats  during  the  summer  season. 

Horse  Attendants 
For  horses  there  shall  be  one  attendant  to  each  22  head. 


340 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


Additional  Help 

There  shall  also  be  additional  help  furnished  by  the  captain 
of  the  vessel  when  water  has  to  be  pumped  by  hand. 

Rest,  Loading,  Inspection,  Certificates,  Etc. 

Rest  before  Embarkation 

Regulation  52.  No  vessel  shall  be  permitted  to  take  on  board 
any  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats  imless  the  same  have  been 
allowed  at  least  five  hours'  actual  rest  in  the  yards  at  the  port 
of  embarkation  before  the  vessel  sails,  nor  until  the  loading  of 
the  other  cargo  has  been  completed. 

The  phrase  "  actual  rest "  as  applied  to  live  stock  in  transit 
for  export  must  not  be  interpreted  to  include  any  of  the  time 
occupied  in  unloading  animals  from  the  cars,  or  in  their  inspec- 
tion, handling  and  roping,  or  in  loading  them  on  the  cars  again 
for  transportation  to  steamer. 

All  animals  must  remain  a  sufficient  length  of  time  in  stables 
or  yards  during  daylight  at  the  port  of  embarkation  before  the 
vessel  sails,  for  the  purpose  of  inspection. 

No  vessel  shall  be  permitted  to  take  on  board  any  horses  which 
have  been  shipped  more  than  500  miles  unless  the  same  have 
been  allowed  at  least  18  hours'  actual  rest  in  the  stable  or  stables 
designated  by  the  inspector  for  export  horses  at  the  port  of 
embarkation  before  the  vessel  sails.  Horses  shipped  less  than 
500  miles  shall  remain  in  such  stables  or  yards  as  the  inspector 
may  designate  not  less  than  6  hours  for  the  purpose  of  inspection 
and  rest.  Horses  shall  not  be  placed  upon  steamers  until  the 
loading  of  the  other  cargo  has  been  completed. 

Loading,  Etc. 

Regulation  53.  The  inspector,  or  one  of  his  assistants,  shall 
supervise  the  loading  of  the  animals  and  see  that  they  are 
properly  stowed,  and,  so  far  as  practicable,  tied;  that  a  sufficient 
amount  of  good,  wholesome  feed  is  properly  stowed;  and  that 
all  the  requirements  of  these  regulations  have  been  complied 
with.  In  case  the  regulations  have  not  been  complied  with,  he 
shall  immediately  notify  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry.  In  hot  weather  the  tying  of  the  cattle  may,  in  the 
discretion  of  the  inspector,  be  in  part  omitted  until  after  the 
steamer  has  cleared  and  is  in  motion. 

Certificates  of  Inspection 

Regulation  54.  The  inspector  at  the  port  of  shipment  shall 
issue  certificate  of  inspection  for  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats, 
which  are  to  be  exported  to  any  foreign  coimtry,  unless  the 


CARRIAGE  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


341 


Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  have  waived  the  requirement  for 
such  certificate  of  inspection  for  export  to  the  particular  country 
to  which  such  animals  are  to  be  shipped.  Each  certificate  shall 
cite  the  name  of  the  shipper,  the  name  of  the  consig^iee,  and  the 
destination.  The  certificates  shall  be  issued  in  serial  numbers; 
only  one  certificate  shall  be  issued  for  each  consignment,  unless 
otherwise  directed  by  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 
The  certificates  shall  be  delivered  to  the  chief  officer  of  the 
vessel  upon  which  said  consignment  of  live  stock  is  to  be  trans- 
ported after  the  loading  and  stowing  is  completed,  and  continue 
with  the  shipment  to  destination,  where  it  may  be  delivered  to 
the  consignee. 

Defective  Fittings 

Regulation  55.  The  inspector  may,  in  case  he  finds  that  any 
of  the  fittings  are  worn,  decayed,  defective  in  construction,  or 
appear  to  be  unsound,  require  the  same  to  be  replaced  before 
he  authorizes  the  clearance  of  the  vessel. 

Cleansing  of  False  Decks  and  Temporary  Troughs 

Regulation  56.  False  decks  upon  which  live  stock  are  loaded 
and  temporary  feed  troughs  must  be  removed  and  the  manure 
and  dirt  cleaned  from  underneath  and  disinfected  before  receiv- 
ing another  load  of  live  stock. 

Headropes,  Etc. 

Regulation  57.  Cattle  shall  be  tied  with  s^-inch  rope,  which 
shall  not  be  used  more  than  once,  and  must  be  either  manila  or 
sisal. 

All  headropes,  halters,  blankets,  stable  utensils,  feed  bags 
and  feed  troughs,  if  returned  to  this  country,  must  be  disinfected 
under  the  supervision  of  the  inspector  of  the  port  unless  an 
affidavit  is  furnished  by  the  captain  of  the  vessel  that  the  same 
have  been  disinfected,  describing  the  manner  of  disinfection, 
or  unless  such  affidavit  is  furnished  by  the  proper  official  at  the 
port  where  the  animals  are  unloaded. 

Injured  Animals 

Regulation  58.  Animals  suffering  from  broken  legs  or  other 
serious  injuries  during  the  voyage  shall  be  slaughtered  by 
direction  of  the  Captain  of  the  vessel. 


342 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 

Markings  of  Valves  Generally  Adopted  on 
American  Tankers 


Live  Steam  Valves 


Bright  Red. 


Exhaust  Steam  Valves 


Blue. 


Master  Cargo  Valves 


Yellow, 


Starboard  Cargo  Line  Valves     Green  Center  and 

Yellow  Border. 


Port  Cargo  Line  Valves 


Red   Center    and 
Yellow  Border. 


Bunker  Fuel  Oil  Valves 


Black. 


Sea  Water  Valves 


Green. 


Fresh  Water  Valves 


White. 


Emergency  Valves  Half  Bright    Red 

and  Half  Black. 

Note. — All  valve  wheels  to  follow  this  system, 
in  Pump  Room^  Engine  Roomy  and  on  Deck. 


CHAPTER  11 


THE  TANKER 


The  Action  of  Tank  Vessels 

The  carriage  of  bulk  oil  in  tank  vessels  has  now  become  of 
immense  importance  and  this  type  of  craft  is  increasing  in  size 
(20,300  D.W.  tankers  are  building)  and  many  important  rules 
for  the  handling  of  this  special  cargo  have  been  evolved. 

In  the  first  place,  masters  taking  charge  of  an  oil  tank  vessel 
for  the  first  time  should  be  watchful  of  certain  peculiarities  due 
to  the  fluid  nattire  of  the  cargo.  At  the  present  time  much 
study  is  being  given  to  the  apparent  differences  in  the  behavior  of 
vessels  of  similar  size  and  tonnage  when  loaded  with  fluid  cargo 
and  with  solid  cargo.  It  is  claimed  that  the  tank  vessel,  full 
loaded,  is  more  sluggish  in  a  seaway  than  other  ships.  It  has 
been  said  that  vessels  loaded  with  oil  are  more  liable  to  drag 
their  anchors,  and  that,  due  to  the  peculiar  inertia  caused  by 
the  fluid  nature  of  the  cargo  (with  tanks  full)  where  the  molectdes 
of  oil  have  a  circulation  and  movement  within  their  own  con- 
fined mass,  greater  stress  is  put  on  rudder  stocks,  etc.,  resulting 
in  a  higher  percentage  of  breakage  on  tank  vessels. 

The  Nautical  Gazette  in  a  recent  issue  discusses  the  matter 
as  f ollow^s : 

"  Among  the  things  which  Solomon  confessed  he  could  not 
understand  was  the  way  of  a  ship  in  the  sea.  While  a  good  deal 
of  maritime  knowledge  has  been  gained  since  Solomon's  time, 
shipbuilders  and  ship  operators  have  still  something  to  learn  as 
to  the  ways  of  vessels  when  they  breast  the  waves. 

"  At  the  present  time  research  work  is  going  on  in  various  parts 
of  the  world  as  to  the  behavior  of  tankers  in  a  seaway.  Certain 
puzzling  phenomena  have  been  observed  in  connection  with  them, 
which,  so  far,  have  not  been  explained  on  a  scientific  basis. 
Frequently  tankers  are  said  by  shipping  men  to  be  *  sluggish.' 
In  other  words,  they  fail  to  rise  and  fall  with  the  same  readiness 
as  do  other  vessels. 

343 


344 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


THE  TANKER 


345 


f- 


-> 


\ 


^ 


c 
•S 

CO 

03 


"Again  there  appears  to  be  no 
doubt  that  a  tanker  gathers  more 
momentum  than  a  ship  in  which  the 
cargo  is  a  general  one.  When  a 
tanker  rams  another  vessel,  the 
smash  is  usually  more  serious  than 
if  an  ordinary  freighter  had  done 
the  damage.  These  various  phe- 
nomena are  tmder stood  to  result 
from  the  fact  that  a  tanker's  cargo 
is  in  a  fluid  state  and  in  a  constant 
condition  of  circulation." 


n 

Subdivision  of  Hull 

In  the  modern  American  tanker 
there  are  usually  from  eight  to  ten 
tanks  divided  into  port  and  star- 
board compartments  by  a  continu- 
ous longitudinal  oil  tight  bulkhead. 
Some  of  the  largest  British  tankers 
are  divided  into  twelve  tank  com- 
partments. The  San  Fernando^ 
one  of  the  latest  built  by  Messers 
Armstrong,  Whitworth  and  Com- 
pany being  of  18,550  tons  D.W.* 

*  The  steamship  San  Florentino^  the 
latest  addition  to  the  fleet  of  the  Eagle  Oil 
Transport  Co.,  successfully  underwent  her 
speed  and  other  tests  off  the  mouth  of  the 
T3nie  (1920),  an  average  speed  of  11.4 
knots  per  hour  being  accomplished.  The 
San  Florentino  carries  a  deadweight  of 
18,000  tons.  She  is  530  feet  in  length 
and  68  feet  5  inches  in  width. 

Four-and-a-half  miles  of  oil  pipes  are 
fitted  in  the  vessel,  and  these  are  so  ar- 
ranged that  four  different  grades  of  oil 
can  be  either  loaded  or  discharged  simul- 
taneously without  becoming  mixed.  The 
after  and  forward  pump  rooms  are  each 
fitted  with  two  powerful  duplex  piunps  ca- 


Further  subdivision  athwartship  is  made  by  the  pump  room, 
located  near  the  middle  of  the  tanks  in  American  practice.*  In 
the  largest  British  tankers  two  piunp  rooms  divide  the  tanks 
into  three  sections. 

The  cofferdams,  parallel  cross  bulkheads,  are  placed  aft  be- 
tween the  fuel  bunker  and  the  aftermost  oil  cargo  compartment, 
and  forward  between  the  dry  cargo  hold  and  the  forward  tank. 

Sometimes  a  cofferdam  is  placed  between  the  tanks  amid- 
ships, and  in  this  design  it  is  necessary  to  have  two  pump 
rooms  located  in  the  middle  of  the  two  sections  of  tanks. 

The  fore  hold  is  designed  for  the  carriage  of  dry  freight  usually 
over  a  deep  tank  for  reserve  fuel  oil,  additional  cargo  oil,  or 
water  ballast.  This  is  in  fact  a  huge  forward  trimming  tank  and 
is  useftd  in  maintaining  a  balance  between  the  engines  and 
bunkers  placed  far  aft. 

Cofferdams,  These  are  peculiar  to  oil  tank  vessels,  and  are 
of  oil  tight  construction.  It  must  be  understood  that  a  water- 
tight bulkhead  is  not  necessarily  oil-tight.  An  oil  tight  bulkhead 
calls  for  the  most  careful  close-spaced  riveting,  all  rivet  holes 
being  absolutely  fair  and  completely  filled. 

The  forward  cofferdam  is  usually  left  empty,  as  tankers  when 
loaded  generally  trim  by  the  head,  though  at  times  it  may  be 
used  for  the  carriage  of  additional  fuel  oil  when  on  a  long  voyage, 
and  some  advocate  that  it  be  filled  with  water. 

The  space  between  cofferdam  bulkheads  in  ships  of  transverse 
framing  is  two  frames,  and  when  the  vessel  is  built  on  the 

pable  of  discharging  300  tons  of  oil  an  hour.  The  main  suction  pipes  are  10 
inches  and  the  discharge  pipes  8  inches  in  diameter.  Suctions  are  fitted 
closely  to'the  center  line  of  the  ship  to  enable  the  tanks  to  be  thoroughly 
drained. 

For  discharging  the  oil  there  are  nine  outlets  on  each  side  of  the  ship. 
The  propelling  engines  consist  of  a  set  of  compound-geared  turbines  of  the 
Brown-Curtiss  type,  working  a  single  propeller.  The  turbines  work  in  series, 
but  their  connections  are  so  arranged  that  they  can  each  run  independently 
and  be  coupled  to  gearing  to  operate  the  propeller.  In  the  casings  of  the 
main  turbines  there  are  incorporated  astern  turbines  capable  of  giving  not 
less  than  60  per  cent,  of  the  total  power  for  driving  the  ship  ahead.  Oil  fuel 
burning  apparatus  is  fitted  to  the  boilers,  which  are  cylindrical  and  five  in 
ntunber.    The  working  pressure  is  220  pounds  per  square  inch. 

*  The  pump  room  is  often  located  forward  of  the  tanks  and  in  some  vessels 
is  placed  aft,  just  forward  of  the  fuel  tank. 


I 


346 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Isherwood  system  of  longitudinal  framing  these  bulkheads  are 
spaced  from  33^  to  5  feet  apart. 

Just  forward  of  this  cofferdam  is  located  a  small  pump  room 
for  serving  the  deep  tank  under  the  cargo  hold.  This  pump 
room  usually  carries  a  fuel-oil  transfer  pump  for  sending  fuel 
oil  aft  when  same  is  being  used  from  the  forward  tank. 


Upper 
Deck\ 


,'She/ferDeck 

I 
I 

L  [Cross  Bunker 


Bof  torn  of  Summer  Tanks  >, 
Pump  Room* 


"        '   I 


She  Her  Deck; 


i'  Fore  Pea kt 


^- 


Engines' 


Cofferdam 


Boilers' 


Pump  Room •-''' 


V^ 


'Deep  Tank 
■fore  Hold 


In  American  practice  the  tanks  are  numbered  from  forward 
aft,  as  in  the  case  of  cargo  holds.  The  British  practice  is  to 
number  them  from  aft  forward.  Thus  we  have  No.  1  starboard, 
and  No.  1  port,  beginning  abaft  the  forward  cofiferdam. 

In  a  ten  tank  vessel  the  pump  room  will  generally  be  located 
between  No.  5  and  No.  6  tanks.  In  some  vessels  it  is  aft,  just 
forward  of  the  bunker  space. 

Abaft  of  No.  10  tank  (in  a  ten-tank  vessel)  is  the  after  coffer- 
dam, built  and  spaced  as  forward.  Where  napthalene  or  other 
dangerous  oils  are  being  carried  this  cofferdam  will  usually  be 
filled  with  water. 

Bunker.  The  bunker  extends  across  the  vessel  abaft  the 
after  cofferdam,  following  the  general  arrangement  of  the  tanks 
with  wing  bunkers  abaft  of  the  cross  bunker,  and  the  usual 
expansion  trunk  and  summer  tanks  above. 

The  bunker  may  also  be  used  for  the  carriage  of  coal,  when 
coal  fuel  must  be  used.  Also,  when  going  light,  a  tank  vessel 
may  bunker  from  her  forward  tank  and  may  fill  the  fore  hold 
with  light  dry  cargo. 


THE  TANKER 


m 


347 


Pump  Room 

The  Standard  Oil  Company,  and  many  of  the  other  large 
tanker  operators,  place  the  Chief  Mate  in  full  charge  of  the 
entire  cargo  pipe  lines,  valves,  pump  rooms,  etc.  The  pump- 
men work  under  his  direction.  Repairs  are  attended  to  by  the 
Chief  Engineer. 

This  places  the  operation  of  loading  and  dischargmg  under 
control  of  the  Master,  through  the  Chief  Mate. 

When  loading  or  discharging,  the  officer  in  charge  of  the 
deck  must  watch  his  trim  and  his  lines,  having  careful  con- 
sideration of  the  state  of  the  tide,  and  he  must  be  ready  to  pass 
his  orders  to  the  man  in  charge  of  the  pumps. 


Deck  hading  and  discharging 
can  be  shif 
taken  ahwn. 


/  pipes  can  be  shif fedifo  here) 
\also 


PoriMain!  Pump    Room  -.  Sfbd Main 

Pipeline  Pipeline 

Section  through  pump  room. 

The  pump  room  generally  contains  two  large  cargo  pumps,  one 
to  port  and  the  other  to  starboard. 

Crossover  pipes  are  fitted  between  the  two  main  pipe  lines 
and  these  are  controlled  by  master  valves  usually  operated  from 
the  shelter  deck. 

In  the  latest  practice  the  suction  valves  are  actuated  only 


I 


i 

« 


m 


348 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


from  the  deck,  but  the  transfering  valves  are  operated  only 
from  the  pump  room  and  are  under  the  sole  control  of  the 
pump-room  engineers. 

IV 

Pipe  Lines. 

While  the  arrangement  on  different  tank  vessels  will  vary  the 
general  principle  governing  the  piping  on  all  of  them  may  be 
laid  down  and  an  officer  joining  one  of  these  vessels  will  study 
her  piping  plan  and  will  trace  out  the  lines  and  the  location  of 
valves  as  a  matter  of  course. 

The  two  main  pipe  lines  are  the  starboard  and  port  pipe  lines 
running  fore  and  aft  from  the  pump  rooms  and  serving  the 
various  tanks,  first  by  direct  suction  or  delivery  to  the  tanks 
located  on  the  side  of  each  line,  second  by  cross  suctions  into 
the  tank  on  the  opposite  side.  These  lines  are  of  large  pipe 
8''  to  14"  in  diameter. 


,Aff    Cofferdam      y'Porf  Tanks  ^, 


fPump  Room 


Fore  Cofferdam  \ 


a. 


I 


Q, 


Q. 
r- 


BS 


to 


Co 


t2 


D; 


a. 


a. 


"TQ 


Di 


to 


I 


a. 


1 


"-^Bunker 


Boilers 


•  I        ^^Pump  Room 

''Sfarboard  Tanks ' 

Diagram  of  main  pipe  lines. 


Fore  Hold'' 


Therefore  we  have  in  No.  1  tank.  Starboard  line.  No.  1  star- 
board suction,  starboard  line,  and  No.  1  port  suction,  starboard 
line. 

This  arrangement  holds  throughout  the  system  in  all  tanks. 

Therefore  remember  that  four  prime  suctions  are  located  in 
each  tank,  viz :  Starboard  line ;  Starboard  suction.  Port  suc- 
tion. Port  line;  Port  suction.  Starboard  suction. 

In  special  tankers  designed  to  carry  different  grades  of  oil, 
cofferdams  ar^  placed  between  groups  of  main  tanks  and  each 
group  may  have  an  indepei;ident  system  of  piping. 

Some  designs  carry  large  crossover  pipes  at  the  ends  of  the 
main  lines  in  the  extreme  forward  and  after  tanks,  but  many 


THE  TANKER 


349 


authorities  do  not  consider  this  necessary  where  double  suctions 
are  fitted  in  each  tank. 

Stripping  Lines  are  2"  to  6"  pipe  lines  for  clearing  tanks, 
these  do  not  generally  have  bell  mouthed  suctions.  They  dis- 
charge into  main  pipe  lines  or  overboard  on  either  side.  Sepa- 
rate pumps  are  provided. 

V 

Valves 

Gate  valves  are  fitted  at  the  ends  of  the  suction  pipes  leading 
into  the  tanks,  these  gates  are  worked  from  the  shelter  deck,  in 
vessels  of  that  tjrpe,  and  are  opened  and  closed  by  means  of 
long  rods  running  up  to  the  deck  through  proper  stuffing  boxes. 

Sometimes  cross  or  angle  valves  are  used  to  obtain  better 
drainage. 

The  construction  of  a  gate  valve  should  be  familiar  to  the 
modern  officer  so  we  will  not  go  into  this  further  than  to  describe 
it  as  a  metal  door  lifting  into  a  recess  when  open  and  shutting 
down  across  the  orifice  of  the  pipe  when  closed. 

il'h'ShelRod 


<t 


CarqoTank 


^ 


Cargo Tank 


^.'C 


I  fl«  I 


IO"Pipe 


T 


Cargo  Tank 


^ 


.B 


Carqo 
.  Tank 
•A    *) 


41 


Pump  Room 


'^WBellMoufhSuciion 
Diagram  of  valve  connections.    Longitudinal  section 


Cofferdam^ 


It  is  important  to  know  that  the  suctions  in  all  tanks  are  located 
at  the  after  ends  of  the  compartments  and  when  discharging  it 
is  well  to  have  the  vessel  trimmed  by  the  stern.*  To  this  end 
watch  the  trim  and  empty  the  forward  tanks  first  if  possible. 

Also,  to  completely  drain  tanks  the  vessel  must  be  given  a 
list  to  port  when  cleaning  out  the  starboard  tanks,  and  vice 
versay  as  the  suctions  are  close  to  the  midship  bulkhead. 

*  Tank  barges  generally  have  suctions  forward. 


I 


HI 


350 


iHi 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Suctions  are  generally  bell  mouthed  and  are  sometimes  fitted 
with  strainers,  and  it  is  important  that  these  be  clean  before 
taking  oil  on  board.  The  bell  mouths  are  about  %"  above  tank 
bottoms. 

Master  valves.  These  are  gate  or  sluice  valves  (same  thing) 
situated  on  the  main  pipe  line  itself  in  order  that  different  com- 
partments may  be  worked  as  required. 

Valve  Opera  iincf  Rods 


Drop  Valve 
'      Rod 


'Crossover  Valve 
Sfarhd  Side  only 


Summer 


''     Tank 


Expar?5ion 
Trunk 


Cross  Over 
Valve  Stem 


^^^Drop  Valve 


Main  Tank 


Main  Pipe  -^--—^ 
Lines 


Summer 
Tank 


Main  Tank 


Cross  Over  Line  (Doffed) 


BeilMouffied 
Tank  Sue  f  ions 


Nofe:-     ■ 

Opera  fing  Rods  only  sfiown  on  one  Side 

Diagram  of  valve  connections  thwart  ship  section. 

Caution.  Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  use  of  valves. 
Study  the  system,  be  certain  you  know  what  you  are  about. 
The  general  practice  is  to  paint  valves  according  to  the  color 
chart.  This  system  is  in  use  by  the  vessels  of  the  Standard  Oil 
Co.  and  on  many  other  tank  vessels.    See  page  342. 

In  addition  to  the  colors,  each  valve  should  have  a  brass  plate 
screwed  down  on  deck  alongside  of  the  spindle  stating  clearing 


THE  TANKER 


351 


its  function.  Enow  at  once  whether  a  valve  is  open  or  closed. 
Be  certain  about  this  and  do  not  be  afraid  to  ask  questions  if 
need  be.  Valves  should  be  fitted  with  an  indicator  showing 
whether  opened  or  closed. 

Air  valves.    Each  tank  carries  an  air  valve  for  each  side. 

Air  lines,  served  by  blowers,  are  fitted  to  clear  tanks  of  gas 
when  emptied. 

Steam  valves.  Each  tank  carries  steam  valves  for  the  heating 
coils  and  steam  smothering  lines. 

Steam  lines,  serve  coils  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  much 
after  the  fashion  of  a  radiator,  and  in  fact  on  the  same  principle. 
These  coils  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  cargo  fluid. 
Where  Mexican  crude  oil  is  carried  it  should  not  be  allowed  to 
cool  down,  as  it  will  if  the  vessel  proceeds  northward  into  winter 
weather.  The  transference  of  temperature  through  the  sides  of 
a  steel  tank  vessel  is  rapid  and  must  be  taken  into  consideration. 
For  this  reason  the  sea  temperature  must  be  carefully  ob- 
served. The  lighter  oils  are  more  quickly  cooled  than  the  heavy 
ones. 

Caution,  When  oil  is  heated  the  most  careful  handling  of 
steam  and  exhaust  valves  is  necessary  to  prevent  blowing  steam 
through  too  fast  or  of  breaking  coils  by  water  hammer  (the 
pounding  of  condensed  water)  in  the  coils. 

Note:  Heater  coils  should  have  test  cocks  in  return  lines  to 
show  whether  coils  are  leaking  and  oil  going  back  to  boilers. 
Coils  return  to  inspection  tank  in  engine  room. 

American  valves  are  all  right-handed.  British  practice  is  to 
fit  left-handed  valves. 

In  any  ship  the  valves  should  all  be  the  same.  This  is  most 
important. 

Valve  rods  in  tanks  have  a  sliding  fork  connected  to  valve 
stem  so  that  rod  does  not  rise  and  fall  with  stem  of  valve.  Col- 
lars are  fitted  to  take  the  weight  of  the  rod,  and  lignum  vitae 
guides  are  fitted  in  the  tanks. 


13 


1 


352 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


THE  TANKER 


353 


It 


VI 

Hatches 

Hatches  on  a  tanker  are  comparatively  small  and  are  placed 
in  groups  of  four  close  to  the  crossing  of  thwartship  and  fore  and 
aft  bulkheads.  These  hatches  are  usually  edged  by  a  coaming 
extending  6  inches  to  30  inches  above  the  deck  and  are  closed  by  a 


AfhwartShip 
V<^  Bulkhead 


.WL 


Trunk  Bulkhead' 


Centre  Line 
Bulkheoid] 

t 

k 


Trunk  Bulkhead  -- 


'i^Main 
Tank 
Hatches 


' 


V- 


-© 


^ 

»  j 

'^Summer  Tank  \ 
Hatch 


L 


V  =  Vent  Holes 
Tanker  hatches.     Vents  should  befitted  with  copper  wire  gauze, 

steel  plate  resting  on  a  gasket  of  plaited  hemp  or  asbestos 
(rubber  rots)  and  screwed  down  by  dogs,  much  as  a  watertight 
door  is  held  in  position. 

Hatches  are  also  held  shut  by  brass  nuts  and  steel  bolts. 

Tanker  hatches  should  be  fitted  with  mechanical  lifting  means, 
falls  or  gears;  they  should  never  be  lifted  by  hand.    Hatches 


are  hinged  and  are  fitted  with  rest  rods.    Hatches  are  small, 
about  6'  X  4'  on  main  tanks,  4'  x  2Vi'  on  summer  tanks. 

Hatches  should  also  be  fitted  with  a  smaller  oil-tight  cover, 
hinged  so  that  ullages*  may  be  taken  without  lifting  the  entire 
hatch. 

Vents.  Each  hatch  is  also  fitted  with  an  air  hole,  or  sight 
hole,  that  must  be  unplugged  when  loading  or  discharging  so 
that  the  air  may  escape  or  enter  the  tank  as  the  oil  level  is 
changing.  Vents  and  ullage  holes  are  generally  the  same  being 
used  for  both  purposes. 

Other  vents  running  through  four  inch  pipes  should  be  fitted 
to  tanks  with  a  gooseneck  or  automatic  relief  valve  at  the  top  and 
the  ends  should  be  covered 
with  copper  wire  gauze. 

The  automatic  relief  valves 
are  also  known  as  pressure  and 
vacuum  valves  —  and  work 
both  ways.  They  will  not  ad- 
mit sea  water. 

vn 

The  Mooring  Lines  and  Hose 

Oil  being  a  quick  cargo,  the 
usual  precautions  with  respect 
to  mooring  lines,  gangways, 
hose  connection,  etc.,  should  be 
observed. 

Hose  is  usually  carried  over 
a  curved  saddle.  At  exposed 
anchorages  hose  is  fastened 
with  clamps.  Keep  a  maul 
ready  to  knock  off  clamps  if 
necessary. 

Prevent  hose  from  chafing. 


Pump  - 
Method  of  slinging  hose. 


vin 

Expansion  Trunks 

As  in  the  case  of  grain  cargoes,  the  carriage  of  oil  in  tanks  is 
made  more  safe  by  the  construction  of  a  trunkway  above  the 
*  An  ullage  tank  is  a  tank  partly  filled,  also  called  a  slack  tank. 


^ 

i 


354 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


main  cargo  tanks.  This  expansion  trunk,  as  it  is  called  narrows 
down  the  upper  level  of  the  oil  and  as  the  oil  expands  and  con- 
tracts (1/20  of  one  per  cent,  for  each  degree  F.  change  in  tem- 
perature) the  lower  tank  remains  filled,  and  the  live  surface  of 
the  oil  is  confined  in  its  motion. 

Oil  being  a  live  loady  it  would  be  extremely  dangerous  to  have 
tanks  rising  their  full  width  with  the  resultant  disruptive  force 
of  the  free  fluid  acting  against  the  bulkheads  as  the  vessel 
moved  in  a  seaway. 

Another  method  of  avoiding  this  is  to  make  use  of  upright 
cylindrical  tanks.  This  method  is  most  often  used  where  regular 
cargo  carriers  are  transformed  into  tankers,  or  where  a  part  of 
the  vessel  is  used  for  bulk  oil  and  the  remainder  for  dry  cargo. 
In  the  regular  tanker  (to  which  we  must  confine  our  state- 
ments) the  space  on  either  side  of  the  trunk  is  occupied  by  the 
summer  tankSy  separate  wing  tanks. 

These  tanks  may  be  longer  than  the  main  tanks,  extending 
across  the  tops  of  two  of  the  lower  tanks.  Summer  tanks  should 
never  extend  across  the  pump  rooms. 

As  oil  in  the  main  tanks  may  not  bring  a  vessel  down  to  her 
marks,  these  summer  tanks  are  then  utilized,  either  for  addi- 
tional oil,  or  for  other  cargo. 

The  summer  tanks  have  their  own  hatches,  and  are  fitted  with 
separate  pipe  lines.  Sometimes  these  tanks  are  only  fitted  with 
drop  valves y  to  drop  the  oil  into  the  lower  tanks  when  dis- 
charging. 

The  expansion  trunks  are  never  filled  but  the  oil  is  generally 
carried  four  to  six  feet  up  in  the  trunk.  The  empty  portion  of 
the  trunk  is  the  ullage. 

Summer  tanks  are  often  designed  for  the  carriage  of  dry 
cargo  where  light  oils  are  taken  in  the  main  tanks  and  the 
vessel  has  sufficient  buoyancy  for  extra  freight. 

Where  the  stunmer  tanks  are  used  for  the  carriage  of  oil, 
the  hatch  opening  forms  the  expansion  trunk  for  the  tank,  as  it  is 
important  that  all  tanks  be  full  to  avoid  the  swash  of  the  oil. 

The  summer  tanks  are  usually  served  by  a  6"  line  and  by 
adhering  to  this  line  of  pipe  for  filling  different  grades  of  oil 
may  be  safely  loaded  and  discharged. 

When  extra  fuel  oil  is  carried  in  the  stmimer  tanks,  the  tanks 
so  utilized  must  be  disconnected  from  the  cargo  pumps. 


THE  TANKER 


355 


Where  summer  tanks  have  no  separate  system  of  pipes,  they 
can  only  be  filled  to  the  level  of  the  trunk  oil,  by  opening  the 
drop  valves  when  filling  lower  tanks,  allowing  the  oil  to  rise  into 
the  summer  tanks.  The  summer  tanks  should  then  be  so  con- 
structed that  they  will  be  filUd  when  this  occurs. 

Summer  tanks  are  sometimes  fitted  with  heating  coils,  and 
should  also  be  fitted  with  air  pipes  to  drive  out  the  gas.  As 
many  are  without  air  pipes j  officers  should  take  this  into  account 
when  sending  men  into  the  tanks. 

IX 

Important  Points 

1.  When  loading  or  discharging  two  different  grades  of  oil  at 
once  utmost  care  must  be  used  to  prevent  mixing.  Valves 
should  be  set  and  then  checked  by  a  second  person  before 
starting  to  move  the  oil.    Remember  this — Avoid  mixing. 

2.  When  a  tank  is  finished  (empty)  the  pumps  should  be 
stopped,  valves  set  and  checked  before  starting  another  tank. 

3.  When  loading,  as  a  tank  becomes  nearly  full,  the  shore  pump 
must  be  slowed  down  to  "top  off"  to  required  level. 

4.  When  full,  the  shore  pump  must  be  stopped  while  valves 
are  set  and  checked  for  next  tank. 

5.  Never  start  the  pumps,  ashore  or  aboard,  without  making 
doubly  sure  there  is  no  valve  closed  or  other  obstruction  in  the 
line  which  might  burst  it.  Always  watch  the  discharge  pressure 
gauge.  If  it  goes  up,  shut  off  pump  at  once  until  cause  is 
determined. 

6.  When  handling  oil  cargo  display  a  red  flag  ( B )  or  red  light 
between  the  fore  and  main  masts. 

Deck  delivery  line.  This  is  the  line  rising  from  the  main 
cargo  pumps  connecting  to  the  pipe  line  on  deck. 

When  loading  through  the  deck  lines,  using  the  shore  pressure, 
the  oil  is  sent  through  a  by-pass  around  the  pump  on  board 
ship  and  into  the  main  pump  line  direct. 

The  sea  delivery  line.  This  line  runs  from  the  main  pump 
to  the  ships  side.  Two  valves  control  this  line,  the  outer  sea 
valve  next  to  the  ship's  side,  and  the  inner  sea  valve  next  to 
the  pump. 


I  i 


t 


i 


U"& 


356 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


Caution.  Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  discharge  ballast 
through  the  sea  delivery  line  while  cargo  is  bemg  loaded  in 
another  part  of  the  vessel.  This  is  seldom  done,  but  when 
necessary  great  care  should  be  taken  that  the  correct  valves  are 
opened  and  closed. 

Bilge  suctions.  The  pump  room  has  two  bilge  suction  pipes, 
these  being  the  only  bilges  in  the  vessel,  except  forward  and 
aft  of  the  oil  tanks.  Either  an  independent  bilge  pump  is  fitted, 
or  extra  suctions  are  connected  to  the  cargo  pumps.  In  either 
case  the  bUge  pumping  should  be  controlled  by  rods  from  the 
deck,  in  case  a  pipe  breaks  and  floods  the  pump  room.  This 
may  happen  very  quickly  as  the  space  is  comparatively  small. 
Pump-room  ladders  should  at  all  times  be  kept  clear. 

Barge  delivery  pipe.  This  is  a  branch  pipe  running  through 
the  ships  side  just  above  the  load  wateliner.  Oil  can  be  dis- 
charged into  barges  without  lifting  it  up  over  the  deck. 

Control  of  steam  valves.  The  steam  valves  of  all  cargo 
pumps  should  be  controlled  from  the  deck. 

Signals.  A  bell-pull  should  be  fitted  from  the  deck  to  the 
pump  room  to  signal  orders  when  loading  and  discharging. 

Captain  G.  M.  Brodthage,  conmiandmg  the  oil  tanker  Halsey, 
has  kindly  given  me  the  following  practical  notes  on  the  pumping 
out  of  tanks. 

"We  carry  crude  oil  from  Mexican  ports  to  Bayonne,  N.  J., 
taking  our  cargo  on  board  at  a  temperature  of  about  82°  F. 
Twenty-four  hours  before  making  our  discharging  port  we  start 
the  heater  coils  and  bring  the  temperature  to  about  75°  F. 

"  In  pumping  out  tanks  carrying  crude  oil  difficulty  is  often 
experienced  in  completely  emptying  them.  The  heating  coils, 
lying  above  the  frames,  may  be  three  feet  from  the  bottom  of  the 
tanks.  In  cold  weather  when  the  oil  drops  below  the  coils  it 
may  cool  off  to  a  point  where  the  pumps  are  no  longer  able  to 
take  It  out.  This  is  specially  so  m  the  case  of  oU  with  grit,  or 
other  heavy  impurities,  which  have  settled  to  the  bottom. 

I  have  found  it  a  good  practice  to  stop  pumping  in  these 
tanks  when  the  oil  is  a  few  inches  above  the  coils  and  to  go  on 
with  the  pumping  out  of  other  tanks  leaving  the  almost  empty 
taiik  heat  up  to  about  a  hundred  degrees.  When  the  residual 
oil  IS  warm  it  is  possible  to  get  it  aU  out  without  trouble  as  it 
holds  Its  heat  until  the  stripping  lines  suck. 

"Unless  this  is  done  a  vessel  may  carry  out  with  her  from  two 
hundred  to  three  hundred  barrels  of  oil  lying  cold  below  the  coils 
dependmg,  of  course,  on  the  size  of  the  tanks,  height  of  coils,  etc." 


THE  TANKER 


357 


A  small  steam  jet  is  sometimes  used  when  oil  is  being  heated 
to  expel  gases  rising  from  above  the  surface  of  the  oil. 

Keep  test  hatches  covered.  Keep  all  screens  in  vents  clear. 
Allow  no  visitors  on  board  unless  under  proper  supervision. 

The  heating  of  oil  is  being  investigated.  A  method  of  heating 
oil  outside  of  the  tanks,  passing  the  warm  oil  back  into  the  tanks 
is  bemg  developed.  This  does  away  with  the  troublesome  heat- 
ing coils.    This  is  the  Row  &  Davis  system. 

When  changing  grade  of  oil  discharge,  blow  out  hose. 

X 

Ballasting  a  Tanker 

As  tankers,  strictly  speaking,  are  one  way  carriers,  the  question 
of  ballast  and  trim  is  of  much  importance. 

Some  authorities  recommend  the  use  of  one  main  pipe  line 
for  cargo,  and  the  other  for  ballast  (Herbert  John  White,  in 
Oil  Tank  Steamers)  but  the  best  American  practice  calls  for  the 
use  of  both  pump  lines  in  discharging  in  order  to  cut  down  the 

"  turn  around." 

The  number  of  tanks  to  be  loaded  with  "  ballast "  depends 
upon  the  trade  and  the  season  of  the  year.  Weather  conditions 
along  the  route  should  be  known  and  the  vessel  managed 
accordingly.  The  carriage  of  excess  water  cost  time  and  money, 
while  too  little  will  cause  delays  and  may  even  endanger  the 
vessel.  One  advantage,  however,  is  the  fact  that  extra  ballast 
can  be  taken  on,  and  excess  ballast  discharged  almost  at  will 
as  there  is  an  ample  supply  at  hand  just  over  the  side. 
Always  ballast  in  alternate  tanks  while  on  a  "  ballast  passage." 
When  running  with  ballast  have  the  empty  holds  carefully 
inspected  by  the  officers  for  leaks.  The  vessel  in  a  seaway  will 
show  up  leaks  in  the  bulkheads.  These  should  be  caulked,  if 
possible,  and  if  not  the  leaks  should  be  marked  and  reported  for 
attention  when  in  port  on  overhaul.    Also  examine  all  pipes  and 

valves. 

Once  during  the  passage,  if  time  permits,  transfer  the  ballast 
and  examine  the  holds  previously  filled  with  water.  Empty 
tanks  should  be  "  steamed  "  during  a  "  ballast  passage." 

If  not  possible,  fill  the  next  series  of  holds  on  the  succeeding 
"  ballast  passage." 


r,-' 


'^ 


I 


1:1  lil 


358 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


^n 


I 


I-. 


I 


In  baUasting  avoid  "  slack  tanks,"  that  is  tanks  only  partly 

full,  for  free  water  is  even  more  vicious 
than  free  oil. 

The  taking  on  of  ballast  through  the  sea 
valves  is  simple,  and  if  in  no  particular 
hurry  much  of  the  ballast  can  be  allowed 
to  run  in  without  pumpmg,  until  on  a  level 
with  the  load  line. 

The  reverse  condition  prevails  in  dis- 
charging, for  the  water  in  the  trunks  and 
above  the  load  line  will  run  out  without  us- 
ingthe  pumps. 

Life  on  a  tanker  is  one  continuous  prob- 
lem in  the  hydraulics  of  seamanship.  Many 
officers,  having  learned  their  pipes,  as  it 
were,  prefer  this  service  to  all  others. 
Where  decent  shore  periods  are  allowed  the 
crew,  this  service  has  much  to  recommend 
it. 

Clean  water.  Do  not  ballast  in  a  muddy 
river,  or  in  a  place  filled  with  sewage. 
Some  care  in  this  respect  will  save  a  great 
deal  of  trouble  and  wiU  add  to  the  efficiency 
of  pumps. 

Also,  do  not  go  out  for  clean  water  in  a 
dangerous  condition  of  stability. 


XI 

The  Care  of  Tanks 


"^I'pvieoi 


^ 


Before  receiving  oil  the  tanks  must  be 
ready  for  inspection  by  the  persons  ship- 
ping oil.  It  is  well  to  have  the  tanks  "  pass 
inspection  "  and  note  same  in  the  log  in 
the  event  of  future  disputes  with  regard  to 
the  cleanliness  and  condition  of  the  cargo. 

The  tanks  will  have  to  be  dry,  before 
passing  inspection. 
First  steaming.    To  clean  a  foul  tank  shut  down  the  hatches, 


THE  TANKER 


359 


and  fill  with  live  steam  from  the  smothering  pipe  (same  as 
smothering  pipes  fitted  in  ordinary  cargo  holds).  It  is  good 
practice  to  carry  the  smothering  pipes  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank, 
as  the  hot  vapor  rises.  A  hole  in  the  top  would  be  useful  for 
smothering  in  the  event  of  fire,  and  with  a  ftdl  tank  would  func- 
tion with  the  lower  end  plugged  by  oil. 

Where  no  smothering  lines  are  fitted  a  steam  hose  is  led  into 
the  tank  through  the  plug  hole,  which  is  stopped  with  an  oakum 
and  canvas  gasket. 

The  heat  generated  in  the  tank  will  melt  down  the  thick  oil 
which  can  then  be  pumped  out. 

Steam  for  six  hours,  lift  the  hatches,  and  continue  the  steam 
for  an  hour  or  two  more. 

Next  shut  off  steam  and  turn  on  air.  Sometimes  a  windsail 
in  each  hatch  will  help  in  the  drjdng  out. 

Then  wash  down  top  and  sides  of  tank  with  water,  using  a 
hose  with  a  good  pressure. 

Before  sending  men  into  the  tank  for  the  washing,  be  certain 
that  gas  is  out.  Send  first  man  down  in  a  bowline  (see  French 
bowline,  page  86). 

The  bottom  of  tank  is  scrubbed  with  brooms,  refuse  and  other 
solid  matter  lifted  out  in  buckets,  rose  boxes  are  cleaned. 

Second  steaming.  Having  gone  so  far,  close  down  hatches 
and  turn  steam  on  for  two  hours  more.  Wash  down  again  with 
hose.    Pump  out  and  turn  on  air. 

Oil  wash.  The  tank  is  now  ready  for  the  wash  with  light  oil. 
Gas  oil  is  best.  This  is  usually  supplied  by  the  shippers  of  the 
cargo.  Fill  each  tank  in  turn  with  this  oil  and  transfer  it  to  the 
next.    And  send  it  through  all  pumps  and  lines. 

Having  completed  this  process  advise  the  shippers  that  you 
are  ready  to  pump  it  ashore  where  it  is  again  refined. 

The  vessel  being  empty  will  trim  aft,  and  the  men  are  sent 
into  each  hold  as  it  sucks  dry  to  swab  up  air  having  been  driven 
into  the  hold  in  sufficient  quantity  to  clear  the  tank.  Always  use 
the  bowline  to  make  sure. 

The  method  given  is  used  when  a  creosote  oil  has  been  carried. 
To  clean  up  after  a  cargo  of  refined  oil  the  second  steaming  and 
second  washing  are  Jiot  usually  required  before  washing  out 
with  gas  oil. 


n 


^ 


360 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


THE  TANKER 


361 


*    i 


It  is  bad  management  to  put  dirty  oil  into  a  clean  vessel  as 
the  clean  tanks  are  a  great  asset. 

xn 

Repairs  in  Dry  Dock—Precautions 

When  tankers  are  put  into  dry  dock  and  rivetings  is  to  be 
done  about  the  tanks  or  hatches,  it  is  necessary  to  have  the 
vessel  "  gas  free." 

The  three  methods  of  doing  this  are  as  follows : 

1.  Steam  out  and  put  down  windsails. 

2.  Force  air  into  the  holds  by  the  blower. 

3.  Fill  tanks  to  overflowing  with  sea  water  so  that  any  oil 
in  the  tank  will  float  up  and  flow  over  the  top. 

Very  often  these  methods  are  combined,  beginning  with  the 
last  and  following  with  the  other  two. 

Where  red  hot  rivets  are  to  be  used,  or  electric  torches,  etc., 
it  is  most  important  that  the  tanks  be  absolutely  "  gas  free." 

When  a  tank  has  been  passed  by  a  chemist  as  "  gas  free  " 
no  piping  should  be  opened  up  without  another  test  as  gas  lodged 
in  the  pipes  may  be  liberated. 

Water  tests.  Where  hydraulic  tests  are  made  each  tank  in 
turn  must  be  filled  and  examined  carefully  from  the  dry  sides. 
These  should  be  perfectly  dry  before  beginning  the  test. 

Every  bulkhead  must  be  examined  under  pressure  from  both 
sides  in  turn,  except,  of  course,  the  pump-room  bulkheads. 

Leaks  are  marked  with  chalk  or  paint. 

Before  going  into  dock  it  is  the  custom  to  bring  in  two  tanks 
filled  with  clean  sea  water  for  this  test. 

In  conclusion.  After  testing  and  repairs,  sweep  clean,  make 
careful  examination  of  the  heating  coils,  as  staging  may  have 
been  dropped  on  them.  Set  up  glands  on  expansion  joints  in 
piping. 

Caution,  Never  remove  "  bleeders  "  (bottom  plugs)  of  oil 
tanks  while  in  dry  dock  without  obtaining  permission  from  the 
dock  master.  There  may  be  regulations  with  regard  to  nmning 
oil  into  the  dock.  Barrels  may  be  used  to  catch  the  oil  from  the 
bleeders,  if  necessary. 

Do  not  caulk  in  a  hold  unless  "  gas  free."  A  spark  from  the 
chisel  may  set  off  an  explosive  mixture. 


Tankers  must  be  very  strict  about  the  regulation  of  smoking 

and  carrying  naked  lights.    American  custom  is  to  only  permit 

smoking  abaft  of  the  fire  line,  a  red  line  painted  at  about  the 

middle  point  of  the  poop  deck  house.     Smoking  is  permitted  in 

quarters. 

Caution! 

"  The  body  of  S.  H.,  43  years  old,  who  was  drowned  Saturday 
night  in  crude  oil  in  the  tanks-ship  De  Soto  at  Bayonne,  N.  J., 
was  recovered  early  to-day,  after  200,000  gallons  of  oil  had  been 
emptied  from  the  vessel. 

"  The  tanker  reached  Bayonne  Saturday  afternoon  with  a 
cargo  of  Mexican  crude  oil  and  docked  at  Pier  5,  Constable 
Hook.  That  night  H — ,  employed  as  a  pumpman,  went  to 
repair  a  feed  line  that  was  leaking.  When  he  failed  to  reappear 
on  deck,  members  of  the  crew  went  in  search  of  him.  It  is 
believed  H —  became  overcome  by  the  fumes  and  fell  into 
the  oil.  The  pumps  worked  continuously  from  the  time  of  the 
accident  imtil  the  body  was  recovered." — From  a  news  report. 

Suggestions  for  the  Prevention  of  Explosions  Aboard 
Oil  Carriers  Under  Repairs 

Immediately  following  the  fatal  explosion  aboard  the  Jack 
Tank  steamer  "  G.  R.  Crowe,"  at  the  plant  of  James  Shewan  & 
Sons,  Brooklyn,  New  York,  October  6th,  1920:  Continuous 
investigation  and  inquiry  has  revealed  the  absence  of  proper 
Rules  and  Regulations  for  the  handling  or  repairing  of  oil  burning 
or  bulk  oil  carriers  and  a  total  lack  of  due  regard  of  the  explosive 
character  of  the  gases  and  absolute  necessity  of  freeing  all  oil 
carrying  spaces  of  same  before  any  work  is  started  within  such 
compartment,  or  adjacent  thereto. 

It  is  an  established  fact,  learned  in  many  cases  only  by  painful 
experience,  that  all  tanks  or  compartments  of  vessels  containing, 
or  having  contained  fuel  oil  of  any  gravity  whatsoever  are  ex- 
tremely dangerous,  and  special  precautions  are  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  avoid  accidents  from  explosions  and  fires. 

All  existing  methods  have  been  tried,  and  all  failed  to  render 
tanks  non-explosive  when  the  inevitable  explosions  occur. 

Gas  is  always  generated  wherever  oil  lies,  whether  the  oil  is 
in  great  quantity,  the  light  coating  left  on  sides  of  tanks  or  the 
heavy  bottom  scum  or  sediment,  and  this  gas  is  explosive  when 
mixed  with  air,  being  readily  touched  off  by  a  spark  or  naked 
flame. 

To  say  that  this  gas  is  explosive  when  mixed  with  air  is  not 
theoretically  true — the  percentage  of  gas  and  air  must  be  within 
certain  limits — the  mixture,  however,  has  so  often  been  by  test 


\ 


"•  ;  k: 


«   v%  I 


362 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


"  non-explosive  "  when  explosions  have  occurred  that  this  the- 
oretical condition  should  be  forgotten  and  all  gas  treated  as  the 
ideal  explosive  mixture. 

Were  it  possible  to  discover  the  cause  of  all  explosions,  specific 
methods  could  be  applied.  It  is  our  opinion  that  but  one  cause 
will  cover,  and  that  cause  is  "  Carelessness,** 

Admitting  that  all  tanks  with  or  havmg  contained  oil  are 
explosive,  the  following  precautions  are  essential  before  work  is 
started : 

^1.  Compartments  steamed  for  12  hours,  after  which  they 
should  be  hosed  down  with  hot  salt  or  fresh  water,  pumped  out 
dry  and  steamed  again  for  24  hours  more.  Compartments  then 
ventilated  with  assistance  of  mechanical  blowers  or  windsails 
led  to  lowest  possible  pomt  for  24  hours.  Ventilation  continued 
durmg  work. 

During  the  first  12  hours  of  ventilation,  the  oil  and  scum  to  be 
mopped  and  scraped  entirely  out  of  every  corner.  Workmen  fo 
wear  rubbers,  or  rubber  boots,  to  avoid  spark  from  contact  with 
shoe  nails  and  steel  plating.  No  iron  or  tm  scoops,  or  wire 
brushes  to  be  used— Brass  scoops  or  shovels  only.  Should 
ladders  be  necessary,  only  wooden  ladders  with  no  metal  rungs, 
sides  or  ends  to  be  used. 

2.  Chemists'  samples  of  gas  to  be  taken  from  all  isolated  parts 
upon  completion  of  steaming  and  ventUating,  and  Certificate  for 
gas  (free)  issued  in  writing  to  foreman  in  charge  and  posted  at 
entrance  to  ship.  This  should  be  repeated  every  morning,  before 
work  IS  started  and  a  new  Certificate  issued  and  posted. 

In  order  that  the  above  may  be  more  effective,  signs  18  inches 

J  ^  J^^^®^'  ^^  cardboard,  should  be  posted  on  the  Gangplank 
and  about  the  ship  in  conspicuous  places^  to  read  as  follows : 

Be  Careful! 

1— This  vessel  carries  oil.     All  compartments  are  dangerous 
unless  cleaned  and  these  precautions  followed: 

2— No  naked  lights  allowed. 

3 — Smoking  positively  prohibited. 

4— Satisfy  yourself  that  Chemises  Certificate  bears  the  date 
that  you  board  the  vessel. 

5 — Wear  rubbers  or  rubber  boots. 

6 — Do  not  drop  or  throw  tools. 

7— Avoid  injury  to  all  electric  lines  or  cables.  Report  defective 
lights  or  wiring  to  foreman. 

8— Report  your  fellow  workmen  should  they  neglect  any  pre- 
caution. One  (i)  match  or  spark  is  suflicient  to  cause  an 
explosion. 

Be  Careful ! 

Eads  Johnson,  M,E. 


THE  TANKER  ^^^ 

xin 

General  Remarks  on  the  Tanker 

The  following  notes  of  interest  to  the  tank  vessel  officer  are 
taken  from  an  excellent  paper  by  Mr.  Robert  W.  Morrell,*  M.E., 
read  before  the  twenty-fifth  general  meeting  of  the  Society  of 
Naval  Architects  and  Marine  Engineers  November  15,  1917,  on 
"  Recent  Developments  in  Tank  Steamer  Construction."  (The 
subheads  are  inserted  by  the  author  of  this  book.) 

Shelter-decked  Vessel 

"  Along  with  the  increased  size  (in  tankers)  came  the  develop- 
ment of  the  shelter-deck  type  of  vessel.  The  term  *  shelter- 
decked  type,'  as  commonly  used  in  this  country  in  referrmg  to 
tankers,  applies  to  a  vessel  having  three  contmuous  steel  decks, 
the  uppermost  of  which  is  the  strength  deck.  A  shelter-decked 
vessel  according  to  the  A.B.S.  is  one  in  which  the  uppermost  or 
shelter  deck  is  a  light,  continuous  superstructure,  with  one  or 
more  tonnage  openmgs.  H  without  tonnage  openmgs,  it  is  an 
awnmg-decked  vessel,  while  if  the  upper  scantlings  are  heavier 
it  becomes  a  spar-decked  vessel.  The  commonly  accepted  use  of 
the  term  *  shelter-decked  vessel,'  however,  is  in  reference  to  any 
vessel  having  a  continuous  weather  deck,  as  opposed  to  the  type 
having  raised  forecastle,  bridge  and  poop." 

Oil  Hatches  and  Gas  Trunks 

"  The  first  shelter-decked  tankers  built  in  this  country  were 
the  sister  ships  John  D.  Archbold  and  John  D,  Rockefeller,  of 
11,500  tons  deadweight  each.  These  vessels  had  the  oU  tanks 
carried  up  to  the  upper  deck,  which  is  the  next  deck  below  the 
shelter  deck.  The  oil  hatches  were  located  on  the  upper  deck, 
and  gas  trunks  were  built  around  the  hatches  and  extendmg 
from  upper  to  shelter  deck,  to  keep  the  gases  from  permeatmg 
the  'tween-deck  space. 

"  Experience  has  proven  these  trunks  a  source  of  danger  to 
the  ships,  as  the  heavy  gases  accumulate  at  the  hatches  and  great 
caution  is  necessary  to  prevent  men  from  being  overcome  when 
entering  the  tanks.  Apparatus  for  clearing  these  spaces  of  gas 
has  since  been  installed." 

*  The  writer  is  indebted  to  Mr.  Morrell  for  a  great  amount  of  valuable 
information  pertaining  to  present-day  American  tank  steamer  practice.  As 
a  naval  architect  specializing  in  tanker  design,  Mr.  Morrell  is  taking  a  lead- 
ing part  in  this  rapidly  growing  field  of  marine  activity. 


f 


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»  i 


364 


I 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 

The  Expansion  Trunk 


THE  TANKER 


365 


The  next  step  in  the  development  of  the  shelter-decked 
type  was  the  carrying  of  the  expansion  trunks  right  up  to  the 
shelter  deck.  This  was  embodied  in  the  Charles  Pratt  and  sub- 
^®?«^^  i7®^^®^^  ^^  *^^*  *yPe  with  great  success. 
^^  aJ-  *4l  ^^^gement,  the  expansion  trunk  bulkheads 
extend  from  the  second  deck  (or  main  deck  or  tank  deck,  as  it  is 

I?fT^^^w^^^^  ""?  *?  *^^  '^®^*^^  ^^c^»  tl^^s  making  the  expan- 
n^t WH^  ^^Z  ^^'^'  ^  ^'^^^*-  ^^^  ^^°^^^  t^s  ^e  arranged 
H^^lc  Vv.  *^M  1^,^^^°^  tr^k  between  the  second  and  up|er 
Wo^L  .t  ^^i^,f  c^es  for  both  main  and  summer  tanks^e 
located  on  the  shelter  deck,  and  small  trunks,  extending  between 

n,!fK  ^P!f  "fi  '^^^*^'  ?^'^'»  ^^  ^^il*  f^^  the  summer  tanks. 
Outboard  of  the  expansion  trunk,  between  the  upper  and  shelter 
aecks,  are  open  'tween-deck  spaces  above  the  summer  tanks. 
*  *  • 

in  11^  wi?^^?,  l®?^*^y  ^^^"^  h^^^*  s^^^^al  Shelter-deck  vessels 
JLr    ^   ^  ^^^  hatches  are  located  on  the  upper  deck,  and  the 

Sr'J;f^'?5'^''l'?.^''*?^^y  ^P^°»  ^th^^t  gas  trunks,  but  the 
majority  of  the  shelter  decked  ships  are  now  of  the  type  de- 
scribed, namely,  with  the  trunk  to  the  shelter  deck.  This  type 
is  highly  satisfactory  for  an  aU-round  tanker." 

Mr.  MorreU,  in  the  course  of  this  valuable  paper,  points  out 
the  followmg  advantages  of  this  construction  that  are  of  special 
interest  to  the  seaman— we  cannot  quote  him  at  length  due  to 
lack  of  space. 

ship^^^  ''^''*^''  °^  ^""^^^  ^^  *^®  ^^^"^  '^  ^^^®^»  "^a^S  a^  easier 

d«nc2r  nf  T*  ""^  the  oil  hatchos  being  on  the  shelter  deck,  the 
danger  of  gettmg  gas  in  the  'tween  deck  is  avoided. 

.^c  u  ^®ll®^  ^^^  ^®  trimmed  when  loaded  with  much  better 
hoS  ^^  expansion  trunk  extending  through  two  deck 

heights  gives  great  scope  for  the  desired  ullages.  If  the  vessel 
has  a  tendency  to  trim  by  the  head  when  leaving  port  on  account 
of  full  fuel  tanks  forward,  this  can  be  overcome^  ^th  the  des^ 
n  ^^r^^""  ^^  ^^^!^?  ^^g®  ^^^ages  forward  and  smaller  ullages 
Jn  ^.^^'  cargo  tanks  It  is  possible  also,  as  the  fuel  is  usid, 
to  maintain  a^y  desired  trim  by  transferring  the  cargo.  The 
deep  trunks  allow  great  leeway  in  this  respect  " 

A  Special  Design 

,« '\tlT^^  ^^^"^  ^T^  "^^^h  ^s  worthy  of  note  is  embodied 
fJ^^  K^^^""  ^-  ^-  ^^^"^^^^^  ^°  ^^^h  the  entire  'tween-deck 
space,  between  upper  and  shelter  decks,  is  made  suitable  for 


carrying  case  or  barrel  oil,  in  addition  to  the  bulk  cargo  m  the 
tanks.  The  oil  hatches  are  on  the  upper  deck  and  large  cargo 
hatches  are  provided  in  the  shelter  deck  each  side  of  the  center 
strake,  which  is  continuous.  Three  masts  are  fitted  with  com- 
plete cargo  handlmg  gear  consisting  of  booms  and  winches. 

"  This  is  another  instance,  however,  of  adaptation  of  a  tanKer 
to  special  trade.  Such  package  cargo  handling  equipment  on 
the  majority  of  tankers  would  be  useless.  ^    xu^ 

"  In  considering  the  subject  of  shelter-decked  tankers,  the 
question  naturally  arises  as  to  what  determines  whether  a  vessel 
shall  be  built  with  a  shelter  deck  or  a  forecastle,  bridge  and 
poop  deck.  The  answer  is  somewhat  obscure,  but  the  deter- 
iiining  factors  seem  to  be  mamly  matters  of  size  and  of  person^ 
preference.  The  dividing  line  seems  to  be  m  the  neighborhood 
of  10,000  or  11,000  tons  deadweight,  the  vessels  above  that  size 
bemg,  almost  without  exception,  shelter-decked  vessels. 

Subdivision  of  Tanks— Cofferdams— Fire  Precautions 
"A  prominent  feature  of  recent  construction  has  been  the 
subdivision  of  the  cargo  tanks  into  groups  for  the  carrying  ot 
different  grades  of  oil.  If  two  different  grades  ar®  separated  by 
a  single  bulkhead  there  is  danger  that  a  leak  in  the  bulkhead, 
permitting  a  mixing  of  the  grades,  will  spoU  the  cargo.  The 
first  step  was  to  place  the  pump  room  amidships,  which,  asiae 
from  being  a  most  convenient  location  for  pumpmg,  divides  the 
tanks  into  two  groups  in  which  different  grades  of  oil  can  be 
loaded  without  danger  of  mixmg.  ,  i.^*^^^„ 

"  This  was  carried  further  and  cofferdams  inserted  between 
the  tanks.  Some  15,000-ton  deadweight  tankers  have  ten  mam 
cargo  tanks  divided  into  three  groups  with  a  separate  punipmg 
system  for  each.  Several  smaller  tankers  have  similar  divisions. 
"  This  is  another  example  of  the  incorporation  of  special 
requirements  for  a  special  trade.  As  an  extreme  case,  there  is 
one  vessefwhich  has  five  cofferdams  and  a  pump-roona  dividmg 
the  cargo  tanks  into  four  separate  blocks.  One  of  the  coffer- 
dams, however,  is  located  between  the  after  fuel  oil  tank  and  the 
fire-room.  Many  of  the  modern  tankers  have  this  arrangement, 
which  is  a  wise  safety  precaution  origmated  on  account  of  fires 
started  by  oil  in  the  fire-room  due  to  leaky  bunker  bulWieads. 

"  Where  such  cofferdams  are  built,  they  are  provided  with 
tunnels  for  use  in  the  event  of  the  vessels  burnmg  coal.  The 
tunnels  are  blanked  by  oil-tight  bolted  doors  on  each  end,  but 
if  used  for  coal  the  oil-tight  doors  will  be  removed  and  vertic^ 
sUding  bunker  doors  fitted.  The  fuel-oil  piping  passmg  through 
the  cofferdam  is  fitted  with  a  valve  on  each  bulkhead,  the  valve 
on  the  hunker  side  being  controlled  from  the  deck.    The  coffer- 


366 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


THE  TANKER 


367 


dam  IS  also  provided  with  a  sea  valve  controUed  from  the  deck, 
for  flooding  in  case  of  fire.  Thus,  if  a  fire  originates  in  the  boiler- 
room.  It  can  be  isolated  from  the  fuel  supply,  while  if  the  fire 
starts  in  the  tanks  the  propelling  machinery  can  be  kept  intact." 

A  Short  Essay  on  Tanker  Design 

"  Practically  every  oil  company  and  every  shipyard  has  its  own 
standard  type  of  tanker,  or  in  many  cases  three  or  four  standard 
^es,  all  varymg  in  accordance  with  the  different  needs  of  the 
busmess  and  with  the  different  ideas  as  to  how  these  needs  are 
best  met. 

"  It  has  already  been  pomted  out  that  special  vessels  are 
required  for  special  trades  in  order  to  obtain  the  best  results 
A  vessel  designed  to  carry  heavy  oil  is  not  suitable  for  transport- 
ing refined  oil,  and  vice  versa.  A  vessel  designed  for  straight 
cargo  IS  not  suitable  for  a  mixed  cargo,  but  a  vessel  designed  for 
mixed  cargo  is  needlessly  compUcated  and  expensive  for  shippmg 
straight  cargo.  Owners  trading  on  the  west  coast  only  naturally 
desire  to  take  advantage  of  the  deep  water  to  adopt  wholesome 
proportions  of  length  to  depth,  whereas  other  owners,  trading  in 
ports  where  draught  is  restricted,  must  adopt  different  propor- 
tions. Some  trades  require  vessels  with  fuel  capacity  for  ten 
days,  others  for  forty  days.  In  many  cases  large  vessels  are 
the  most  economical,  but  large  vessels  cannot  be  built  in  all 
yards  and  cannot  enter  all  ports. 

"  It  is  obviously  impossible  to  find  a  single  vessel  to  meet  all 
requirements,  and  if  an  attempt  at  a  compromise  is  made  it  will 
place  practically  every  oil  company  at  a  disadvantage  in  having 
to  operate  vessels  which  are  not  quite  suitable. 

"  The  nearest  approach  to  eflicient  standardization  would  be  in 
the  adoption  of  at  least  four  standard  designs,  consisting  of  two 
vessels,  a  large  one  and  a  small  one,  for  the  sole  purpose  of 
carrymg  cargoes  of  heavy  oil,  and  two  vessels,  a  large  one  and  a 
small  one,  especially  for  carrying  mixed  cargoes  of  light  oil 

"  In  carrying  heavy  oil,  such  as  fuel  oil  or  crude  oil,  it  is 
possible  to  load  different  kinds  in  the  same  vessel  without  danger 
of  mixmg,  due  to  leakage  or  due  to  pumping  one  kind  through 

*^f  ?.^?  P^P®  ^^®  *s  another.    Therefore  there  is  no  need  of 
subdividmg  the  tanks  for  different  grades. 

"  J^e  smaller  vessel  for  this  purpose  would  naturally  be  of 
the  forecastle,  bridge  and  poop  type,  and  the  larger  one  of  the 
shelter-decked  type.  In  both  cases  small  fuel  tanks  for  bunker 
use  are  sufficient,  as  it  is  possible  for  a  long  voyage  to  carry 
half  a  mam  cargo  tank  of  fuel,  or  to  carry  it  in  summer  tanks. 
The  permanent  fuel-oil  tanks  should  consist  of  a  short  tank  at 
the  forward  end  of  the  cargo  tanks,  and  another  at  the  after  end, 


thus  enabling  the  vessel  to  be  trimmed  as  the  fuel  is  used. 
With  this  arrangement  no  cofferdams  whatever  are  required  m 
the  vessel.  The  pump-room  in  this  type  of  vessel  should  be 
located  between  the  after-fuel  tank  and  the  boiler-room,  thus 
separating  the  oil  from  the  fires,  and  should  contain  the  fuel-oil 
pumps  and  heaters  as  well  as  two  cargo-oil  pumps.  A  simple 
system  of  cargo-oil  piping  whereby  both  pumps  can  draw  from 
the  tanks  and  discharge  overboard  independently  is  sufficient. 
The  summer  tanks  may  be  fitted  with  drop-valves,  connecting 
them  with  the  main  tanks,  or  they  may  be  piped  for  fuel  oil,  as 
conditions  require.    All  tanks  in  these  vessels  should  be  fitted 

with  heater  coils.  . 

"  For  the  standard  vessels  intended  to  carry  mixed  cargoes  of 
light  gravity  oils,  the  smaller  would  be  of  the  forecastle,  bridge 
and  poop  type  and  the  larger  of  the  shelter-decked  type  with 
expansion  trunks  carried  up  to  the  shelter  deck.  In  both  vessels 
rather  larger  fuel-tank  capacity  is  required.  On  account  of  the 
danger  in  carrying  naphtha  next  to  fuel  oil,  cofferdams  should  be 
provided  at  each  end  of  the  cargo  tanks.  The  cargo  pump-room 
should  be  located  amidships,  thus  dividing  the  cargo  tanks  into 
two  groups.  For  safety,  a  cofferdam  between  the  after  fuel  tank 
and  the  fire-room  should  be  provided  and  the  oil-burning  appar- 
atus installed  in  a  separate  enclosure  in  the  fire-room  wing. 
A  fuel  pump  is  required  forward  to  transfer  fuel  aft  from  the 
forward  tank.  The  cargo  oil-piping  system  should  permit  of  the 
pumping  of  different  grades  of  oil  from  the  forward  and  after 
groups  of  cargo  tanks  simultaneously  and  independently,  with- 
out the  two  grades  using  any  piping  in  common.  The  cargo 
piping  must  not  extend  into  the  fuel  tanks.  The  summer  tanks 
should  be  piped  separately.  Special  precautions  against  gas 
must  be  provided,  and  the  gas  vents  from  the  tanks  fitted  with 
automatic  relief  valves.  Special  ventilation  for  the  pump-room 
and  cofferdams  must  be  furnished. 

"  The  foregoing  outlines  briefly  the  minimum  that  could  be 
expected  in  the  standardization  of  tankers." 

A.B.S.  Rules  for  Ships  Intended  to  Carry  Oil  in  Bulk 

(1)  General.  Vessels  which  are  intended  for  the  carriage  of 
petroleum  in  bulk  and  to  receive  the  classification  mark  (Oil 
Carrier)  are  to  have  an  expansion  trimk  over  each  oil  compart- 
ment with  a  capacity,  of  not  less  than  6  per  cent,  of  the  capacity 
of  the  compartment  with  which  they  are  connected.  The  oil 
holds  are  not  to  exceed  30  feet  in  length  and  are  to  be  divided 
longitudinally  by  an  oil-tight  bulkhead  which  is  to  extend  from 
the  keel  to  the  top  of  the  expansion  trunk.  The  attention  of 
owners  is  drawn  to  the  Panama  and  Suez  Canal  regulations  for 
ships  laden  with  oil  in  bulk. 

14 


368 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


THE  TANKER 


369 


il^ 


(2)  Cofferdams  at  least  3  feet  wide,  thoroughly  oil-tight  and 
well  ventilated,  are  to  be  fitted  at  each  end  of  each  section  of  the 
vessel  intended  for  the  carriage  of  oil,  so  as  to  completely  isolate 
that  section  from  cargo  and  machinery  spaces.  All  machinery, 
boilers  and  galleys  must  be  completely  isolated  from  the  oil 
spaces  and  oil  pump  rooms.  Where  it  is  necessary  to  run  a  shaft 
tunnel  through  oil  spaces,  the  tunnel  is  to  be  circular,  isolated 
from  the  engine  room,  entered  by  a  separate  trunkway  from  the 
deck,  and  provided  with  a  large  ventilator  at  each  end. 

(3)  All  oil  compartments  are  to  be  efficiently  ventilated ;  the 
free  escape  of  gases  from  all  parts  of  the  oil  spaces  must  be 
secured  by  means  of  holes  in  every  part,  where  otherwise  there 
might  be  a  chance  of  the  gases  being  "pocketed."  Special 
attention  must  also  be  paid  to  the  effective  ventilation  of  coffer- 
dams, pump  rooms  and  other  spaces;  efficient  means  are  to  be 
provided  for  clearing  oil  spaces  of  dangerous  vapors  by  means 
of  artificial  ventilation  or  by  steam.  Where  a  double  bottom  is 
fitted  at  least  four  large  ventilating  pipes  should  be  fitted  to  each 
double  bottom  compartment.  The  outlet  and  inlet  of  all  venti- 
lators above  deck  must  be  fitted  with  wire  gauze  protectors. 
Plans  of  the  ventilating  arrangements  are  to  be  submitted  for 
approval. 

(4)  Pumping  arrangements  for  spaces  not  intended  for  the 
carriage  of  oil,  are  to  be  entirely  independent  of  the  oil  pumping 
system;  the  suction  pipes  in  connection  therewith  should  not 
pass  through  oil  spaces;  the  pipes  for  the  oil  pumping  system 
are  not  to  pass  through  water  spaces.  Satisfactory  arrange- 
ments are  to  be  made  for  draming  »tween  decks  which  form  the 
crown  of  oil  tanks.  Plans  of  aU  the  pumping  and  piping  arrange- 
ments are  to  be  submitted  for  approval. 

(5)  Cement  will  not  be  required  on  the  bottom  of  spaces 
mtended  solely  for  the  carriage  of  oil  in  bulk. 

(6)  Electric  light  is  to  be  fitted  throughout  on  the  double-wire 
system.  Switches  and  cut  outs  are  not  to  be  fitted  in  spaces 
where  there  may  be  accumulations  of  petroleum  vapor  or  gas; 
lamps  in  such  spaces  are  to  be  enclosed  in  air-tight  glass  globes 
and  the  wiring  is  to  be  lead  covered  where  the  insulation  is  of  a 
character  which  is  liable  to  injury  by  petroleum. 

^  XIV 

Oil  Cargo 

There  are  ahnost  as  many  different  kinds  of  oil  as  there  are 
different  kinds  of  dry  cargo.  Each  oil  has  its  pecuHar  properties 
and  should  be  studied  and  handled  accordingly. 


Light  oils  which  emit  gas  should  be  loaded  with  hatches  down 
and  plug  hole  open  to  admit  of  the  escape  of  air.  Such  oils  are 
generally  carried  as  far  forward  as  possible  away  from  the  fires. 
This  also  gives  better  trim  conditions. 

When  loaded  the  things  containing  light  oils  should  be  screwed 

down  at  once. 

As  water  is  heavier  than  oil,  a  partly  filled  tank  loaded  with 
naptha  or  other  light  oils  such  as  gasolene,  benzine,  or  kerosene, 
may  be  completely  filled  by  pumping  in  clean  water  which  forces 
the  oil  up  into  the  expansion  trunk. 

In  discharging  this  sea  water  comes  out  first  and  care  must  be 
exercised  to  shut  off  the  discharge  at  the  right  time,  in  a  crowded 
harbor  it  may  be  necessary  to  send  this  water  into  a  settling 
tank  ashore. 

Water  should  not  be  used  under  fuel  oil,  and  with  heavy  oils 
carried  as  cargo  it  should  be  used  only  when  no  other  safe 
method  of  stowage  can  be  found*  Use  summer  tanks  for  part 
tank  load. 

Oil  cargoes  are  tested  for  temperature  each  day  when  the 
ullages  are  checked  up,  and  this  data  is  entered  in  the  log. 

Sounding,  Use  an  ordinary  soimding  rod,  chalked  carefully. 
Let  this  down  through  the  oil  touching  the  bottom  of  the  tank. 
On  bringing  it  up,  through  light  oils,  the  chalk  will  be  found  to 
have  been  washed  off  where  the  rod  has  been  in  the  bottom 
water.    This  method  will  not  work  with  heavy  oils. 

Another  method  of  sounding  for  water  is  the  use  of  the  "  water 
finder."  This  is  a  cylinder  of  brass  about  two  feet  long  marked 
off  in  inches.  A  strip  of  litmus  paper  is  fastened  to  the  finder 
with  brass  sliding  rings.  Discoloration  of  the  litmus  strip  shows 
the  presence  of  water  in  the  tank  bottom,  and  this  is  measured 
by  the  gauge. 

Flash  point.  The  flash  point  of  an  oil  is  the  temperature  at 
which  it  gives  off  an  explosive  vapor. 

The  flash  point  of  naphtha  is  62  degrees  F. 

The  flash  point  of  fuel  oil  is  about  180  degrees  F. 

These  points  vary  and  the  flash  point  of  any  oil  should  be 
known  to  the  master  and  officers  of  the  vessel  before  loading. 

Specific  gravity.  The  specific  gravity  of  an  oil  is  the  ratio 
between  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  the  oil  and  a  cubic  foot  of 


370 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


•  i 


fresh  water;  where  shown  60/60  it  means  that  these  densities 
are  referred  to  that  common  temperature. 

Hydrometers  are  used  for  this  measurement.    The  Baume- 
hydrometer  gives  the  density  of  a  fluid  in  degrees  "  Baume  " 

Degrees  Baume  and  Corresponding  Sp.  Gr.  of  Oil,  Lbs.  per 

Gal.,  and  Gal.  per  Lb. 


Degrees 
Baum6 


10.0 
10.5 
11.0 
11.5 
12.0 

12.5 
13.0 
13.5 
14.0 
14.5 

15.0 
15.5 
16.0 
16.5 
17.0 

17.5 
18.0 
18.5 
19.0 
19.5 

20.0 
20.5 
21.0 
21.5 
22.0 

22.5 
23.0 
23.5 
24.0 
24.5 

25.0 
25.5 
26.0 
26.5 
27.0 

27.5 


specific 
Gravity  at 
6o°/6o°  F. 


1.0000 
0.9964 
0.9929 
0.9894 
0.9859 

0.9825 
0.9790 
0.9756 
0.9722 
0.9688 

0.9655 
0.9622 
0.9589 
0.9556 
0.9524 

0.9492 
0.9459 
0.9428 
0.9696 
0.9365 

0.9333 
0.9302 
0.9272 
0.9241 
0.9211 

0.9180 
0.9150 
0.9121 
0.9091 
0.9061 

0.9032 
0.9003 
0.8974 
0.8946 
0.8917 

0.8889 


Pounds 

per 
GaUon 


8.328 
8.299 
8.269 
8.240 
i     8.211 

8.172 
8.153 
8.125 
8.096 
8.069 

8.041 
8.013 
7.986 
7.959 
7.931 

7.904 
7.877 
7.851 
7.825 
7.799 

7.772 
7.747 
7.721 
7.696 
7.670 

7.645 
7.620 
7.595 
7.570 
7.546 

7.522 
7.497 
7.473 
7.449 
7.425 

7.402 


Gallons 

per 
Pound 


Degrees 
Baume 


0.1201 
0.1205 
0.1209 
0.1214 
0.1218 

0.1222 
0.1227 
0.1231 
0.1235 
I    0.1239 

I  0.1244 
I  0.1248 
i  0.1252 
I  0.1256 
0.1261 

0.1265 
0.1270 
0.1274 
0.1278 
0.1282 

0.1287 
0.1291 
0.1295 
0.1299 
0.1304 

0.1308 
0.1313 
0.1317 
0.1321 
0.1325 

0.1330 
0.1334 
0.1338 
0.1342 
0.1347 

0.1351 


28.0 
28.5 
29.0 
29.5 

30.0 
30.5 
31.0 
31.5 
32.0 

32.5 
33.0 
33.5 
34.0 
34.5 

35.0 
35.5 
36.0 
36.5 
37.0 

37.5 
38.0 
38.5 
39.0 
39.5 

40.0 
40.5 
41.0 
41.5 
42.0 

42.5 
43.0 
43.5 
44.0 
44.5 

50.0 
50.5 


Specific 
Gravity  at 
6o°/6o*  F. 


0.8861 
0.8833 
0.8805 
0.8777 

0.8750 
0.8723 
0.8696 
0.8669 
0.8642 

0.8615 
0.8589 
0.8563 
0.8537 
0.8511 

0.8485 
0.8459 
0.8434 
0.8408 
0.8383 

0.8358 
0.8333 
0.8309 
0.8284 
0.8260 

0.8235 
0.8211 
0.8187 
0.8163 
0.8140 

0.8116 
0.8092 
0.8069 
0.8046 
0.8023 

0.7778 
0.7756 


Pounds 

per 
Gallon 


7.378 
7.355 
7.332 
7.309 

7.286 
7.264 
7.241 
7.218 
7.196 

7.173 
7.152 
7.130 
7.108 
7.087 

7.065 
7.044 
7.022 
7.001 
6.980 

6.960 
6.939 
6.918 
6.898 
6.877 

6.857 
6.837 
6.817 
6.797 
6.777 

6.758 
6.738 
6.718 
6.699 
6.680 

6.476 
6.458 


Gallons 

per 
Pound 


0.1355 
0.1360 
0.1364 
0.1368 

0.1373 
0.1377 
0.1381 
0.1385 
0.1390 

0.1394 
0.1398 
0.1403 
0.1407 
0.1411 

0.1415 
0.1420 
0.1424 
0.1428 
0.1433 

0.1437 
0.1441 
0.1446 
0.1450 
0.1454 

0.1459 
0.1463 
0.1467 
0.1471 
0.1476 

0.1480 
0.1484 
0.1489 
0.1493 
0.1497 

0.1544 
0.1548 


THE  TANKER 


371 


and  this  can  be  converted  into  specific  gravity  by  the  opposite 
table : 

A  temperature  correction  must  be  applied  when  the  oil  is  above 
or  below  60  degrees  F. 

For  complete  oil  tables  see  Circular  57,  Bureau  of  Standards, 
Department  of  Commerce,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Viscosity,  Viscosity  may  be  defined  as  the  resistance  to 
internal  movement,  or  the  internal  friction  of  a  liquid.  It  may 
be  measured  by  observation  of  the  ability  of  the  liquid  to  oppose 
the  movement  of  a  body  through  it,  or  more  commonly  by  noting 
the  time  required  for  a  definite  quantity  of  the  liquid  to  pass 
through  an  orifice  or  short  pipe  under  known  conditions  of 
temperature  and  head.  In  stating  viscosity  the  name  of  the 
instrument  used  must  be  given,  also  the  temperature  at  which 
it  was  run.  Viscosimeters  in  use  are  the  Engler,  Redwood,  and 
Say  holt. 

The  Engler  Viscosimeter  is  specified  for  U.  S.  Navy  fuel  oil 
tests.  It  consists  of  an  oil  chamber,  with  platinum  tube  out- 
let, surroimded  by  water  bath.  For  high  temperatures  an 
oil  bath  is  used.  The  platinum  outlet  is  20  mm.  long,  with  a 
bore  of  2.9  mm.  diam.  at  top  and  2.8  mm.  at  bottom.  A  volume 
of  200  c.c.  of  the  oil  to  be  tested  is  allowed  to  flow  out  and  the 
time  is  noted  in  seconds.  The  number  of  seconds  required  for 
200  c.c.  water  to  flow  out  at  the  temperature  of  20  deg.  C.  (68 
deg.  F.)  is  then  determined  (50  to  52  sec.  in  the  standard  instru- 
ment). Viscosity  is  found  by  dividing  the  time  required  for 
the  outflow  of  oil  by  the  time  of  outflow  of  water. 

Tank  Barges  are  generally  without  summer  tanks,  except  the 
largest  ones  in  which  the  tank  arrangement  is  like  that  of  the 
power  tanker. 

Molasses  Tankers,  Vessels  designed  for  the  carriage  of  mo- 
lasses have  smaller  tanks  because  of  the  greater  density  of  the 
cargo.  This  is  a  special  and  restricted  trade  and  is  only  men- 
tioned here  in  passing. 

Oil  tank  vessels  are  sometimes  used  for  the  carriage  of 
molasses.  To  prepare  for  this  cargo  steam  from  lo  to  24  hours 
and  flush  with  clean  salt  water.  Clean  comers  and  pipe  lines. 
Never  use  heater  coils  on  molasses.    Keep  all  vents  open. 

To  clean  for  oil  cargo  wash  thoroughly  with  salt  water.  Do 
not  use  steam. 


n 

it 


PASSENGER  VESSELS 


373 


!i1 


CHAPTER  12 

PASSENGER  VESSELS 


General  Remarks 

The  carriage  of  passengers  is  so  important  a  part  of  sea  trade 
that  a  special  chapter  is  necessary  for  the  setting  down  of  the 
United  States  Navigation  Laws  governing  the  trade;  and  to 
outline  the  many  duties  connected  therewith.  Most  of  the 
regulations  cover  what  is  known  as  "  Immigrant  ships,"  and 
the  officer  in  charge  of  vessel  in  this  trade  must  thoroughly 
understand  the  scope  and  meaning  of  the  law. 

The  regulation  of  a  ship  filled  with  several  thousand  passengers 
drawn  from  every  strata  of  society  calls  for  the  most  careful  and 
circumspect  conduct  on  the  part  of  the  officers.  The  Master 
especially  is  charged  with  duties  calling  for  tact  and  considera- 
tion of  the  highest  order. 

The  Passenger  Act  of  1882,  with  amendments,  should  be 
carefuUy  studied.*  Such  matters  as  the  number  of  passengers 
to  be  carried,  the  cubic  capacity  of  passenger  spaces,  the  number 
of  hfe  boats,  life  preservers,  etc.  are  prescribed  by  this  law  and 
are  certified  to  in  the  ship's  Certificate  of  Inspection. 

The  Master  will  see  to  it  that  the  limitations  and  require- 
ments with  respect  to  passengers  are  rigidly  enforced. 

Many  other  matters  enter  into  the  carriage  of  passengers  that 
are  not  strictly  matters  of  seamanship,  but  the  whole  question 
of  order  and  discipline  is  one  of  seamanship,  and  in  case  of 
emergency,  is  of  vital  importance  in  the  safeguarding  of  lives 
and  property. 

n 

Station  Bill 
The  following  is  taken  from  the  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the 
Steamboat-Inspection  Service,  Department  of  Commerce,  as 
amended  to  July  2,  1920. 

*  See  U.  S.  Navigation  Laws  or  The  Men  on  Deck. 

372 


Station  Bills,  Drills,  and  Reports  of  Masters 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  officer  in  charge  of  every  steamer 
carrying  passengers  and  all  other  vessels  of  over  500  gross  tons 
propelled  by  machinery  and  subject  to  inspection  to  cause  to  be 
prepared  a  station  bill  for  his  own  department,  and  one  also  for 
the  engineer's  department,  in  which  shall  be  assigned  a  post  or 
station  of  duty  for  every  person  employed  on  board  such  vessel 
in  case  of  fire  or  other  disaster,  which  station  bills  shall  be  placed 
in  the  most  conspicuous  places  on  board  for  the  observation  of 
the  crew.  And  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  such  master,  or  of  the 
mate  or  officer  next  in  conmiand,  once  at  least  in  each  week, 
to  call  all  hands  to  quarters  and  exercise  them  in  the  discipline, 
and  in  the  unlashing  and  swinging  out  of  the  lifeboats,  weather 
permitting,  and  in  the  use  of  the  fire  pumps  and  all  other  appar- 
atus for  the  safety  of  life  on  board  of  such  vessel,  with  especial 
regard  for  the  drill  of  the  crew  in  the  method  of  adjusting  life  pre- 
servers and  educating  passengers  and  others  in  this  procedure 
and  to  see  that  all  the  equipments  required  by  law  are  in  com- 
plete working  order  for  immediate  use;  and  the  fact  of  the 
exercise  of  the  crew,  as  herein  contemplated,  shall  be  entered 
upon  the  vessel's  log  book,  stating  the  day  of  the  month  and 
hour  when  so  exercised ;  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  inspectors 
to  require  the  officers  and  crew  of  all  such  vessels  to  perform  the 
aforesaid  drills  and  discipline  in  the  presence  of  the  said  in- 
spectors at  intervals  sufficiently  frequent  to  assure  the  said 
inspectors  by  actual  observation  that  the  foregomg  requkements 
of  this  section  are  complied  with.  The  master  of  every  such 
vessel  shall  also  report  monthly  to  the  local  inspectors  the  day 
and  date  of  such  exercise  and  drill,  the  condition  of  the  vessel 
and  her  equipment,  and  also  the  number  of  passengers  carried, 
and  any  neglect  or  omission  on  the  part  of  the  officer  in  com- 
mand of  such  vessel  to  strictly  enforce  this  rule  shall  be  deemed 
cause  for  the  suspension  or  revocation  of  the  license  of  such 
officer. 

The  general  fire-alarm  signal  shall  be  a  continuous  rapid 
ringing  of  the  ship's  bell  for  a  period  of  not  less  than  20  seconds, 
and  this  signal  shall  not  be  used  for  any  other  purpose  what- 
soever.   The  master  of  any  vessel  may  establish  such  other 


1\ 


374 


i     ' 


(11 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


emergency  signals,  in  addition  to  the  ringing  of  the  ship's 
bell,  as  will  provide  that  aU  the  officers  and  aU  the  crew  of 
the  vessel  wiU  have  positive  and  certain  notice  of  the  existine 
emergency.  * 

One  copy  of  this  section  shall  be  furnished  every  vessel  to 
which  this  section  appUes,  which  copy  shall  be  framed  under  glass 
and  posted  in  a  conspicuous  place  on  the  vessel.    (Sec.  4405, 

Lifeboat  drill  may  be  divided  into  two  parts: 

(a)  Training  of  the  crew  of  each  lifeboat  in  the  swinging  out 
and  lowering  of  boats,  direction  and  stowing  of  passengers,  use 
of  oars  and  other  equipment. 

(b)  Training  of  the  entire  crew  as  a  unit  in  their  duties  when 
It  becomes  necessary  to  abandon  ship.  The  efficiency  of  the 
crew  as  a  unit  can  be  attained  only  by  frequent  and  thorough 
driUs  of  the  entire  crew. 

The  duties  connected  with  the  stations  for  boats  and  fire  may 
be  summarized  as  follows: 

1.  Vessels  over  500  gross  tons,  subject  to  inspection,  or  carry- 
mg  passengers  (any  tonnage). 

2.  Must  prepare  a  station  bill  assigning  post  and  duty  for 
every  person  on  board  in  case  of  fire  or  disaster. 

3.  Bills  must  be  placed  in  conspicuous  places  on  board 

4.  Boat  and  fire  drill  at  least  once  each  week. 

5.  Date  and  time  of  drill  entered  in  ship's  log  book. 

6.  DriUs  to  be  performed  in  presence  of  U.  S.  Local  Inspectors 
when  required. 

7  Master  to  make  monthly  report  to  U.  S.  Local  Inspectors, 
stating  date  of  drills,  condition  of  vessel  and  her  equipment 
number  of  passengers  carried. 

8.  Neglect  of  Master  to  strictly  enforce  above  requirements 
of  this  rule  shall  be  deemed  cause  for  the  suspension  or  revoca- 
tion  of  his  hcense. 

The  preparation  of  station  bills  differs  sUghtly  in  different 
semces.  Where  passengers  are  carried  on  large  Transatlantic 
and  Transpacific  liners,  the  station  bill  embodies  aU  of  the 
requirements  for  safety.  In  freight  ships,  where  the  crew  alone 
IS  to  be  considered  a  much  simpler  bill  is  needed,  but  the  general 
prmciples  are  the  same. 


PASSENGER  VESSELS 


375 


By  assigning  each  member  of  the  crew  a  station  number,  the 

bill  need  not  be  changed  as  men  are  discharged  and  shipped. 

Each  man  should  be  given  a  numbered  bunk  corresponding  to 

his  station  number,  if  this  can  be  arranged.    These  numbers 

should  also  appear  against  the  name  of  the  man  on  the  ship's 

articles. 

Fire  Drill 

The  alarm  of  Fire  will  be  the  Rapid  Ringing  of  ship's  bell 
followed  by  1  tap  if  fire  is  Forward,  2  taps  if  fire  is  Amidships 
and  3  taps  if  fire  is  Aft.  All  members  of  crew,  excepting  those 
specially  excused  on  account  of  being  on  duty  which  cannot  be 
avoided,  must  immediately  proceed  to  their  stations,  stretch 
out  the  hose  and  otherwise  see  that  the  apparatus  under  their 
charge  is  ready.  They  must  remain  by  same  until  further 
orders. 

Men  in  charge  of  bulkhead  doors  will  immediately  close  same 
and  keep  them  closed  until  further  orders. 

Alarm  blasts  on  the  steam  whistle  (1  long  and  4  short  blasts) 
calls  every  member  of  crew  (except  those  unavoidably  on  duty 
elsewhere)  to  the  boat  stations.  The  men  must  muster  at  their 
boats  as  quickly  as  possible  and  remain  there,  taking  their 
orders  from  the  officer  or  seaman  in  charge  of  the  boat. 

The  ringing  of  the  electric  alarm  bell  means  that  for  some 
urgent  reason  all  members  of  crew  must  immediately  leave  their 
quarters  and  muster  in  an  orderly  manner  on  the  lower  deck 
awaiting  further  orders. 

Muster  List 

The  Muster  List  herewith  assigns  duties  to  the  different 
members  of  the  crew  in  connection  with: 

A.  The  closing  of  the  watertight    Carpenters,  Deck,  Engineer, 

doors,  valves,  etc.  Engine,  Steward,  Cabins. 

B.  The  equipment  of  the  boats    Chief  Officer  and  Junior  Offi- 

and  rafts,  generally,  to  cer. 

C.  The  launching  of  the  boats    An  Officer  or  Able  Seaman. 

attached  to  davits. 

D.  The  general  preparation   of    Chief  Officer  and  Junior  Offi- 

the  other  boats  and  rafts.        cer. 

E.  The  muster  of  passengers.        Purser  and  Chief  Steward. 

F.  The  extinguishing  of  fire.  Chief  Officer. 


376 


k 


STANDARD  SEAMANSfflP 


t. 


4 


The  Muster  List  hereby  assigns  to  the  members  of  the  Stew- 
ard's Department  their  several  duties  in  relation  to  passengers 
at  a  time  of  emergency. 

These  duties  shall  include: 

A.  Warning  the  passengers. 

B.  Seeing  that  the  passengers 

are  dressed  and  have  put 
on  their  life  jackets  in  a 
proper  manner. 

C.  Assembling  the  passengers. 


Stewardesses. 
Stateroom  Stewards. 


Chief   Steward    and    Senior 

Assistant  Stewards. 
Purser  and  Asst.  Stewards. 


D.  Keeping  order  in  the  pas- 
sages and  on  the  stairways 
and,  generally,  controlling 
the  movement  of  the  pas- 
sengers. 

The  Muster  List  specifies  definite  alarm  signals  for  calling 
all  the  crew  to  the  boat  and  fire  stations. 

Boat  Stations 

1.  Muster  at  stations.    Put  on  life-belts. 

2.  See  that  the  boat-falls  are  made  fast. 

3.  Remove  boat  covers  and  boat-faUs,  pass  out  painters,  and 
see  that  boat-falls  are  clear  for  running. 

4.  Cast  adrift  gripes. 

5.  Heave  on  boat-falls  to  take  weight  of  boat. 

6.  Turn  down  chocks. 

7.  Cast  adrift  guys  and  heave  out  boat. 

8.  Man  boat  and  lower  away  on  both  tackles. 

9.  Either  lower  boat  right  into  the  water  or  to  the  passenger 
deck  rail  to  embark  passengers  as  the  Commander  may  direct. 

10.  When  lowering  the  boat  into  the  water,  let  go  both  boat- 
faUs  directly  the  boat  touches  the  water.  Release  gear.  The 
two  men  lowering  the  boat  will  slide  down  the  f aUs  into  the  boat 
as  soon  as  she  is  in  the  water  and  the  falls  let  go. 

11.  Where  a  second  boat  is  to  be  launched  from  the  same 
davits  the  second  boat's  crew  will  have  her  aU  prepared  (cover 
oflf,  gripes  adrift,  etc.)  during  the  lowering  of  the  first  boat,  and 
as  soon  as  the  first  boat  is  away  they  will  round  up  the  faUs  and 
launch  their  boat. 


PASSENGER  VESSELS 


377 


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STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


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PASSENGER  VESSELS 


379 


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STANDARD    SEAMANSHIP 


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3    . 
5 


PASSENGER  VESSELS 


381 


N,B, — Members  of  the  Crew  must  recognize  the  man  ap- 
pointed to  he  in  charge  of  the  boat,  whether  officer  or  seaman. 
He  must  be  recognized  by  the  boaVs  Crew  as  being  in  charge. 


•i 


General  Instructions  for  Fire  Drill 

1.  Upon  hearing  the  signal  for  fire  quarters,  each  member  of 
the  crew  will  take  a  station  quickly,  quietly,  and  without  crowding 
or  confusion. 

2.  Upon  hearing  the  alarm,  attend  to  your  specific  duty,  which 
may  be  any  of  the  following :  (Rapid  ringing  of  ships  bell,  see 

p.  375). 

(a)  Leading  out  and  clearing  away  hose. 

(b)  Seeing  that  nozzles  are  coupled  and  secure. 

(c)  Opening  valves  to  fire  lines. 

(d)  Hand  pumps  clear  fpr  operating. 

(e)  Water  tight  doors  closed. 

(f)  Fire  extinguishers  taken  from  racks  and  to  stand  by  for 

instructions. 

(g)  Standing  by  with  filled  water  buckets. 

(h)  Standing  by  with  fire  axes  under  direction  of  Chief  Officer 

or  Master. 
(i)    Standing  by  to  assist  passengers  and  distributing  life 

preservers. 
(j)   Attending  and  turning  on  emergency  lights  distributed 

throughout  the  vessel. 
(k)  Starting  fire  pump  under  direction  of  engineer. 

3.  Attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  each  master  of  a  vessel 
may  have  individual  ideas  of  the  method  of  conducting  drill  and 
the  assignment  of  crew.  Also,  it  devolves  upon  each  member  of 
the  force  on  board  to  learn  thoroughly  the  method  used  on  the 
particular  vessel  on  which  he  serves  and  abide  by  the  wishes  of 
the  master. 

4.  Upon  the  conclusion  of  fire  drill — "  Secure  "  is  usually 
given  by  one  stroke  of  ship's  bell,  and  upon  hearing  this  signal 
each  member  of  the  crew  will  stand  by  at  his  station  for  the 
"  dismissed  "  signal. 

General  Boat  Alarm  Signal  may  be  six  short  blasts  of  steam 
whistle  or  sounding  on  the  siren. 


382 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


General  Instructions  for  Boat  Drill 

1.  Upon  hearing  the  signal  for  "  abandoning  ship,"  each 
member  of  the  crew  wiU  take  his  station  quickly,  quietly,  and 
without  crowding  or  confusion. 

2.  Upon  hearing  the  alarm,  attend  to  your  specific  duty,  which 
may  be  any  of  the  following: 

(a)  Attending  forward  or  after  boat  faU,  clearing  away  same 

and  making  ready  for  running. 

(b)  Removing  boat  cover  and  casting  off  gripes. 

(c)  In  boat  and  put  on  cap  of  automatic  plug. 

(d)  Taking  out  or  releasing  boat  chocks. 

(e)  Casting  off  forward  or  after  guys  after  the  boat  is  hoisted" 

and  rebooking  after  boat  is  swung  out. 

(f)  In  boat  and  bearing  off  when  being  lowered. 

(g)  Securing  side  ladder. 

(h)  In  boat  and  casting  off  releasing  hook  lanyards  or  standing 

by  releasing  gear  lever. 
(i)    Directing  passengers  and  assisting-in  the  distribution  of 

life  preservers. 
(j)   Casting  off  the  lashmgs  of  life  rafts. 
(k)  Attending  painter  of  boat  or  raft. 

3.  Attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  each  Master  of  a  vessel 
may  have  individual  ideas  of  the  method  of  conducting  drill  and 
the  assignment  of  crew.  Also,  it  is  encumbent  upon  each  mem- 
ber of  the  force  on  board  to  learn  thoroughly  the  method  used  on 
the  particular  vessel  on  which  he  serves  and  abide  by  the  wishes 
of  the  master. 

4.  Upon  the  conclusion  of  boat  drill  "  Secure  "  is  usually 
given  by  one  stroke  of  ship's  beU,  and  upon  hearing  this  signal 
the  boats  are  hoisted,  swung  in  and  replaced  in  their  chocks. 
The  crew  will  then  stand  by  for  "  dismissed  "  signal. 

Miscellaneous  Remarks  on  Duties  at  Fire  and  Boat  Drill 

1.  If  you  do  not  understand  your  duties  expUcitly,  request 
one  of  the  Mates  or  instructors  to  explain  them  to  you. 

2.  When  leading  out  hose,  see  that  there  are  no  kinks. 

3.  See  that  the  brakes  are  set  on  hand  pump. 

4.  Do  not  invert  fire  extinguishers  until  ready  for  action. 

5.  Drain  hose  before  coiling. 


PASSENGER  VESSELS 


383 


6.  Be  sure  you  know  the  proper  method  of  belaying  a  fall  a  nd 
lowering  away  a  boat  by  means  of  a  turn  on  the  davit  cleat. 

7.  Proper  method  of  adjusting  the  boat  plug,  and  of  handling 
releasing  device  should  be  understood. 

8.  Do  not  give  commands  to  others  but  obey  those  given  by 
the  officer  in  charge  of  your  fire  squad  or  in  charge  of  your 
particular  boat. 

9.  If  a  signal  is  heard  by  you,  quickly  determine  if  fire  or  boat 
alarm. 

The  reader  is  referred  to  the  chapters  on  Boats  and  on  Hand- 
ling a  Steamer  for  further  consideration  of  Fire,  Abandoning 
ship.  Collision,  etc. 

ni 

Baggage 

The  stowage  of  passenger  baggage,  marked  "  Not  Wanted  On 
Voyage  "  is  a  special  duty  and  generally  devolves  upon  the 
supervision  of  one  of  the  officers  who  is  designated  "  baggage 
officer,"  and  has  general  charge  of  the  baggage  hold  or  trunk. 
In  the  S.S.  St.  Louis,  during  her  prime  as  a  passenger  carrier, 
this  duty  fell  to  the  Senior  Second  Officer,  and  such  baggage  was 
stowed  in  a  deep  trunk  hatch  filling  up  the  space  above  the  specie 
room.  To  get  at  the  treasure  it  was  first  necessary  to  hoist  out  a 
thousand  trunks  or  so.  A  special  king  post  rig  was  available  for 
hoisting  this  baggage  out  quickly  and  on  approaching  port,  in 
fine  weather,  the  greater  part  of  it  was  got  up  on  deck  before 
coming  alongside.  It  was  then  slid  down  on  the  dock  for  cus- 
toms inspection  on  long  skids. 

IV 

Mails 

Mail  steamers  on  Transatlantic  and  Transpacific  routes  are 
usually  vessels  of  the  first  class  and  the  handling  of  mail  is 
placed  under  the  supervision  of  one  of  the  jimior  officers  who 
has  his  station  at  the  mail  hatch  on  the  day  of  sailing.  Mail 
usually  comes  on  board  at  the  last  moment  and  must  be  checked 
with  great  care.  The  sea  post  officer  of  the  postal  department, 
who  travels  with  the  vessel,  where  one  is  carried,  is  directly 


« 


I 


384 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


responsible  and  signs  for  the  mail,  having  charge  of  it  during 
the  passage.  In  the  Transatlantic  Service  the  foreign  mail  bound 
for  America  is  sorted  during  the  passage  across  in  the  ship's 
post  office,  under  the  direction  of  this  officer. 

Ship's  officers  are  responsible  for  the  quick  dispatch  over  the 
side,  and  should  have  charge  of  the  slinging  and  handling  of  the 
mail  sacks  on  deck.  Where  mail  is  being  discharged  into  a  mail 
boat,  care  should  be  taken  to  have  nets  under  the  slings. 


Specie 

Most  first-class  vessels  have  a  specie  room  and  from  time  to 
time  transport  great  quantities  of  gold  and  silver.  This  is 
specially  so  of  vessels  in  the  Transatlantic  Trade.  The  specie 
room  is  a  strong  box  located  near  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  A 
good  plan  is  to  locate  this  room  at  the  bottom  of  a  trunk  hatch, 
and  after  the  specie  is  on  board  fill  the  hatch  with  the  baggage 
not  wanted  on  voyage.  This  makes  it  impossible  to  get  at  the 
treasure  without  hoisting  out  the  entire  cargo  of  baggage. 

In  slinging  specie  use  a  wire  net,  and  have  a  stout  treasure 
net  suspended  under  the  gangway. 

Silver  comes  in  pigs  and  is  usually  slid  down  wooden  skids. 

Gold  is  generally  carried  in  kegs  and  should  be  slung  in  nets. 

The  ship's  Purser  usually  signs  for  the  specie  himself.  The 
Master,  however,  is  directly  responsible  and  where  specie  is 
carried  should  satisfy  himself  that  all  necessary  precautions  are 
being  taken. 


CHAPTER  13 


BOATS 


I 


General — Types  of  Construction 

For  many  years  the  small  boat  carried  by  merchant  vessels 
was  subject  to  neglect.  Vessels  went  on  long  voyages  with  their 
boats  bottom  up  lashed  to  skids,  or  perhaps  the  long  boat  was 
used  as  a  convenient  place  for  the  chicken  coop  with  its  attendant 
filth.  Tramp  steamers  worried  around  the  world  with  boats 
sinking  into  their  chocks  and  falls  stiff  and  burned  by  smoke 
and  sun  or  smeared  with  paint.  Few  merchant  men  knew  how 
to  pull  an  oar  and  the  lowering  and  hoisting  of  boats  in  a  seaway 
was  seldom  attempted.  On  many  passenger  lines  boat  stations 
were  held  in  port  while  no  passengers  were  on  board  as  such 
reminders  of  possible  disaster  were  supposed  to  have  a  bad 
effect  on  timid  people. 

These  conditions  were  gradually  amended*  imtil  the  years  of 
the  World  War  when  the  importance  of  boats  and  boat  equipment 
was  driven  home  to  all  concerned.  At  the  present  time  the 
importance  of  life  boat  equipment  is  better  understood  but 
much  remains  to  be  done  to  perfect  boat,  handling,  rigging,  and 
care.  The  writer  feels  strongly  on  the  matter  of  boat  work  and 
would  like  to  see  standard  sail  equipment  adopted,  not  just 
merely  "  sails."  He  would  also  like  to  see  each  vessel  of  the 
merchant  service  fitted  with  at  least  two  handy  rowing  and  sailing 
boats  in  which  the  officers  and  men  might  practice  sailing  diuring 
their  off  duty  hours  in  foreign  ports.  There  is  no  finer  sport, 
and  no  greater  opporttmity  for  attaining  perfection  in  this  art. 

Much  is  said  in  these  pages  about  "  efficiency,"  "  turn 
around,"  etc.    But  the  comfort  and  good  will  of  the  crew  is  an 

*  The  International  Conference  on  Safety  of  Life  at  Sea  was  held  in 
London,  Nov.  12,  1913,  to  Jan.  20,  1914.  Boat  conditions  were  thoroughly 
discussed  and  the  present  regulations  were  drawn  up.  (See  Rules  of  U.  S. 
Steamboat-Inspection  Service.) 

385 


I 


I 


I 


i 
» 

^ 


iU 


If-'   '  *i'. 


[■    I 


386 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


important  factor  in  any  scheme  of  enlightened  management. 
When  this  can  he  added  to  and  safety  increased  through  prac- 
tically no  added  expense,  why  not  provide  at  least  one  real 
sailing  hoat?  With  one  or  two  boats  fit  for  sailing  and  rowing, 
the  merchantman  will  approach  the  wisdom  of  the  man-of-war 
where  all  work  and  no  play  has  long  been  a  thing  of  the  past. 

Boats  may  be  conveniently  classified  with  regard  to  their 
construction  as  follows : 
Boats  built  of  wood —       Boats  built  of  metal — 

Pressed  from  a  single  sheet 
Built  of  strakes,  riveted 

Crimped 
Welded  or  soldered. 


Clinker  built 
Carvel  built 
Diagonal  built 


rSfem 


Ring -for   jj^ 
Pa'infer\   == 


Liffina. 
Shackle 


lifting 
Rod 

Fore  Masi 
Hole 


'Breast  f^oo/f 

^' Fore  Sheets 


/Knees 


Row  Lock 
■'Socket 


Thwarts- -- 


Fore  Mast  --:, 
Step 


Gunwale 


Top  or 
Sheer 
Stroke 

'Rubbing 
Bead 


-Rising 


^vT^Ribs 


Bottom -- 
Boards 


Thwart  _ 
Stanfion 


Bilge 
Strakes 


.■-Planks 


Keelson 
Hog  Piece- 


Gar  board  St  rake 


'"Keel 

Section  of  a  clinker-built  boat. 

Clinker-built,  The  planking  is  generally  thin  with  the  lower 
edge  of  the  plank  overlapping  the  upper  edge  of  the  plank  next 
below,  like  the  clapboards  on  a  frame  house.  The  edges  are 
securely  fastened  together  with  copper  rivets,  plank  to  plank, 
and  with  longer  rivets,  planks  to  frames.  It  is  a  very  light  form 
of  construction,  flexible,  and  surprisingly  strong.     Small  boats, 


I, 


BOATS 


387 


wherries,  dinghies,  etc.,  are  constructed  on  this  principle. 
Many  Class  1  lifeboats  are  so  constructed,  heavier  planks  being 
used  for  larger  boats.  The  illustration  shows  the  parts  of  the 
boat  hull,  corresponding  in  a  general  way  to  the  structure  of 
large  wooden  vessels. 

Clinker  built  life  boats,  resting  in  smooth  chocks,  are  often 
fitted  with  outside  filling  pieces  in  the  wake  of  chocks.  These 
bring  the  outside  surface  of  the  boat  smooth  against  the  chocks 
and  prevent  damage  to  the  edges  of  the  planking.  Filing  pieces 
are  about  a  foot  long  and  are  smoothed  down  fore  and  aft. 

Rowlock 
/Socket 

f-'Ounwale 


Sheer 
Strake 


i  -Knees 


Keelson-- 


Hog  , 
Piece 


^'Plank 


'Bilg*  ffeel 


''-Oarboad  Strake 
—Keel 

Section  of  a  caxvel-buUt  boat. 


Carvel-built,  Here  the  planking  lies  flush,  edge  to  edge  and 
is  made  watertight  by  caulking.  The  planks  are  generally 
thicker,  framing  heavier,  and  boats  of  larger  size.  Whaleboats, 
cutters,  and  launches,  are  of  this  type  of  construction. 

Diagonal-built  boats.  In  this  form  of  construction  two  layers 
of  planking  are  worked  in  from  the  keel  to  the  gimwale,  striking 
away  from  the  keel  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  the  inner 
layer  generally  running  from  the  keel  aft,  and  the  outer  layer 


I 


388 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


from  the  keel  forward,  the  two  layers  crossing  each  other.    A 
layer  of  waterproof  fabric  is  laid  between  the  planks. 


'Rowlocks^ 


<  Wash  Stroke 


Thwcirh( 


■  Stanfions 


Gunwale 
Rubber 


Rising 


-Ouhide 
Planks 


Keelson 


Inside  Planks 


Hog  ,• 
Piece 


Section  of  a  diagonal-built  boat. 


Another  form  of  construction  places  the  inner  skin  of  planking 
on  the  diagonal  system  and  the  outer  skin  fore  and  aft,  carvel 
built. 

This  is  a  very  strong  form  of  construction  and  is  often  em- 
ployed for  the  largest  size  of  life  boats  carried  by  passenger 
vessels. 

Wood  most  used.  Wooden  boats  are  best  constructed  of  oak 
framing  and  long  leaf  yellow  pine  planking^  though  a  great 
variety  of  other  woods  are  employed.  Mahogany  is  used  for 
some  construction,  is  very  durable  and  little  effected  by  weather 
or  wet.  Teak  is  also  an  excellent  wood  for  boat  building,  both 
teak  and  mahogany  being  employed  as  planking  on  rock  elm 
or  oak  framing. 

Where  vessels  trade  in  tropical  climates,  the  teak  or  mahogany 
built  boat  is  an  economy  because  of  its  greater  life. 

Balsa  wood  is  used  for  fenders  and  rafts.  It  is  lighter  than 
cork,  and  has  many  advantages  for  boat  and  raft  construction. 


BOATS 


389 


Metal  boats.  These  are  generally  life  boats  of  the  first  class, 
large  double  ended  deep  bodied  boats  with  high  straight  sides 
fitted  with  the  required  air  chambers,  and  sometimes  with  high 
floors,  over  tanks,  and  self-bailing  valves. 


Open  steel  lifeboat,  curved  keel,  reinforced  type,  equipped  with  power. 

The  metal  boat  is  a  necessity  but  not  a  thing  to  grow  enthusi- 
astic over.  Like  the  boats  with  collapsible  sides,  and  the  pon- 
toon rafts,  it  is  something  to  cling  to  in  time  of  disaster  but  a 
clumsy  craft  for  sailing  or  rowing.  The  metal  power  life  boat, 
however,  is  a  very  able  boat. 


n 

The  Parts  of  a  Small  Boat 

Apron,  Fitted  inside  of  and  strengthening  the  stem  and 
sternpost.  * 

Backboard,  The  piece  of  wood  fitting  across  the  stern  sheets, 
literally  a  "  backboard." 


L  ashing^ 


^^Sftinger  Keelson 

Water  breaker.    Method  of  carrying. 


i 


390 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


Barricoes,  Also  called  "  breakers."  The  small  casks  resting 
on  cradels  on  the  bottom  boards  and  fitting  imder  the  thwarts. 
Used  for  carrying  fresh  water.  Should  be  inspected  each 
passage  and  water  changed.  Also  should  be  fitted  with  a  good 
spigot  to  avoid  spilling,  or  with  a  leather  lip  at  the  btmg. 

Bilge,  Flat  part  of  bottom  on  either  side  of  keel — extending 
to  where  frames  turn  upward,  or  "  the  turn  of  the  bilge." 


'"^'"UpperBreas  fhook 
—-Ring  forStzm  Painter 

—  Rising 

•-Apron 

Lower  Breasfhook 


Vecfdwood    ,, 
Framing  at  after  part  of  a  wooden  boat, 

Boomkin,  Small  boom  projecting  over  the  stern.  Carries  a 
lead  block  through  which  the  mizzen  sheet  is  rove.  The  boom- 
kin  should  rig  in  and  out. 

Bottom  boards.  Loose  boards  fitted  next  the  keelson.  Cor- 
respond to  limbers.  Are  held  in  place  by  wooden  "  buttons." 
Should  be  lifted  in  cleaning  out  boat. 

Bow,    Fore  part  of  a  boat. 

Cleats,  The  usual  wooden  or  metal  fittings  for  belaying 
sheets,  halyards,  etc. 

Counter.  The  overhanging  portion  of  the  stern  in  a  square  or 
oval  stern  construction. 

Deadwood,  The  inside  knees  joining  the  stem  and  stern 
posts  and  the  keel. 

Fenders,  Bow  and  side  fenders,  made  of  leather  and  stufifed 
with  oakum,  or  of  cork  or  balsa  wood,  and  used  as  added  bouy- 
ancy. 


BOATS 


391 


Floors,    The  inside  planking  running  over  the  ribs.^ 

Frames,    The  transverse  timbers  of  a  boat. 

Garhoard  stroke.  The  stroke  of  plank  on  either  side,  next 
to  the  keel. 

Gripes,  These  fittings  are  not  exactly  part  of  the  boat,  being 
long  strips  of  sword  mat,  or  roped  canvas  fitted  with  eyes  and 


Upper  Breqs-thook- 

Pain  fer  Ring  — 


Rising— 


Keey 

'Deadwood 

Framing  at  fore  part  of  a  wooden  boat. 

tails  and  uged  for  griping  boats  into  the  strongback  when  swung 
outboard  at  sea.  Gripes  are  fitted  with  a  slip  toggle  for  quick 
releasing.  Iron  clamps,  chain  and  turnbucMes,  fitted  with 
releasing  hooks  are  used  for  boats  resting  in  chocks. 

Gudgeons,  The  eyes  on  the  stern  post  for  the  reception  of  the 
pintles  on  the  rudder.  Pintles  and  gudgeons  form  the  hinge 
upon  which  the  rudder  swings.  The  lower  pintle  should  be  an 
inch  longer  than  the  upper  one.  In  many  boats  the  gudgeons 
are  really  on  the  rudder,  being  split  rings,  shipping  over  a  bulb 
on  the  stern  and  swinging  through  suitable  openings  near  the 
top  and  bottom  of  this  bulb.  This  is  easy  to  ship  but  not  very 
reliable. 

Gunwale,  The  "  gunnell."  The  top  strake  of  a  boat,  gener- 
ally a  square  section,  rounded  on  the  outside  with  a  rubbing 
streak,  and  fitting  over  the  top  ends  of  the  framing.  The  built 
up  or  "  box  "  gimwale  is  often  used. 


I 


392 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


Head  ^eeis.  The  small  platform  forward  of  the  foremost 
thwart. 

Hood  ends.  The  ends  of  planking  where  same  enters  rabbets 
and  is  nailed  to  stem  and  stern  posts. 

Keel,    The  timber  upon  which  the  framing  is  erected. 

Keelson  board.  The  board  covering  the  framing  ends  where 
they  join  the  keel.  The  mast  steps  are  cut  into  or  are  bolted  to 
this  board.    It  also  supports  the  thwart  pillars. 

Knees,  Fitted  against  the  timbers  over  the  thwarts.  The 
knees  should  be  carefully  selected  grown  timbers  as  they  add  a 
great  deal  to  the  transverse  strength  of  the  boat. 

Lifting  hooks.  Stout  hooks  or  shackles  at  bow  and  stern 
connected  by  rods  with  lifting  plates  under  the  keel. 

Mast  step.  The  square  hole  in  the  keelson  plank,  or  in  a 
casting,  into  which  the  heel  of  a  mast  steps. 

Mast  clamp,  A  half-round  clamp  for  holding  a  mast  against 
a  thwart. 

Painter,  The  bow  line,  usually  spliced  into  the  stem  ring  bolt. 
It  is  a  good  practice  to  fit  two  painters,  at  least  twenty  fathoms 
in  length.  One  of  these  to  be  coiled  down  clear  in  the  fore 
sheets,  the  other,  or  sea  painter  to  be  carried  along  the  deck, 
forward  for  a  distance  of  at  least  four  ti6ies  the  freeboard  and 
made  fast.  If  boats  are  lowered  when  the  vessel  has  headway, 
the  sea  painter  will  help  keep  the  boat  imder  control.  Sea 
painters  should  always  be  carried  out  on  the  emergency  life 
boats. 

Pintles,    Described  under  "  gudgeons." 

Plug,  This  fitting,  used  to  plug  the  drainhole  next  the  keel, 
should  be  fitted  with  a  lanyard  of  brass  jack  chain.  A  spare  plug 
should  be  carried.  Plug  is  always  removed  when  a  boat  is 
hoisted,  and  inserted  before  lowering.  In  metal  boats  auto- 
matic check  valves  are  used. 

Poppets,  The  filling  pieces  used  in  cutters  where  box  row- 
locks are  cut  into  the  gunwale. 

Rabbet,  The  groove  in  the  stem  and  sternposts  into  which 
the  hood  ends  fit. 

Releasing  gear.  The  special  arrangements  of  hooks,  cams, 
toggles,  etc.,  by  which  a  boat  is  released  from  her  falls  when 
waterbourn  or  near  the  water. 

Rising,  The  narrow  stringers  on  either  side  upon  which  the 
thwarts  rest,  also  called  Wales, 

Rowlocks,  The  forked  metal  pieces  in  which  the  oars  work 
while  pulling.  These  are  fitted  to  sockets  in  the  gunwale  and 
the  ends  should  be  fitted  with  chain  or  rope  lanyards.  Sunken 
rowlocks  are  those  where  boxes  are  cut  into  the  gtmwale,  the 
forward  side  concave  to  prevent  the  lifting  of  the  oars. 

Rudder,  The  steering  board  hinged  on  the  sternpost  by 
pintles  and  gudgeons. 


BOATS 


393 


Sheer,  The  sweeping  curve  of  the  gunwale  when  compared 
with  the  straight  waterline;  low  amidship,  high  at  bow  and 
stern. 

Sheer  strake.    The  upper  strake  just  under  the  gunwale. 

Slings,  Chain  and  wire  spans  passing  through  ring  bolts  at 
top  of  stem  and  sternpost  and  down  to  link  or  lifting  plates  on  the 
keel.  Steadying  lines  rtm  from  the  center  of  the  slings  to  each 
side  at  the  gimwale.    A  rig  used  in  hoisting  with  a  single  davit. 

Stem,    The  foremost  timber  in  the  framing  of  a  boat. 

Steering  rowlock,  A  large  swivel  rowlock,  mounted  on  a 
crutch  with  horizontal  pivots,  while  crutch  ships  in  a  socket  on 
the  gunwale  near  the  sternpost.  Made  to  take  a  long  steering 
oar,  which  should  be  fitted  with  a  trailing  line  to  prevent  loss 
of  oar  if  let  go. 

Sternfast,    An  after  painter. 

Stern  post.    The  aftermost  upright  timber  in  the  framing. 

Stern  sheets.    That  part  of  boat  abaft  the  aftermost  thwart. 

Strakes,  The  continuous  fore  and  aft  lines  of  planking  or 
plating. 

Stretchers,  Pieces  of  wood  running  athwart  ship  and  fitting 
into  chocks  in  the  floor.  The  rowers  brace  their  feet  against 
the  stretchers  when  pulling. 

Tabernacle,  A  wooden  or  metal  frame  running  from  the 
thwart  to  the  mast  step  for  guiding  the  heel  of  mast  when 
stepping  in  a  seaway. 

Thwarts.  The  cross  seats  on  which  the  oarsmen  sit.  When 
one  oarsman  sits  on  a  thwart,  as  in  a  whaler,  the  boat  is  said 
to  be  single  banked.  Where  the  rowlocks  are  abreast  of  each 
other,  and  two  men  sit  on  the  same  thwart  the  boat  is  said  to  be 
double  banked. 

Tiller,  This  is  the  lever  by  which  the  rudder  is  moved  from 
side  to  side.  It  is  the  fundamental  steering  device,  the  helm, 
about  which  so  much  is  said  at  sea.  In  learning  the  handling 
of  large  ships  by  first  mastering  the  secrets  of  small  boats,  the 
use  and  meaning  of  the  helm  or  tiller  is  driven  home.  Therefore 
Starboard  actually  means  something,  for  the  man  receiving  and 
the  man  giving  the  order  see,  in  their  mind's  eye,  that  the  tiller 
goes  to  starboard. 

This  reversal  of  names  (an  apparent  thing)  comes  down  from 
the  time  when  the  master  shipman,  knowing  that  he  wanted  the 
vessel's  head  to  go  to  port,  called  out  starboard  to  the  man  at 
the  helm  or  tiller,  and  said  thickheaded  mariner  jambed  the 
tiller  to  starboard,  as  he  was  told. 

The  small  boat  is  a  great  thing  for  getting  the  fundamentals 
of  the  sea. 

Trailing  lines.  Small  lines  secured  around  the  rising  and  to 
the  loom  of  the  oar  by  an  eye  splice  forming  a  slip  noose.    When 


' 


I 


394 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


oars  are  allowed  to  "  trail "  the  lines  keep  them  from  running 
overboard. 

Transom,  The  board  fitted  to  the  after  side  of  the  sternpost  in 
a  "  square-sterned  "  boat. 

Wales,  The  light  stringers  upon  which  the  thwarts  rest,  also 
called  the  rising. 

Wash  boards.  Canvas  or  boards  fitted  on  top  of  rails  to 
increase  the  freeboard. 

Yoke,  The  thwartship  piece  of  wood  or  metal  fitting  over  the 
rudder  head  to  which  the  yoke  lines  are  attached. 

ni 

Classes  of  Boats 

The  International  Conference  on  Safety  At  Sea*  divided 
standard  lifeboats  in  two  classes — ^those  with  rigid  sides,  called 
Class  I  boats,  and  those  with  partly  collapsible  sides,  called 
Class  n  boats.  Both  classes  were  subdivided  into  three  sec- 
tions, and  these  rules  have  been  made  part  of  the  regulations 
for  safety  at  sea  embodied  in  the  famous  Seamen's  Act  of  1915. 

As  these  regulations  are  a  part  of  the  navigation  law,  and  are 
the  basic  rules  for  all  American  lifeboat  equipment,  they  have 
been  included  in  the  General  Rules  and  Regulations  regard- 
ing boats  made  by  the  Board  of  Supervising  Inspectors,  U.  S. 
Steamboat-Inspection  Service.  These  laws  and  rules,  made 
according  to  law,  should  be  studied  carefully  by  the  seaman 
who  must  master  the  management  and  care  of  his  boats.  The 
U.  S.  Steamboat-Inspection  Service  supplies  the  U.  S.  Rules 

free  of  charge. 

Motor  Boats 

When  motor  boats  are  accepted,  the  volume  of  internal  buoy- 
ancy and,  when  fitted,  the  external  buoyancy,  must  be  fixed, 
having  regard  to  the  difference  between  the  weight  of  the  motor 
and  its  accessories  and  the  weight  of  the  additional  persons  which 
the  boat  could  accommodate  if  the  motor  and  its  accessories 
were  removed. 

All  ocean  steam  vessels  of  more  than  2,500  gross  tons  canying 
passengers,  whose  route  at  any  point  lies  more  than  200  miles 
offshore,  shall  carry  at  least  one  motor-propelled  lifeboat  as  a 
part  of  their  required  lifeboat  equipment:  Provided,  That  any 
vessel  imder  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Steamboat-Inspection 
Service  may  carry  one  motor-propelled  lifeboat  as  a  part  of  the 

*  See  footnote,  page  385. 


BOATS 


395 


required  lifeboat  equipment,  but  on  vessels  carrying  more  than 
six  lifeboats  under  davits,  two  of  such  lifeboats  may  be  motor- 
propelled. 

The  engine  for  such  motor-propelled  lifeboats  shall  be  of  a 
reliable  internal-combustion  type,  and  shall  be  substantially 
and  permanently  installed  inside  the  boat.  It  shall  be  of  suf- 
ficient power  to  propel  the  boat  when  loaded  to  its  full  capacity 
at  a  speed  of  at  least  5  miles  per  hour  in  smooth  water  without 
favorable  current,  and  shall  have  an  endurance  of  at  least  24 
hours  under  the  above  conditions. 


Lundin  housed  power  lifeboat  towing  Lundin  decked  lifeboat 
and  open  lifeboat.    Radio  equipment  on  power  boat. 

The  motor  shall  be  protected  by  a  water-tight  inclosure,  the 
top  of  which  shall  be  fitted  so  that  it  may  be  removed  when 
necessary,  and  there  shall  be  fitted  in  the  top  a  mushroom  venti- 
lator. 

The  motor  of  each  lifeboat  shall  be  operated  under  service 
conditions  for  a  period  of  not  less  than  five  minutes  once  at  least 
in  every  seven  days  in  order  that  it  may  be  ready  for  service 
at  any  time.  Such  operation  shall  be  a  part  of  the  lifeboat  drill, 
and  the  fact  of  such  operation  shall  be  made  a  part  of  the  report 
of  such  drill. 

All  fittings,  pipes,  and  connections  shall  be  of  the  highest 
standard  and  best  workmanship  and  in  accordance  with  the 
best  modem  practice. 


396 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


The  fuel  for  such  motors  shall  be  contained  in  substantial 
tanks  of  seamless  steel,  welded  steel,  or  copper,  securely  and 
firmly  fitted  in  the  lifeboat  and  located  where  the  greatest  safety 
will  be  secured,  and  the  storage  of  fuel  other  than  in  the  lifeboat 
using  it  is  prohibited. 

In  computing  the  cubical  capacity  of  motor-propelled  lifeboats 
the  space  required  for  the  motor  and  fuel  shall  be  excluded,  and 
in  fixing  the  air-tank  requirements  the  weight  of  the  motor  and 
its  accessories  shall  be  carefully  considered  in  the  calculation 
and  allowance  made  for  the  extra  bouyancy  required  for  such 
weights. 

Capacity  of  Boats  and  Pontoon  Rafts 

First.  The  number  of  persons  which  a  boat  of  one  of  the 
standard  types  or  a  pontoon  raft  can  accommodate  is  equal  to 
the  greatest  whole  number  obtained  by  dividing  the  capacity  in 
cubic  feet,  or  the  surface  in  square  feet,  of  the  boat  or  of  the 
raft  by  the  standard  unit  of  capacity,  or  unit  of  surface  (according 
to  circumstances),  defined  below  for  each  type. 

Second.    The  cubic  capacity  in  feet  of  a  boat  in  which  the 
number  of  persons  is  determined  by  the  surface  shall  be  assumed 
to  be  ten  times  the  number  of  persons  which  it    -^       ,,  ^ 
is  authorized  to  carry.  ^^  *""•  ^'-  ^^^ 

Third.    The  standard  units  of  capacity  and   ^^^^^'^ 
surface  are  as  follows : 

Units  of  capacity,  open  boats,  type  lA,  ten  cubic  feet;  open 
boats,  type  IB,  nine  cubic  feet. 

Unit  of  surface,  open  boats,  t3rpe  2A,  three  and  one-half  square 
feet;  pontoon  boats,  type  2  C,  three  and  one-half    ,., 
square  feet;  pontoon  boats,  type  IC,  three  and    ^^{f  ^^'  7;  ^J^ 
one-fourth  square  feet;  pontoon  boats,  type  2B,     /*  *^*  ^     ^^^ 
three  and  one-fourth  square  feet.  person 

Fourth.  The  board  of  Supervising  Inspectors,  with  the 
approval  of  the  Secretary  of  Commerce,  may  accept,  in  place  of 
three  and  one-fourth,  a  smaller  divisor,  if  it  is  satisfied  after 
trial  that  the  number  of  persons  for  whom  there  is  seating  accom- 
modation in  the  pontoon  boat  in  question  is  greater  than  the  num- 
ber obtained  by  applying  the  above  divisor,  provided  always 
that  the  divisor  adopted  m  place  of  three  and  one-fourth  may 
never  be  less  than  three. 

Equivalents  for  and  Weight  of  the  Persons 

In  test  for  determining  the  number  of  persons  which  a  boat 
or  pontoon  raft  can  accommodate  each  person  shall  be  assumed 
to  be  an  adult  person  wearing  a  life  jacket. 

In  verifications  of  freeboard  the  pontoon  boats  shall  be  loaded 


BOATS 


597 


with  a  weight  of  at  least  one  hundred  and  sixty-five  pounds  for 
each  adult  person  that  the  pontoon  boat  is  authorized  to  carry. 
In  all  cases  two  children  under  twelve  years  of  age  shall  be 
reckoned  as  one  person. 

Cubic  Capacity  of  Open  Boats  of  the  First  Class 

First.    The  cubic  capacity  of  an  open  boat  of  type  lA  or  IB 
shall  be  determined  by  Stirling's  (Simpson's)  rule  or  by  any 
other  method,  approved  by  the  Board  of  Super-    g^gy;,„^»5  -» 
vising  Inspectors,  giving  the  same  degree  of    simpson^sj  ^^^^ 
accuracy.    The  capacity  of  a  square-sterned  boat 
shall  be  calculated  as  if  the  boat  had  a  pointed  stem. 

Second.  For  example,  the  capacity  in  cubic  feet  of  a  boat, 
calculated  by  the  aid  of  Stirling's  rule,  may  be  considered  as 
given  by  the  following  formula: 

Capacity  =  ^  (4A  +  2B  +  4C) 

1  being  the  lenght  of  the  boat  in  feet  from  the  inside  of 
the  planking  or  plating  at  the  stem  to  the  corresponding  point 
at  the  stern  post;  in  the  case  of  a  boat  with  a  square  stern,  the 
length  is  measured  to  the  inside  of  the  transom. 

A,  B,  C  denote,  respectively,  the  areas  of  the  cross  sections  at 
the  quarter  length  forward,  amidships,  and  the  quarter  length 
aft,  which  correspond  to  the  three  points  obtained  by  dividing  1  in- 
to four  equal  parts.  (The  areas  corresponding  to  the  two  ends 
of  the  boat  are  considered  negligible.) 

The  areas  A,  B,  C  shall  be  deemed  to  be  given  in  square  feet 
by  the  successive  application  of  the  following  formula  to  each 

of  the  three  cross  sections: 

# 

h 

Area  =  —  (a  +  4b  +  2c  +  4d  +  e). 

h  being  the  depth  measured  in  feet  inside  the  planking  or 
plating  from  the  keel  to  the  level  of  the  gunwale,  or,  in  certain 
cases,  to  a  lower  level,  as  determined  hereafter. 

a,  b,  c,  d,  e  denote  the  horizontal  breadths  of  the  boat  measured 
in  feet  at  the  upper  and  lower  points  of  the  depth  and  at  the 
three  points  obtained  by  dividing  h  into  four  equal  parts  (a  and  e 
being  the  breadths  at  the  extreme  points,  and  c  at  the  middle 
point,  of  h). 

Third.  If  the  sheer  of  the  gunwale,  measured  at  the  two 
points  situated  at  a  quarter  of  the  length  of  the  boat  from  the 
ends,  exceeds  one  per  centum  of  the  length  of  the  boat,  the 
depth  employed  in  calculating  the  area  of  the  cross  sections 


398 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


A  or  C  shall  be  deemed  to  be  the  depth  amidships  plus  one  per 
centum  of  the  length  of  the  boat. 

Fourth.    If  the  depth  of  the  boat  amidships  exceeds  forty-five 
per  centum  of  the  breadth,  the  depth  employed  in  calculating  the 


Steel  lifeboats  nested  under  Steward  davits.     Covered  box  for  boat  fall. 

Davit  swung  out  by  means  of  screw. 

area  of  the  midship  cross  section  B  shall  be  deemed  to  be  equal 
to  forty-five  per  centum  of  the  breadth;  and  the  depth  employed 
in  calculating  the  areas  of  the  quarter-length  sections  A  and  C  is 
obtained  by  increasing  this  last  figure  by  an  amount  equal  to  one 


BOATS 


399 


per  centum  of  the  length  of  the  boat,  provided  that  in  no  case 
shall  the  depths  employed  in  the  calculation  exceed  the  actual 

depths  at  these  points.  .     xt.      *       *«^*  +1,0 

Fifth.  If  the  depth  of  the  boat  is  greater  than  four  feet,  the 
number  of  persons  given  by  the  appUcation  of  this  rule  shall  be 
reduced  in  proportion  to  the  ratio  of  four  feet  to  the  actual  depth, 
until  the  boat  has  been  satisfactorily  tested  afloat  with  that 
number  of  persons  on  board  all  wearing  life  jackets. 

Sixth.  The  Board  of  Supervising  Inspectors  shall  unpose,  by 
suitable  formulae,  a  Ihnit  for  the  number  of  persons  allowed  m 
boats  with  very  fine  ends  and  in  boats  very  fuU  in  form. 

Seventh.  The  Board  of  Supervismg  Inspectors  may  by  regu- 
lation assign  to  a  boat  a  capacity  equal  to  the  product  of  the  lengh, 
the  breadth,  and  the  depth  multiplied  by  six-tenths  if  it  is  evident 
that  this  formula  does  not  give  a  greater  capacity  than  that  ob- 
tamed  by  the  above  method.  The  dimensions  shall  then  De 
measured  in  the  following  manner:  1     1  •  „ 

Length.  From  the  intersection  of  the  outside  of  the  plankmg 
with  the  stem  to  the  corresponding  point  at  the  sternpost  or,  m 
the  case  of  a  square-sterned  boat,  to  the  afterside  of  the  transom. 

Breadth.  From  the  outside  of  the  planking  at  the  pomt  where 
the  breadth  of  the  boat  is  greatest.  .,.    1     1  *^  ♦t,^ 

Depth.  Amidships  inside  the  planking  from  the  keel  to  the 
level  of  the  gunwale,  but  the  depth  used  m  calculatmg  the  cubic 
capacity  may  not  in  any  case  exceed  forty-five  per  centum  of  the 

^""iSu'cases  the  vessel  owner  has  the  right  to  require  that  the 
cubic  capacity  of  the  boat  shall  be  determined  by  exact  measure- 

°^  Eighth.  The  cubic  capacity  of  a  motor  boat  is  obtained  from 
the  gross  capacity  by  deducting  a  volume  equal  to  that  occupied 
by  the  motor  and  its  accessories. 

Deck  Area  of  Pontoon  Boats  and  Open  Boats  of  the  Second  Class 
First.  The  area  of  the  deck  of  a  pontoon  boat  of  ^pe  1  ^ 
2B,  or  2C  shall  be  determmed  by  the  method  indicated  below 
or  by  any  other  method  giving  the  same  degree  of  acc^acy. 
The  same  rule  is  to  be  appUed  in  determmmg  the  area  withm 
the  fixed  bulwarks  of  a  boat  of  type  2A.  ^    *  ^*  «  i.nof 

Second.    For  example,  the  surface  in  square  feet  of  a  boat 
may  be  deemed  to  be  given  by  the  following  formula: 

Area  =  ^  (2a  +  1.5b  +  4c  +  1.5d  +  2e), 

1  being  the  length  in  feet  from  the  intersection  of  the  outside  of 
the  plinkmg  with  the  stem  to  the  correspondmg  pomt  at  the 

sternpost. 
15 


400 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


a,  b,  c,  d,  e  denote  the  horizontal  breadths  in  feet  outside  the 
planking  at  the  points  obtained  by  dividing  1  into  four  equal  parts 
and  subdividing  the  foremost  and  aftermost  parts  into  two  equal 
parts  (a  and  e  being  the  breadths  at  the  extreme  subdivisions, 
c  at  the  middle  point  of  the  length,  and  b  and  d  at  the  inter- 
mediate points). 

Marking  of  Boats  and  Pontoon  Rafts 

The  dimensions  of  the  boat  and  the  number  of  persons  which 
it  is  authorized  to  carry  shall  be  marked  on  it  in  clear,  perma- 
nent characters,  according  to  regulations  by  the  Board  of  Super- 
vising Inspectors,  approved  by  the  Secretary  of  Commerce. 
These  marks  shall  be  specifically  approved  by  the  officers 
appointed  to  inspect  the  ship. 

Pontoon  rafts  shall  be  marked  with  the  number  of  persons  in 
the  same  manner. 

Equipment  for  Lifeboats 

Note:  The  lifeboat  and  raft  equipment  is  that  given  by  the 
U,  S.  Inspectors,  It  is  more  ample  than  that  given  in  the 
Seamen^s  Act.  ' 

All  lifeboats  on  ocean  steam  vessels  shall  be  equipped  as 
follows : 

A  properly  secured  life  line  the  entire  length  on  each  side 
festooned  in  bights  not  longer  than  3  feet,  with  a  seine  float 
in  each  bight. 

One  painter  of  manila  rope  of  not  less  than  23^  inches  in 
circumference  and  of  suitable  length. 

A  full  complement  of  oars  and  two  spare  oars. 

One  set  and  a  half  of  thole  pins  or  rowlocks  attached  to  the 
boat  with  separate  chains. 

One  steering  oar  with  rowlock  or  becket  and  one  rudder  with 
tiller  or  yoke  and  yoke  lines. 

One  boat  hook  attached  to  a  staff  of  suitable  length. 

Two  life  preservers. 

Two  hatchets. 

One  galvanized-iron  bucket  with  lanyard  attached. 

One  bailer. 

Where  automatic  plugs  are  not  provided  there  shall  be  two 
plugs  secured  with  chains  for  each  drain  hole. 

One  efficient  liquid  compass  with  not  less  than  a  2-inch  card. 

One  lantern  containing  sufficient  oil  to  bum  at  least  nine  hours 
and  ready  for  immediate  use. 

One  can  containing  1  gallon  of  illuminating  oil. 

One  box  of  friction  matches  wrapped  in  a  waterproof  package 
and  carried  in  a  box  secured  to  the  underside  of  the  stern 
thwart. 


BOATS 


401 


A  wooden  breaker  or  suitable  tank  fitted  with  a  siphon,  pump, 
or  spigot  for  drawing  water,  and  containing  at  least  1  quart  of 
water  for  each  person. 

Two  enameled  drinking  cups. 

A  water-tight  receptacle  containing  2  pounds  avoirdupois  of 
provisions  for  each  person.  These  provisions  may  be  hard 
bread  or  United  States  Army  ration.  The  receptacle  shall  be 
of  metal,  fitted  with  an  opening  in  the  top  not  less  than  5  inches 
in  diameter,  properly  protected  by  a  screw  cap  made  of  heavy 
cast  brass,  with  machine  thread  and  an  attached  double  toggle, 
seating  to  a  pliable  rubber  gasket,  which  shall  insure  a  tight 
joint,  in  order  to  properly  protect  the  contents  of  the  can. 

Food  or  Provisions  to  be  Carried  in  Lifeboats 

Food  which  produces  unusual  or  immoderate  thirst,  such  as 
corned  beef,  salt  fish,  etc.,  will  not  be  allowed,  under  any  cir- 
cumstances, as  lifeboat  provisions. 

When  hard  bread  only  is  carried  in  the  lifeboat,  there  must  be 
provided  in  addition  thereto  at  least  10  United  States  Army 
emergency  rations. 

The  United  States  Army  emergency  ration  referred  to  above 
shall  be  prepared  in  accordance  with  the  following  formula: 
45.45  per  cent,  chocolate  liquor,  7.27  per  cent,  nucleo-casein, 
7.27  per  cent,  malted  milk,  14.55  per  cent,  egg  albumen,  21.82 
per  cent,  powdered  cane  sugar,  and  3.64  per  cent,  cocoa  butter. 
Percentage  of  moisture  shall  not  exceed  3  per  cent. 

One  canvas  bag  containing  sailmaker's  palm  and  needles,  sail 
twine,  marline,  and  marline  spike. 

A  water-tight  metal  case  containing  12  self -igniting  red  lights 
capable  of  burning  at  least  two  minutes. 

A  sea  anghor. 

A  vessel  containing  1  gallon  of  vegetable  or  animal  oil,  so  con- 
structed that  the  oil  can  be  easily  distributed  on  the  water  and  so 
arranged  that  it  can  be  attached  to  the  sea  anchor. 

A  mast  or  masts  with  one  good  sail  at  least  and  proper  gear  for 
each  (this  does  not  apply  to  motor  lifeboats),  the  sail  and  gear  to 
be  protected  by  a  suitable  canvas  cover.  '  In  case  of  a  steam 
vessel  which  carries  passengers  in  the  North  Atlantic  and  is 
provided  with  a  radiotelegraph  installation,  all  the  lifeboats  need 
not  be  equipped  with  masts  and  sails.  In  this  case  at  least  one 
of  the  boats  on  each  side  shall  be  so  equipped. 

All  loose  equipment  must  be  securely  attached  to  the  boat  to 
which  it  belongs. 

Lifeboats  of  less  than  180  cubic  feet  capacity  on  pleasure 
steamers  are  not  required  to  be  eqtiipped  as  above. 


402 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 
Additional  Equipment  of  Lifeboats 


In  addition  to  the  equipment  already  required  in  lifeboats, 
there  shall  be  provided  a  hand  pump  with  a  plunger  of  not  less 
than  2  inches  in  diameter,  and  a  discharge  pipe  of  sufficient 
length  to  reach  clear  of  the  boat's  side. 

Equipment  for  Life  Rafts 

All  life  rafts  on  ocean  steam  vessels  shall  be  equipped  as 
follows : 

A  properly  secured  life  line  entirely  around  the  sides  and  ends 
of  the  raft,  festooned  to  the  gunwales  in  bights  not  longer  than 
3  feet  with  a  seine  float  in  each  bight. 

One  painter  of  manila  rope  of  2%  inches  in  circumference, 
and  of  suitable  length. 

Four  oars. 

Five  rowlocks  properly  attached. 

One  boat  hook  attached  to  a  staff  of  suitable  length. 

One  self-igniting  life-buoy  light. 

One  sea  anchor. 

A  vessel  containing  1  gallon  of  vegetable  or  animal  oil,  so  con- 
structed that  the  oil  can  be  easily  distributed  on  the  water,  and 
so  arranged  that  it  can  be  attached  to  the  sea  anchor. 

A  water-tight  receptacle  containing  2  pounds  avoirdupois  of 
provisions  for  each  person.  These  provisions  may  be  hard 
bread  or  United  States  Army  ration.  The  receptacle  shall  be 
of  metal  and  fitted  with  an  opening  in  the  top  not  less  than 
5  inches  in  diameter,  properly  protected  by  a  screw  cap  made  of 
heavy  cast  brass,  with  machine  thread  and  an  attached  double 
toggle,  seating  to  a  pliable  rubber  gasket,  which  shall  insure  a 
tight  joint,  in  order  to  properly  protect  the  contents  of  the  can. 

A  water-tight  receptacle  containing  1  quart  of  water  for  each 
person. 

Two  enameled  drinking  cups. 

A  water-tight  metal  case  containing  six  self-igniting  red  lights 
capable  of  burning  at  least  two  minutes. 

A  water-tight  box  of  matches. 

All  loose  equipment  must  be  securely  attached  to  the  raft  to 
which  it  belongs. 

Stowage  of  Boats — Number  of  Davits 

The  minimum  number  of  sets  of  davits  is  fixed  in  relation  to 
the  length  of  the  vessel;  provided  that  a  number  of  sets  of 
davits  greater  than  the  number  of  boats  necessary  for  the 
accommodation  of  all  the  persons  on  board  may  not  be  required. 


BOATS 


403 


Handling  of  the  Boats  and  Rafts 

All  the  boats  and  rafts  must  be  stowed  in  such  a  way  that  they 
can  be  launched  in  the  shortest  possible  time  and  that,  even 
under  unfavorable  conditions  of  Ust  and  trim  from  the  pomt  of 
view  of  the  handling  of  the  boats  and  rafts,  it  may  be  possible 
to  embark  in  them  as  large  a  number  of  persons  as  possible. 

The  arrangements  must  be  such  that  it  may  be  possible  to 
launch  on  either  side  of  the  vessel  as  large  a  number  of  boats 
and  rafts  as  possible. 

Strength  and  Operation  of  the  Davits 

The  davits  shall  be  of  such  strength  that  the  boats  can  be 
lowered  with  their  full  complement  of  persons  and  equipment, 
the  vessel  being  assumed  to  have  a  list  of  fifteen  degrees. 

The  davits  must  be  fitted  with  a  gear  of  sufficient  power  to  in- 
sure that  the  boat  can  be  turned  out  against  the  maximum  list 
under  which  the  lowering  of  the  boats  is  possible  on  the  vessel 

in  question.  .  /  m    j    x 

The  Schat  davits,  a  Dutch  invention,  have  then:  base  tilted  at 
an  angle  of  twenty  degrees.  The  heel  of  the  davit  is  held  by  a 
friction  brake  made  tight  by  the  weight  of  the  boat.  The  upper 
half  of  the  davit  is  inclined.  When  the  brake  is  released  by  a 
lever  the  boat  swings  outboard  by  its  own  weight.  The  boat 
will  swing  outboard  against  a  fifteen  degree  list.  With  a  twenty 
degree  list  the  action  is  similar  to  the  old  fashioned  davit  on  an 
even  keel.  This  gear  is  finding  favor  abroad.  For  rapid  and 
easy  swinging  out  it  is  hard  to  beat. 

Many  rules  have  been  made  by  the  U.  S.  Board  of  Supervising 
Inspectors,  Steamboat-Inspection  service,  and  these  require- 
ments, as  stated  before,  are  always  available  at  the  offices  of 
the  U.  S.  Local  Inspectors. 

The  main  requirements  of  interest  to  the  seaman,  under  the 
heading  of  ship*s  boats,  are  as  follows : 

Lifeboats  and  rafts  shall  be  stripped,  cleaned,  thoroughly 
overhauled  and  painted  at  least  once  in  every  year. 

Lifeboats  and  rafts  shall  at  all  times  be  kfept  clear  for  launching. 

The  complete  required  equipment  must  be  in  the  boats  at  all 
times,  and  nothing  else. 

Boat  davit  falls  shall  at  all  times  be  ready  for  use,  they  shall 
be  protected  from  ice,  shall  never  be  painted. 

All  boat  davit  falls  on  boat  not  swung  out  during  boat  drills^ 
shall  be  cast  loose  and  overhauled. 

Note:  Boat  drills  should  make  use  of  all  boats  in  rotation, 


404 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


BOATS 


405 


swinging  out  a  certain  number  on  each  side  at  each  drill,  entering 
this  data  in  the  log  for  future  reference.  Give  numbers  of  boats 
swung  out  at  each  drill. 

All  boats  must  be  marked  with  a  number,  plainly  painted  on 
each  bow  in  figures  not  less  than  three  inches  high.  No.  1 
forward  on  Starboard  side.  No.  2,  forward  on  Port  side,  and  so 
on  aft.     Odd  numbers  to  Starboard;  even  numbers  to  Port. 

All  lifeboats  must  have  their  cubic  contents  and  number  of 
persons  such  boat  is  allowed  to  carry  plainly  painted  on  each 
bow  in  letters  no  less  than  three  fourths  of  an  inch  high.  This 
same  information  must  also  be  plainly  marked  or  painted  on  top 
of  at  least  two  of  the  thwarts  m  letters  and  figures  not  less  than 
three  inches  high. 

When  these  required  letters  and  figures  are  painted  on  life- 
boats they  shall  be  dark  on  a  light  ground,  or  light  on  a  dark 
ground. 

Life  rafts  shall  have  a  plate  affixed  by  the  builder  containing 
his  name,  number  of  raft,  date  of  construction,  cubical  contents, 
number  of  persons  allowed  by  U.  S.  rules. 

Each  boat  shall  be  of  sufficient  strength  to  permit  it  to  be 
safely  lowered  into  the  water  with  its  full  complement  of  persons 

and  equipment. 

Certificated  Lifeboat  Men  must  be  carried  as  required  by  law. 

(See  Men  on  Deck  or  U.  S.  Navigation  Laws.) 


Special  Types  of  Boats 

Many  special  types  of  life  boats  have  been  developed  and 
much  thought  is  being  given  to  improvements  along  this  line. 
Devices  to  be  acceptable  on  board  U.  S.  Merchant  vessels  must 
first  be  "  approved  "  by  the  Board  of  Supervising  Inspectors  who 
have  formulated  certain  tests  for  the  various  kinds  of  boats  and 
equipment.  These  "  approved  "  boats  and  apparatus  are  listed 
in  the  publications  of  the  Steamboat-Inspection  Service  and  the 
fact  of  such  approval  should  be  clearly  known  before  taking  on 
board  new  devices. 

The  Lundin  decked  lifeboats.  The  Lundin  boat  has  received 
similar  approval  being  rated  as  a  Class  lA  boat.  The  section  of 
the  revised  statutes  dealing  with  this  boat  is  given  below: 


f[  f 


406 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


Lundin  decked  lifeboats  shall  be  accepted  as  equivalent  to 
Class  lA  lifeboats  and  shall  be  rated  and  accepted  as  lifeboats 
under  davits,  and  may  be  placed  in  nests  of  two  under  a  single 


Lundin  Decked  Lifeboats. 
A — Reinforced  steel  hull  construction,  steely  keel  plates. 
B— Fenders,  of  Encysted  Balsa  covered  with  sheet  steel, 
C — Bulkheads  dividing  watertight  compartments. 
D — Manholes  with  watertight  covers. 
E— Self-Bailing  Deck. 
F — Scuppers  with  self-closing  valves. 
G — Folding  weatherboards. 

H— Wooden  guards,  chocking  support  for  upper  boat. 
J — Removable  gratings.  ' 

K — Mills  releasing  gear. 

L— Handle  and  chain  for  releasing  both  Mills  gears  simultaneously. 
M — Mast  hasp. 
N — Water  tanks,  with  faucet. 
P — Life  line  and  floats. 

pair  of  davits.  They  shall  be  fully  equipped  as  lifeboats  as 
required  by  these  rules  and  regulations,  and  shall  be  measured 
in  accordance  with  the  following  formula: 

Cubic  capacity  =  L  X  B  X  D  X  0.9  cubic  feet 
Where  L  =  length  over  all,  in  feet. 

B  =  width  over  fenders,  in  feet. 

D  =  depth  from  top  of  keel  to  top  of  gunwale,  in  feet. 

Example 

28  feet  X  9.3  feet  X  2.6  feet  X  0.9  =  607.6  cubic  feet. 
Allow  10  cubic  feet  to  a  person,  607.6  -^  10  =  60  persons. 


BOATS 


VI 


407 


Letter  from  Capt.  A.  P.  Lundin 

In  response  to  a  letter  from  the  author.  Captain  A.  P.  Lundin, 
Chairman  of  the  Board  of  the  American  Balsa  Company,  and 
inventor  of  the  lifeboat  that  bears  his  name,  very  kindly  has  set 
down  the  result  of  his  years  of  experience  and  study  of  the  life- 
boat problem.  As  vessels  have  reached  a  tremendous  size, 
carrying  thousands  of  persons,  the  problem  of  adequate  lifeboat 
equipment  and  management  calls  for  the  most  careful  con- 
sideration. On  a  man-of-war,  the  whole  crew  are  a  well-drilled 
unit,  while  on  a  large  passenger  liner  with  ninety  per  cent,  of  the 
human  beings  on  board  unskiUed,  many  very  young,  or  old  and 
feeble,  and  with  women  comprising  a  large  proportion,  the 
seamanship  of  boat  handling  that  devolves  upon  the  merchant 
sailor  is  of  the  most  exacting  kind. 

It  is  "  women  and  children  first,  and  passengers  before  the 
crew"  in  time  of  disaster.  The  proud  record  of  merchant 
seamen  the  world  over  attests  the  universal  adherence  to  this 
rule  of  the  sea.  Captain  Lundin's  notes  follow  and  will  bear 
careful  reading. 

Although  a  great  many  improvements  and  new  requirements  have  been 
made  as  regards  lifeboats  during  the  last  four  years  or  so,  a  glance  at  the 
average  liner  going  in  and  out  of  any  large  harbor  will  suffice  to  convince 
one  that  from  the  viewpoint  of  highest  efficiency  and  safety,  there  is  stiU 

much  to  be  desired. 

The  writer,  whose  business  gives  him  ample  opportunity  to  look  over 
the  various  steamships,  has  often  been  impressed  with  the  fact  that  th^ 
present  method  of  stacking  extra  boats,  such  as  flimsy  wooden  collapsibles 
with  canvas  sides,  etc.,  in  heaps  on  the  deck,  without  systematic  plan  for 
getting  them  out,  will  make  conditions  worse,  if  anything,  in  case  the 

ship  sinks.  .  .     i    i    • 

I  firmly  beUeve  that  efficiency  in  lifeboats  on  board  ship,  particularly  m 
time  of  need,  can  only  be  obtained  by  an  unremitting  earnest  study  of  the 
subject  and  by  careful  tests  at  sea,  under  conditions  as  nearly  as  possible 
like  those  prevailing  when  a  disaster  actually  occurs. 

For  a  number  of  years  our  company  has  carried  on  systematic  experi- 
mental work,  and  briefly  speaking,  we  consider  that  the  whole  problem 
resolves  itself  into  these  issues:  Lifeboats,  Chocking  and  Stowing,  Davits, 
Drills,  Rafts. 


i 


''!i 


ih 


408 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


It  is  generally  conceded  that  design,  construction  and  tests  of  the  ordi- 
nary open  lifeboat  presuppose  favorable  conditions,  i.e.,  smooth  water  and  a 
normal  or  regulated  load  of  persons  carried;  in  other  words,  the  ordinary 


Boat  Deck  of  S.  S.  ''Olympic''— Welin  Quadrant  Davits. 

open  lifeboat  has  a  certain  buoyancy  based  on  the  principle  that  the  boat 
will  float,  loaded  to  its  full  capacity  and  partly  filled  with  water.  For  this 
reason  an  open  lifeboat  built  of  wood  is  required  to  have  an  air-tank  capacity 
of  1  cu.  ft.  per  person  and  when  tests  are  made  under  normal  conditions, 
viz.  in  smooth  water,  like  in  harbors,  this  works  very  well. 


BOATS 


409 


A  metallic  lifeboat  is  figured  on  the  same  basis,  only  with  the  difference 
that,  being  constructed  of  a  material  heavier  than  water  and  therefore  sink- 
able  of  its  own  weight,  the  latter  is  required  to  have  an  air-tank  capacity  of 
IV^  cu.  ft.  per  person.  Experiments  and  tests  have  shown  that  the  stability 
and  buoyancy  factors  are  about  equal  in  both  types  of  boats.  The  trouble 
with  both  metallic  and  wooden  boats  of  the  standard  type  is  that  in  most 
cases  of  disaster  at  sea,  conditions  are  not  the  same  as  when  such  equip- 
ment was  tested  out.  To  begin  with,  even  a  moderately  running  sea 
becomes  quite  a  swell  when  we  are  in  a  small  boat,  and  in  severe  weath«r 
this  is  very  much  intensified.  Most  experienced  sailors  know  that  small 
boats,  if  well  handled  and  only  moderately  loaded,  are  quite  safe,  even 
in  a  rough  sea.  The  great  trouble,  however,  lies  in  the  fact  that  in  most 
disasters  at  sea  very  little  attention  is  paid  to  the  rated  capacity  of  each 
specific  lifeboat ;  in  other  words  nobody  has  time  to  ask  whether  a  boat  is 
rated  for  30,  40  or  50  people.  What  actually  takes  place  is  this :  Relatively 
few  lifeboats  are  successfully  launched  and  as  many  people  as  can  possibly 
crowd  in,  pile  into  these,  regardless  of  the  rated  capacity.  Therefore,  the 
comparatively  small  margin  of  safety  in  regard  to  the  load  for  such  open 
lifeboats,  make  them  an  unreliable  proposition.  Besides,  even  if  the  life- 
boats successfully  launched  carry  only  the  rated  number  of  persons,  many 
floating  in  the  water  will  have  to  be  picked  up  or  will  hang  on  to  the  sides 
and  try  to  climb  aboard,  even  at  the  risk  of  capsizing  the  whole  boat  load. 

Then,  when  we  consider  a  combination  of  abnormal  load  and  a  rough 
sea,  it  is  easy  to  understand  why  so  many  lifeboats  capsize,  and  the  tm- 
forttmate  part  is  that  when  such  a  boat  is  overturned,  only  the  expert 
swimmers  or  those  who  have  life  preservers  on,  have  any  chance  for  their 
lives.  In  such  cases  the  most  able  men  or  women  try  to  crawl  on  top  of  the 
capsized  boat  and  in  so  doing  frequently  right  it  again,  but  it  is  now  half 
full  of  water  and  thereby  the  stability  is  still  further  greatly  reduced  so  that 
it  easily  capsizes  a  second  time  and  a  third  time,  even  with  less  than  half 
the  load  with  which  it  originally  started. 

Realizing  all  these  conditions,  we  made  a  radical  change  in  our  designs 
which  resulted  in  the  Lundin  Life  Boats  of  three  or  four  different  types. 
In  comparing  these  t3rpes  with  ordinary  boats,  we  might  say  that  by  keeping 
the  beam  at  the  safe  standard  of  about  1/3  the  length,  we  have  a  greater 
margin  for  stability,  and  our  double  bottom  with  its  3  to  4  cu.  ft.  of  tank 
capacity  per  person,  means  a  great  deal  more  buoyancy  than  IV^  cu.  ft. 
tank  capacity  per  person  in  ordinary  open  boats;  moreover  we  have  the 
added  buoyancy  and  stability  afforded  by  the  fenders. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  our  design  increases  the  factor  of  safety  tremen- 
dously. It  has  been  our  aim  to  construct  a  life  boat  which  will  not  only  take 
care  of  its  rated  capacity  but  all  the  additional  persons  that  may  possibly 
crowd  in.  Actual  tests  have  shown  that  with,  such  an  excess  load,  the 
Lundin  decked  lifeboat  is  a  much  safer  proposition  that  the  ordinary  stand- 
ard lifeboat  with  its  normal  load. 

Of  course  there  are  a  great  many  technical  details  covering  this  subject 
which  might  be  discussed  but  I  will  merely  keep  to  general  principles. 


I 


i 


410 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


It  may  safely  be  stated  that  it  will  take  a  tremendous  amount  of  effort 
and  weight  to  overturn  a  Ltmdin  decked  lifeboat.  When  a  ship  is  sinking, 
it  may  happen  that  such  a  boat  is  overturned  by  hitting  a  smokestack,  mast 
or  spar  of  the  ship,  but  if  boats  of  the  Lundin  open  type  are  overturned, 
they  will  remain  so;  at  least,  it  will  take  just  as  much  efifort  to  right  them 
as  to  capsize  them.  This  is  an  advantage  because  the  flat  bottom  will  act 
as  a  raft,  or  refuge,  for  those  who  have  been  spilled  out,  and  as  many  as  the 
boat  will  hold,  bottom  up,  can  climb  on  without  risking  another  spill. 

Considering  the  lifeboat  question  as  a  whole,  we  know  that  a  demon- 
stration at  sea,  imder  actual  conditions,  will  prove  that  a  ship  equipped 
with  Lundin  lifeboats  for  only  half  the  number  of  people  carried  on  board, 
would  be  far  better  off  than  one  equipped  according  to  the  present  method — 
I.e.,  "  boats  for  all,"  using  all  kinds  of  open  and  folding  boats,  placed  all 
over  the  ship. 

■    Chocking 

Many  ocean  liners  are  so  equipped  and  their  boats  so  stowed  that  the 
possibility  of  being  able  to  launch  more  than  the  outside  and  the  upper  of 
nested  boats,  is  very  remote.  The  lower  boats  and  the  inside  ones  are 
generally  so  chocked  and  griped  down  that  it  is  not  a  matter  of  minutes  but 
of  hours  before  such  boats  could  be  released.  In  most  cases  boats  so  placed 
and  chocked  go  down  with  the  ship.  One  reason  for  this  is  that  the  lower 
outer  boats  in  most  cases  are  so-called  pontoon  boats,  built  of  very  light, 
flimsy  material  and  not  sufficiently  strong  to  carry  the  open  boats,  without 
extra  heavy  chocks  made  up  with  the  help  of  beams,  stanchions,  bolts,  etc. 

We  have  given  particular  attention  to  the  chocking  arrangement  of  what 
we  call  the  Ltmdin  system,  which  is  based  on  the  principle  that  not  only 
the  first  boat  shall  be  launched  with  as  little  effort  and  delay  as  possible, 
but  also  that  the  lower  boat  or  boats  will  be  readily  accessible  and  can  be 
swung  out  and  lowered  in  the  same  manner;  if  the  time  should  not  be 
sufficient  to  launch  the  second  boat,  it  will  still  be  possible  to  make  use  of 
it  by  quickly  releasing  the  gripes  so  that  it  will  float  off  when  the  decks 
are  awash. 

This  question  of  chock  and  gripe  release  arrangement  in  the  Ltmdin 
system  is  a  matter  which  you  wotild  ftilly  appreciate  if,  when  taking  this 
subject  under  consideration  you  wotild  first  go  on  board  some  of  the  trans- 
atlantic liners  and  look  at  the  way  boats  are  fastened  down,  and  then  com- 
pare these  methods  with  our  chocking  and  releasing  system. 

Davits 

The  davit  proposition  has  been  considered  a  problem  by  itself,  but  this 
should  not  be  so  because  it  is  simply  a  part  of  the  lifeboat  system  and  in 
order  to  make  the  lifeboat  eqtiipment  really  useftil  in  time  of  need,  the  best 
possible  davit  eqtiipment  is  imperative.  I  shall  not  here  discuss  the  relative 
merits  of  davits. 

What  I  wish  to  consider  particularly  is  the  arrangement  of  davits  on 
board  ship. 


BOATS 


411 


If  you  will  go  into  this  question,  I  am  stire  you  will  agree  that  it  is  pre- 
ferable to  have  as  many  single-acting  davits,  instead  of  double-acting,  as 
can  be  placed  alongside  the  deck,  and  where  necessary  the  boats  nested 
two  high,  because  in  time  of  disaster  it  has  been  foimd  that  the  boats  most 
likely  to  be  useful,  are  those  placed  farthest  outboard.  Therefore,  I 
believe  the  principal  advantage  of  what  is  called  double  frames  is  that  by 
using  such  frames,  sufficient  longitudinal  deck  space  is  saved  for  one  or 
more  additional  boats  that  can  be  placed  outboard,  rather  than  inboard  of 


»  Welin  Quadrant  Davit  and  Nested  Lundin  Lifeboats. 

The  operation  of  this  Lundin  Lifeboat  system  is  as  follows  {davit  and 
chocking  arrangement  duplicated  at  other  end  of  boats): 
•  Release  pelican  hooks  {A)  and  pull  down  levers  (B)  which  through  a 
connecting  link  tilt  chocks  (C)  and  the  lower  boat.  This  permits  swinging 
out  of  upper  lifeboat  without  hoisting.  Davits  are  operated  by  turning 
crank  handles  (D)  actuating  travelling  nuts  (E)  connected  to  davit  arms. 
The  travel  of  the  arm  on  the  quadrant  (F)  results  in  a  moving  pivotal  point 
which  gives  a  much  greater  outreach  than  would  be  possible  for  the  same 
length  of  arm  with  a  stationary  pivotal  point.  The  full  weight  of  arm  arui 
supported  boat  is  transferred  to  the  deck  through  a  flange  (G)  on  the  quad- 
rant rolling  in  a  slot  in  the  base  of  the  frame.  The  teeth  of  the  quadrant 
prevent  it  from  slipping.  The  falls  run  from  lowering  bollards  over  sheaves 
through  non-toppling  blocks  (/).  In  the  arrangement  of  double  com- 
pensation the  standing  part  of  the  falls  is  fastened  to  eyes  (K);  under 
single  compensation,  the  standing  part  is  fastened  to  the  lower  block. 


^ 


412 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


other  boats.  It  has  been  argued  that  by  using  double  frames,  there  wiU 
be  a  certain  lapse  of  time  between  launching  of  the  boats,  viz.  where  there 
are  8  units  of  lifeboats  on  each  side  with  6  double  frames,  it  would  not  be 
possible  to  swing  out  more  than  4  boats  simultaneously;  stiU  I  beUeve 
that  practical  tests  wiU  show  it  would  be  by  far  safer  to  sacrifice  a  few 
seconds  and  swing  out  only  4  boats  at  a  time,  than  swing  out  and  launch 

all  the  boats  at  once,  particularly  if 
there  is  any  sea  nmning  and  the 
ship  rolling  or  pitching  more  or 
less. 

I  think  every  effort  should  be 
made  to  maintain  single  units  -of 
life-boats  with  boats   one   or  two 
high,  2.e.,  single  banked.    In  double 
banking  there  are  always  difficul- 
ties to  overcome  when  it  comes  to 
launching  the  boats,  and  we  still 
know  of  no  better  and  more  effi- 
cient arrangement  to   meet  those 
difficulties  than  the  double-acting 
Welin  daVits,   although  even  this 
installation  take  considerable  time 
before  all  the  boats  can  be  laimched. 
More  than  one  inner  boat  should 
never  be  allowed  in  double  bank- 
ing, the  reason  therefore  being  that 
in  case  of  a  ship  sinking  so  quickly 
that  as  a  rule  not  more  than  one 
lifeboat  imder  each  pair  of  davits 
can  be    laimched,   the    remaining 
boats  when  only  one  high,  can  still 
be  of  service  when  released  as  the 
decks  get  awash.    Of  course,  it  is 
still   worse    when   the    boats   are 
double  banked  with  no  mechanical 
equipment   to    launch   the    inside 
boats;   this  is  sometimes  the  case 
on  board  passenger   liners.     This 
ought  to  receive  very  serious  con- 
sideration, particularly  if  a  disas- 
trous  fire  should  occur  on  board 
such  a  ship. 
I  would  state  that  there  are  a  good  many  detaUs  about  lifeboat  equip- 
ment which  might  be  considered  of  small  importance,  still— when  it  comes 
to  a  matter  of  life  and  death,  and  not  only  minutes  but  seconds  count,  very 
often  the  least  friction  or  halt  means  much.    I  therefore  urge  ship  masters 


Hoisting  and  Lowering  Control  on 

S.  S.  "  Olympic." 
Each  control  unit  serves  two  sets 
of  Welin  Quadrant  Davits.  Falls  A 
and  B  lead  to  the  two  davits  of  the 
right  hand  set  over  sheaves  at  the 
base  of  davit  frame.  The  boat  is  kept 
on  an  even  keel  by  means  of  one  equal- 
izer, C,  for  each  set  of  davits.  The 
davits  are  swung  outboard  through 
crank  handles  operating  the  screws 
direct  or  through  gears  D. 


BOATS 


413 


and  steamship  owners  to  take  this  matter  as  seriously  as  it  deserves  and 

give  due  consideration  to  each  and  every  detail.     Such  details  as  boat 

covers,  releasing  gear,  gripes,  boat  falls,  lowering  bollards,  and  reels  or 

tubs  for  the  boat  falls,  etc.,  should  be  properly  taken  care  of  when  the 

equipment  is  being  installed,  it  can  be  done  at  practically  no  extra  cost. 

A  practical  sea-faring  man  should  be  given  supervision.    I  am  sorry  to 

state  that  there  seems  to  be  a  disinclination  to  give  these  details  sufficient 

attention. 

Boat  Drills 

We  must  bear  in  mind  that  there  is  one  important  question  in  regard  to 
lifeboat  equipment  which  cannot  be  taken  too  seriously — and  that  is  the 
boat  drill,  so  that  the  men  may  familiarize  themselves  with  the  necessary 


Three  types  of  life  boats:     ' 
A — Open  steel  life  boat,  standard  type. 
g — Broady  class  2-A  life  boat — nested  under  standard  boat. 
C — Two  Lundin  decked  life  boats  nested. 
D — Welin  quadrant  davits  with  non- toppling  blocks. 

operations  and  in  this  connection  I  wish  to  point  out  that  a  great  deal  would 
certainly  be  gained  if  the  various  steamship  lines  would  endeavor  to  stand- 
ardize their  equipment  as  much  as  possible,  instead  of  fitting  out  each 
independent  ship  with  different  apparatus  and  different  types  of  boats,  etc. 
By  standardizing  such  equipment  it  would  obviate  a  great  deal  of  unneces- 
sary training  of  the  individual  men  on  each  ship,  particularly  as  the  average 
sailor  is  more  or  less  restless  and  often  goes  from  one  ship  to  another. 


Ill 


414 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Another  important  question  of  the  boat  drill  is  to  provide  apparatus  and 
equipment  that  will  make  the  drill  as  easy  as  possible,  there  by  encouraging 
the  men  rather  than  discouraging  their  actual  efforts.    For  that  reason 
provision  should  be  made  to  hoist  the  boats  after  each  drill  by  motor  power 
instead  of  by  hand.    The  best  and  most  sensible  way  to  do  this  would  be 
to  have  one  or  two  small  electric  winches  on  each  side  of  the  boat  deck  with 
ring  bolts  for  snatch  blocks  to  lead  the  falls  to  such  winches.    I  do  not 
favor  independent  controls  for  each  pair  of  davits  unless  such  controls  are 
of  the  most  perfect  and  up-to-date  design  which,  as  a  rule,  costs  a  great 
deal  of  money  and  also  involves  much  expense  in  upkeep.    Besides,  when- 
ever independent  controls  are  used  it  is  necessary  to  use  wire  instead  of 
rope,  and  I  am  too  old  fashioned  to  look  without  a  certain  amotmt  of  suspi- 
cion on  wire  rope  when  used  in  connection  with  lifeboat  work.    It  is  all 
very  true  that  wire  is  used  very  successfully  not  only  in  the  operation  of 
elevators  and  cranes,  but  also  on  board  ship  in  handling  cargo,  but  that  is 
quite  a  different  thing,  for  in  such  cases  the  wires  are  more  or  less  protected 
or  else  stored  away  when  the  ship  is  at  sea.    Wire  rope  for  boat  falls  is 
expected  to  stand  a  great  deal  longer  than  hemp  or  manila  rope.    It  is  aliso 
harder  to  see  what  takes  place  inside  such  wire  falls  when  subjected  to 
such  severe  conditions  as  on  the  high  seas.    Besides,  I  am  absolutely  sure 
that  the  wire  ropes  used  for  elevators,  cranes,  and  cargo  winches,  etc., 
would  not  work  anywhere  as  satisfactory  if  same  were  operated  from  the 
top  deck  of  a  ship  on  a  stormy  night  out  at  sea,  or  in  other  words,  under  such 
difficult  conditions  as  take  place  when  it  is  necessary  to  abandon  the  ship. 
I  foresee  that  lots  of  trouble  would  arise — there  may  be  kinks,  and  the  falls, 
as  everybody  knows,  are  apt  to  run  foul  and,  of  course,  with  the  ordinary 
manila  rope  this  could  readily  be  taken  care  of  by  simply  cutting  the  rope, 
whereas  with  wire  rope  it  would  be  necessary  to  use  an  axe  or  to  carry  along 
heavy  wire  cutters  adding  further  to  the  complications. 

Rafts 

Experience  has  shown  that  rafts  may  prove  very  useful  on  board  ocean- 
going vessels,  in  the  light  of  a  temporary  refuge,  but  if  we  look  over  the 
records  of  recent  disasters  at  sea,  we  will  find  that  whatever  rafts  were 
put  to  use,  it  was  only  for  a  comparatively  short  period  of  time.  In  most 
cases  people  who  had  been  found  floating  about  on  rafts,  were  picked  up 
by  boats  as  soon  as  possible. 

There  are  a  few  instances  where  rafts  have  actually  saved  lives  but  in 
those  cases  the  disaster  occurred  close  to  shore  and  the  refugees  were  not 
left  to  float  about  for  long. 

The  main  difficulty  with  rafts  on  ocean-going  ships  and  liners  is  that 
people  cannot  be  put  on  them  before  they  are  thrown  into  the  water,  i.e.» 
the  raft  is  thrown  overboard  from  the  deck  of  a  liner  and  perhaps  a  wave 
carries  it  a  little  distance  from  the  ship.  People  with  life-preservers 
properly  adjusted,  might  risk  jumping  after  it  but,  unless  they  could  swim, 
they  might  not  reach  the  raft  when  they  landed  in  the  water  and  only  a 


BOATS 


415 


strong,  agile  person — ^let  us  say  a  sailor,  could  hope  to  get  on  board  and  then, 
perhaps,  could  help  others  to  get  on  if  they  floated  near  enough.  In  short 
the  life-saving  efficiency  of  rafts  is  entirely  problematic  and  depends  upon 
conditions.  Where  a  ship  sinks  quickly,  and  hundreds  of  people  are  left 
struggling  in  the  water  with  only  life-preservers  to  keep  them  up,  a  few 
rafts  floating  about  among  them  wotdd  be  of  great  value,  but  so  would  any 
floating  wreckage  to  which  they  could  cling  until  picked  up.  However, 
where  a  ship  is  on  fire,  for  instance,  and  must  be  abandoned  before  she  sinks 
and  the  rafts  can  not  be  floated  off  but  must  be  thrown  from  a  high  deck 
and  the  people  to  be  saved  on  them  must  jump,  or  be  pushed  after  them — - 
it  is  doubtful  whether  this  can  be  done  successfully  when  there  are  women, 
children  and  old  men  to  be  saved. 

It  has  been  proposed  to  build  very  large  rafts  or  detachable  deck  houses 
to  take  care  of  a  great  number  of  people.  Of  cotu'se,  if  a  ship  owner  can 
afford  to  have  special  deck-houses  made,  or  can  arrange  to  stow  rafts  of 
enormous  size  in  such  a  way  that  they  could  be  launched  before  the  decks 
are  awash,  this  might  work  out  all  right,  but  deck  houses  as  a  rule  must 
serve  other  puposes  and  therefore  must  have  doors  and  windows  and  it 
will  be  very  difficult  to  make  these  watertight  when  the  deck  house  is  to 
be  used  as  a  raft.  Furthermore,  very  large  tmits  would  be  undesirable 
because  if  in  a  collision  one  were  damaged,  this  would  throw  out  a  large 
proportion  of  the  safety  equipment.  This  same  objection  also  applies  to 
very  large  lifeboats,  taking  care  of  two  or  three  htmdred  people. 

Generally,  speaking,  I  consider  rafts  useful  in  case  of  disaster  in  smooth 
waters,  such  as  harbors,  rivers  or  bays,  and  also  out  at  sea,  if  it  is  calm  and 
help  is  near  at  hand.  In  rough  weather,  those  who  seek  refuge  on  a  raft, 
will  be  washed  off — ^imless  they  are  strong  and  hardy  and  the  weather  is 
warnif  so  that  the  hands  which  cling  frantically  to  the  raft  will 'not  stiffen 
and  lose  their  hold,  and  unless  the  rafts  are  scientifically  constructed  with 
considerable  freeboard  and  stability  in  addition  to  the  required  buoyancy. 
This  is  very  necessary,  for  when  rafts  are  to  be  used  as  life-saving  equip- 
ment, a  great  deal  more  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  details  of  their 
construction  because  all  life-saving  equipment  should  be  made  as  nearly 
fool-proof  as  possible. 

I  believe  that  actual  demonstrations  out  at  sea  will  show  that  lifeboat 
equipment  is  indispensable  and  rafts  are  merely  'useful  as  a  temporary 
refuge  while  waiting  to  be  picked  up  by  boats  that  are  not  filled  to  the 
utmost  of  their  capacity. 

I  can  not  too  strongly  urge  serious  consideration  of  the  lifesaving  equip- 
ment on  board  ship.  Let  us  take,  for  instance,  one  of  the  great  s^scrapers 
in  New  York  City,  which  is  supposed  to  be  built  practically  fireproof,  yet 
no  architect  or  constructor  would  dream  of  depending  so  absolutely  on  the 
fireproofness  of  his  building  that  fire  escapes  could  be  dispensed  with  and 
no  serious  consideration  given  to  means  for  getting  the  thousands  of  in- 
habitants out  of  the  building  quickly  in  case  of  fire  or  other  accident.  The 
elevators  are  of  course  the  most  important  system  in  such  a  case  and 


M 


|l 


I 


[ 


I 


416 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


technical  men  and  engineers  give  the  most  serious  consideration  to  the 
problem  of  making  this  system  as  dependable  as  possible  so  that  it  can  take 
care  of  most  of  the  people  to  be  removed  from  the  building.  Independent 
of  the  elevators  are  the  staircases,  and  often  there  are  ladders  and  plat- 
forms on  the  outside  of  buildings.  In  case  of  fire  in  such  a  building,  the 
inhabitants  are  quickly  and  systematically  removed  to  safety  and  nobody 
would  think  of  staying  in  the  building  until  the  whole  structure  is  on  fire 
and  then  jumping  out  of  a  window  into  a  net  held  by  firemen — which  is 
sometimes  a  last  resort,  but  always  risky. 


Welin  davits  in  action.  Boats  getting  away  from  the  sinking  French 
Steamer  '' Sontay,"  torpedoed  April  16,  1917.  The  ''Sontay**  sank  in 
four  minutes. — International  Photo. 

On  board  ship  there  is  not  only  the  ever  present  danger  of  fire  but  also 
the  danger  that  the  ship  will  sink,  and  therefore  it  seems  strange  that  so 
many  architects  and  shipbuilders  did  not  consider  lifeboats  and  floatage 
equipment  of  sufficient  importance  to  give  it  serious  consideration,  although 
in  mid-ocean  the  fire  danger  is  much  more  horrible  than  on  land,  and  the 
danger  of  sinking  must  be  provided  for  also. 

In  time  of  disaster  there  should  be  no  delay  in  starting  the  life-saving 
apparatus,  people  should  not  wait  imtil  the  last  moment  before  abandon- 
ing the  vessel,  and  floating  off  on  a  raft,  any  more  than  they  should  stay 
in  a  burning  building  imtil  the  last  minute  and  then  all  jump  out  of  windows, 
no  matter  how  many  nets  were  spread  to  receive  them. 


BOATS 


417 


More  public  attention  to  boats  and  boat  equipment  might  make  it  fash- 
ionable, as  it  were,  to  traviel  on  safe  ships  rather  than  in  floating  gilded 
palaces. 

In  these  days  of  steam  and  oil,  I  know  of  no  better  exercise  to  train  the 
seafaring  man  for  all  eventualities  than  the  well-conducted  boat  drill. 
This  is  particularly  desirable  as  we  no  longer  have  many  sailing  vessels  on 
which  yoimg  men  who  go  to  sea  can  be  taught  to  become  real  sailors." 


vn 

Collapsible  Boats 

Collapsible  boats  are  generally  of  the  Englehardt  type,  a 
pontoon  bottom  with  waterproof  collapsible  sides. 

The  following  regulation  with  regard  to  the  carrying  of  col- 
lapsible boats  is  issued  by  the  U.  S.  Board  of  Supervising  In- 
spectors, Steamboat-Inspection  Service : 

Capacity  and  Allowance  of  Engelhardt  Collapsible  Lifeboats 

Engelhardt  collapsible  lifeboats  may  be  carried  as  lifeboats 
and  rated  as  class  2C. 

When  the  Engelhardt  collapsible  lifeboat  is  allowed  as  a  life- 
boat, it  shall  be  carried  under  the  davits,  with  sides  of  boat  fully 
extended,  and  only  one  Engelhardt  collapsible  lifeboat  shall  be 
allowed  to  be  carried  under  one  set  of  davits  except  that  one  nest 
of  two  Engelhardt  collapsible  lifeboats  shall  be  allowed  to  be 
carried  under  one  set  of  davits  on  each  side  of  steam  vessels  of 
2,500  to  and  including  5,000  gross  tons,  and  one  nest  of  three 
Engelhardt  collapsible  lifeboats  shall  be  allowed  to  be  carried 
under  one  set  of  davits  on  each  side  of  steam  vessels  of  over 
5,000  gross  tons,  and  when  so  nested  the  sides  may  be  collapsed. 

Engelhardt  collapsible  lifeboats  shall  be  fully  equipped  as  life- 
boats as  required  by  these  rules  and  regulations. 

The  cubic  capaci^  of  Engelhardt  collapsible  lifeboats  shall  be 
determined  in  accordance  with  the  following  rule:  Measure  in 
feet  and  fractions  of  a  foot  the  length  and  breadth  outside  of 
canvas  extension  and  the  depth  inside  at  the  place  of  minimum 
depth  taken  from  the  inside  of  the  bottom  planking  of  the  bottom 
to  the  top  of  gunwale  when  extended.  The  product  of  these 
dimensions  multiplied  by  0.7  shall  be  deemed  the  capacity  in 
cubic  feet. 

Special  attention  is  called  to  Captain  Lundin's  observation  on 
this  t3rpe  of  boat  carried  in  nests. 


1 


418  STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 

vin 

Radio  Equipment 

The  motor  lifeboat  brings  with  it  the  logical  use  of  radio 
equipment,  especially  on  passenger  liners  where  a  great  number 
of  people  may  have  to  take  to  the  boats  and  be  shepherded  by  a 
motor  boat.  No  doubt  this  will  be  "  required  "  in  the  course  of 
time.  The  radio  phone,  making  possible  direct  communication 
by  voice,  in  the  event  of  a  Morse  operator  not  being  in  the  boat, 
would  seem  the  proper  thing,  asstmiing  of  course  that  the 
equipments  is  simple  enough  for  an  average  person  to  set  up 
and  operate. 

Kites 

Captain  Wilson-Barker,  in  his  excellent  book,  ^^  Things  a 
Sailor  Needs  to  Know,^^  cites  the  fljring  of  kites  from  open  boats 
by  lads  from  the  Schoolship  Worcester.  Kites  may  easily  be 
sent  up  four  or  five  hundred  feet,  flying  signals,  or  even  a  light. 
Such  kite  equipment  is  easily  designed,  can  be  knocked  down 
and  put  together  in  a  few  minutes.  The  writer  has  in  mind  the 
kites  sold  "  knocked  down  "  for  a  few  cents :  his  small  sons  fly 
them.  A  really  practical  kite  cotild  be  made  with  light  water- 
proof fabric,  and  stowed  in  a  tin  case  complete,  line  and  all. 
Such  a  kite  would  give  the  boat,  without  wireless,  a  tremendously 
improved  chance  of  being  picked  up. 


IX 

Boat  Handling 

Clearing  away  and  lowering.  The  order  having  been  given 
"  Clear  away  the  boats!  "  The  officers  in  charge  of  boat  sec- 
tions will  see  that  all  men  are  up  and  at  their  stations,  and  that 
petty  officers  or  others  in  direct  charge  of  particular  boats  are 
at  their  appointed  stations.  It  is  well  to  arrange  for  whistle 
signals.    Avoid  shouting. 

Under  conditions  of  actual  danger,  when  lowering  boats,  it  is 
well  to  exercise  the  utmost  caution.  Unless  the  occasion  is  one 
calling  for  pell-mell  speed,  hold  all  sections  on  boat  deck  under 
strict  control.    Examine  all  boats  carefully  when  cleared.    See 


BOATS 


419 


that  chocks  are  down,  gripes  off,  boat  covers  out  of  the  way, 
ladders  lowered,  sea  painters  led  forward  (if  under  headway, 
or  aft  if  making  stemboard),  that  steady  men  are  at  their  assigned 
places  at  the  falls,  and  in  the 
boat  at  bow  and  stern,  with  a 
cool  hand  at  the  releasing 
gear.  See  that  boat  gear  is 
in  order,  plug  in. 

"  Swing  out  davits! " 

Have  special  care  to  drop 
life  lines  from  the  spans  be- 
tween the  davit  heads. 

"  Lower  handsomely!  " 

"Avast  lowering!"  Boat 
has  reached  the  passenger 
deck.  Men  in  boat  steady 
her  at  rail  and  take  on  board 
quota  of  passengers.  Women 
and  children  first. 

Never  allow  passengers  to 
swarm  up  on  the  boat  deck 
during  this  maneuver.  Sta- 
tion men  at  the  gangways  to 
avoid  this.  Unless  the  vessel 
is  actually  going  down  fast, 
or  listed  so  far  over  that  boats  will  not  come  in  to  the  rail, 
keep  passengers  away  from  the  davits  and  falls. 

When  loaded : 

"  Mind  your  painters!  "  Take  in  slack  of  these,  and  stand 
by  to  pay  out  as  boat  goes  down. 

"  Lower  handsomely! "  Boat  is  sent  to  the  water,  and 
released  and  turned  over  to  the  crew  in  charge. 

Where  one  set  of  davits  serve  two  or  more  boats  it  is  necessary 
to  round  up  on  the  falls,  or  hook  other  falls,  or  make  use  of  those 
already  hooked.  In  such  work  the  greatest  care  must  be  taken 
to  avoid  fouling  and  confusion. 

A  vessel  seldom  goes  down  so  fast  that  it  does  not  pay  to  take 
time  enough  to  do  things  right. 

When  a  vessel  goes  down  with  a  bad  list,  certain  devices  such 


Mills  releasing  gear  and  Welin  non- 
toppling  block. 


420 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


as  rollers  and  skids  have  been  devised  to  enable  the  boat  to  ride 
down  on  the  high  side  of  the  vessel.  These  are  practical  in 
application  and  afford  a  certain  safeguard  to  the  sides  of  a  boat 
scraping  over  the  skin  of  the  ship.  However  boats  should  be 
of  sufficient  strength  to  withstand  a  good  deal  of  knocking  about 
in  this  fashion. 

Liffing 
Hook 


Shackle  and 
Ring  Bolh 


Slinging  a  boat  by  a  crane  or  cargo  boom.  Always  have  a  ring  or  shacfde 
spliced  or  otherwise  secured  at  the  middle  of  span. 

The  lowering  of  quarter  boats,  and  of  running  boats  is  a 
matter  of  routine  and  special  precautions  need  not  be  assumed. 
Care  should  always  be  taken  in  lowering  to  have  a  sea  painter 
out,  unless  in  harbor,  or  in  smooth  water.  With  a  high  sided 
vessel  this  is  most  unportant  as  the  releasing  gear  will  cast  the 
boat  off  as  soon  as  water  bourn  and  she  may  drift  away. 

Hoisting  boats.  The  hoisting  of  boats  is  less  of  an  emergency 
measure,  but  calls  for  certain  precautions. 

See  the  davits  steady,  falls  clear,  and  manned,  or  be  certain 
that  sufficient  power  is  available  on  the  winches  to  easily  lift 
the  boat.  Have  all  hands  but  two  or  three  come  up  over  the 
Jacob's  ladder. 

"  All  hooked  forward?  "  Always  have  them  hook  the  forward 
fan  first  (unless  under  sternboard,  then  hook  aft  first). 

"  All  hooked  aft?  " 

"  Aye,  aye,  sir!  "    From  after  fall.    At  once  give  the  order : 

"  Hoist  away—lively!  "  Have  just  enough  slack  on  the  fall 
to  hook  easily. 


BOATS 


421 


It  is  important  to  pick  up  a  boat  quickly  when  in  a  seaway  to 
avoid  getting  it  a  foot  or  two  out  of  the  water  and  then  having  a 
big  seas  mash  up  under  the  boat,  possibly  with  disastrous 
results. 


Steward  releasing  gear^  closed. 


Steward  releasing  gear^  open. 


The  swinging  in  and  securing  of  a  boat  in  a  seaway  is  a  good 
piece. of  work  to  test  the  seamanship  of  a  crew.  It  should  be 
done  by  way  of  practice  whenever  possible.  Have  life  lines 
and  buoys  handy  and  hands  stationed  aft  with  a  couple  of  buoys 
bent  to  heaving  lines. 

Oil,  In  all  boat  work  in  a  rough  sea  the  careful  and  skilful 
seaman  will  make  use  of  his  vessel  as  a  lee,  against  wind  and 
waves,  when  possible,  and  will  also  make  use  of  oil  to  smooth  the 
work  wherever  possible.  With  slow  headway,  oil  sent  through 
the  forward  pipes  will  help  a  wonderful  lot  in  getting  boats  in 
and  out  of  the  water  without  accident.  On  long  vessels  oil 
reservoirs  on  the  boat  deck  at  sufficient  intervals  would  not  be  a 
bad  idea.    When  the  boats  must  be  used  in  rough  weather  the 


422 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


need  for  some  such  thing  is  always  great,  and  the  turning  of  a 
cock  might  work  wonders,  and  save  many  lives  and  much 
valuable  equipment. 


A  B 

Two  methods  of  reeving  boat  falls.  A. — Non-toppling  block.  B. — 
Regular  block.  Note  method  of  crossing  falls  in  B,  to  prevent  canting  of 
upper  block,  ■  '  .        . 

The  Raymond  Releasing  Gear 

The  boat  falls  are  rove  off  as  a  continuous  fall  so  that  as  long 
as  one  end  of  the  boat  is  suspended  by  the  fall  both  ends  of  the 
fall  remain  imder  tension.  This  is  very  necessary  as  the 
Raymond  Releasing  Hook  and  the  Yankee  Releasing  Shackle, 
both  operate  automatically  as  sbon  as  the  weight  is  taken  off  of 


BOATS 


423 


their  respective  falls.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  reeve  the  falls 
as  shown  so  that  both  hooks,  or  both  shackles,  whichever  is  used, 
are  released  at  the  same  time,  that 
is  when  the  boat  is  fully  afloat  through         =.n  >^^ 

her  whole  length. 

This  gear  is  especially  useful  for 
the  quarter  life  boats. 


:E 


)2hV^ 

rrr  '^ 

T  = 

A 

E 

J    s 

B 


The  Raymond  Releasing  Hook 

The  becket  A  is  passed  through  the 

shackle  D  and  the  shackle  rests  in  the 

turn  of  the  releasing  weight  C  forming 

the  end  of  the  hook  B,    The  neck  of 

the  hook  N  is  a.  swivel  connection. 

When  the  hook  is  fast  the  becket  A 

can  be  hitched  about  N  for  further  security.    When  the  boat  is 

lowered,  unhitch  A  and  as  soon  as  the  boat  is  afloat  the  weight 

C  falls,  as  shown  in  sketch,  throwing  the 
hook  clear  of  the  shackle.  E  is  the  lift- 
ing rod,  shown  with  boat  floating  in  the 
second  figure  and  hook  clear. 

The  Yankee  Releasing  Shackle 

This  works  on  the  same  principle  as 

the  releasing  hook.    When  the  weight 

of  the  boat  is  carried,  shown  in  closed 

figure,  the  heavy  side  of  shackle  C  is 

lifted  up  and  engaged  in  the  jog  on  B 

and  held  by  the  wedge,  i4.    In  lowering 

pull  out  A  and  when  E  rises,  the  side  C 

falls  down,  as  it  rotates  about  a  pin  on  an  oval  opening,  shown 

by  dotted  line  in  sketch,  and  the  shackle  on  the  lower  block  is 

released  as  shown. 


Boats  Under  Oars 

Oars,  Oars  are  generally  of  ash.  They  should  be  of  the 
best  quality  and  carefully  stowed  in  the  boats.  An  oar  im- 
properly stowed  will  warp  and  take  on  a  twist  making  it  prac- 


\  ^\ 


I, 


'  \ 


424 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


'I"       di  Jbftjii 


Boys  of  the  Schoolship  "  Newport  "  out  for  boat  practice  in 
San  Juan  (Porto  Rico)  Harbor, 

tically  useless,  as  it  turns  out  of  the  hands  when  pulling.  The 
parts  of  an  oar  are  shown  in  the  illustration.  In  double  banked 
boats  stow  oars  blades  forward.  In  single  banked  boats  stow 
blades  aft. 

Oars  for  a  double  banked  boat  should  be  about  twice  the 
length  of  the  thwart  from  which  they  are  used. 

The  proper  length  of  an  oar  for  a  single  banked  boat  is  two 
times  the  beam  at  oarlock  plus  the  freeboard  at  oarlock. 


.'Leaf her 


Handle 
k- >k- 


Jiillliiiiniii 
iiimiiiiiiF""""'"""' 


f^eck; 


-Loom- 


-Blade- 


1 


Tip' 


Rowing,  Rowing  is  a  fine  art  in  the  navy,  but  in  the  merchant 
service  it  is  practically  neglected,  though  the  writer  remembers 
seeing  many  fine  oarsmen  on  merchant  craft,  men  who  were 
natural  sailors  and  had  mastered  the  art  of  boats  in  their  youth, 
or  through  some  lucky  training.  Schoolship  boys  are  as  a  rule 
well  trained  in  boat  work.  Navy  seamen  who  are  coming  into 
the  merchant  service  after  their  enlistments,  many  of  them  as 
junior  officers,  are  bringing  with  them  the  splendid  navy  training 
in  boat  work.  This  should  help  to  better  standards  and  a  better 
feeling  with  regard  to  boats  and  their  usefulness. 


BOATS 


425 


Rowing  cannot  be  learned  from  books  but  the  principle  points 
to  be  observed  are  the  following: 


Rowing  a  whale  boat.     An  emergency  life  boat  crew.    Half  of  crew 

are  engineers  off  watch. 

Sit  square  on  thwart,  facing  aft. 

Feet  on  stretcher,  which  should  be  properly  placed.  Many 
boats  have  two  or  three  notches  in  the  floor  stringers  carry- 
ing the  stretchers  so  they  can  be  shifted. 

Hold  oar  with  an  easy  grip,  palms  down.  In  whale  boats 
many  men  find  it  easier  to  grasp  the  oar  with  the  hand 
farthest  from  the  loom,  palm  up.  Some  rowers  in  this  type 
of  boat  swing  the  oar  past  the  body;  this  looks  good  but 
don't  help  the  boat  through  the  water. 

Start  the  stroke,  blade  of  oar  vertical,  wrists  straight  body 
bent  well  forward.  Lift  handle  dipping  blade  as  the  stroke 
begins,  doing  the  pulling  with  the  body. 

End  the  stroke  body  bent  back,  and  as  the  body  comes  upright 
pull  it  up  against  the  oar,  the  last  third  of  the  stroke  being 
due  to  this  pull  of  the  arms.  This  will  finish  the  stroke 
with  the  body  nearly  upright.  , 


li 


<  ^M 


426 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Feather  the  oar  at  the  end  of  the  stroke.  The  elbows  being 
down  it  is  easy  to  drop  the  wrists  as  the  blade  leaves  the 
water,  and  on  the  recovery  the  blade  moves  forward  over 
the  water  with  the  upper  edge  forward,  presenting  no  surface 
to  wind  or  wave. 


A  whaler,  finishing  the  stroke.    Note  the  easy  erect  position  of  the  oarsmen. 

The  whaleboat  stroke  should  be  as"  long  and  swinging  as 
possible.    An  easy  stroke  with  plenty  of  beef  in  it. 

The  lifeboat  stroke,  corresponding  to  that  of  a  navy  cutter 
(double  banked  boats).  Must  be  shorter  due  to  the  differ- 
ence in  length  of  loom  in  board. 


A  double  banked  boat.    A  ten-oared  cutter.    Middle  of  stroke. 
Note  the  "  beef  "  on  the  oars. 

In  double  banked  boats  oarsmen  are  apt  to  drop  into  a  short 
nervous  choppy  stroke.  Avoid  this  and  keep  stroke  as  long 
as  possible.  Lifeboats  are  apt  to  be  very  high  sided  unless 
loaded  deep,  and  this  should  be  taken  into  consideration  in 
fitting  them  with  oars. 


BOATS 


427 


Catching  crabs  is  a  common  practice,  with  some  oarsmen. 
The  oar  dipping  under  oH  the  recovery,  suddenly  wrenches 
from  him,  or  the  handle  kicks  ahead  and  knocks  him  from 

the  thwart. 

Don't  overwork  a  green  crew  of  oarsmen.  Give  them  plenty 
of  rest  to  start  with.  After  a  crew  is  seasoned  it  is  sur- 
prising how  long  they  can  keep  going  without  undue  fatigue. 

Fancy  rowing  is  not  good  practice  at  sea.  The  feathermg  of 
the  lower  edge  of  the  blade  against  the  water  is  suitable 
for  park  lagoons  and  the  like.  At  sea  the  practice  is  to  brmg 
the  oar  parallel  to  the  surface  of  the  water  on  the  recovery. 

Trailing  lines  should  be  fitted  on  all  lifeboat  oars  as  a  pre- 
caution against  loss  when  catching  crabs,  letting  go,  etc. 

Sculling.  Sculling  is  the  art  of  sending  a  small  boat  through 
the  water  by  means  of  a  single  oar  over  the  stern  or  quarter. 
The  sculler  stands  in  the  stern  sheets  facing  aft.  He  holds  the 
oar  at  the  level  of  his  chest  pahns  inboard  on  either  side  of  the 
handle,  knuckles  up.  The  oar  resting  in  a  stem  notch  is  kept 
submerged  and  swung  from  side  to  side,  alternately,  by  turning 
the  wrists,  the  blade  inclined,  lower  edge  toward  the  side  to 
which  it  is  moving.  This  gives  a  continuous  action  like  that  of 
the  tail  of  a  fish.  A  little  practice  will  give  a  man  control  of  a 
boat  by  this  method,  the  best  for  single  rowing. 

Japanese  rowing  sampans,  carry  their  oars  in  crotches,  the 
long  sweeps  trailing  aft  and  the  rowers  working  them  from  side 
to  side  as  in  sculling.  These  oars  are  very  long  and  heavy  and 
are  constructed  with  an  angle  in  the  loom  above  the  crotch, 
dropping  the  handle  for  about  a  foot  on  a  long  oar.  The  pushing 
of  the  oar  outboard  or  inboard  causes  it  to  feather  automatically. 
With  five  of  these  on  a  side  a  long  sampan  attains  surprising 
speed  with  apparently  little  effort,  the  rowers  standmg,  their 
bodies  swaying  from  side  to  side. 

The  whole  subject  of  rowing  is  one  of  fascination.  We  in  the 
present  day  of  motors  are  out  of  touch  with  the  finer  points  of 
the  great  art.  The  ancient  Mediterranean  saw  the  galley  in  its 
prime,  the  uniremes  of  the  Romans,  and  the  moneres  of  the 
Greeks,  with  only  one  rank  of  oars.  Then  came  the  triacontoros^ 
with  thirty  men  bending  at  the  sweeps,  the  pentekontoros,  with 
fifty  galley  slaves  sweating  at  the  banks  of  oars.  And  in  the 
great  ship  Hiero,  built  by  no  less  a  light  than  Archimedes,  the 


I 


|1 


}  ^ 


t 


428 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


ranks  of  oars  were  raised  to  forty,  but  the  manner  in  which  they 
were  arranged  has  passed  away  with  much  of  the  ancient  lore 
of  Greece. 

In  the  more  modern  galleys  used  in  the  Mediterranean  from 
the  12th  to  the  18th  centuries,  oars  were  from  forty  to  fifty  feet 
long  and  were  manned  by  from  three  to  four  men  each. 

But  lack  of  space  forbids  more  mention  of  these  ancient 
things.  Still,  at  any  moment,  the  modern  seaman  may  have 
taken  his  place  at  the  oars,  and  a  wholesome  respect  and  under- 
standing of  this  great  tool  of  the  sea  is  well  worth  while. 

Steering,  While  all  boats  are  fitted  with  rudders,  still  no 
boat  can  be  properly  handled  in  a  heavy  sea  without  the  aid  of  a 
steering  oar.  The  steering  oar  should  be  of  selected  ash,  and 
for  a  long  whaleboat  it  will  be  about  eighteen  feet  in  length. 
Handling  a  steering  oar  is  a  matter  of  practice  alone.  The 
operation  is  self  evident.  If  a  man  is  a  boatman,  has  his  sea 
legs  under  him,  and  knows  how  to  handle  the  men  who  are 
rowing,  he  will  soon  master  the  use  of  the  long  sweep  over  the 
stern. 

Handling  of  a  single  banked  boat.  The  whaleboat  is  typical 
of  this  tjrpe.  It  usually  carries  six  oars,  the  oarsmen  sitting  on 
alternate  thwarts  and  on  the  side  opposite  the  rowlock. 

The  smart  appearance  of  such  a  boat,  the  fine  quality  of  boat- 
manship  to  be  attained  through  its  use,  and  the  extra  ordinary 
buoyancy  and  ability  of  this  boat  in  a  heavy  sea  should  make  it 
mandatory  on  every  vessel,  two  at  least,  one  on  each  quarter, 
fitted  as  life  boats  for  lowering  in  the  event  of  a  man  over- 
board, or  the  necessity  of  going  to  the  assistance  of  a  vessel  in 
distress. 

The  boat  being  lowered,  see  the  men  in  their  places,  bow  oars- 
man standing  on  the  bottom  boards  (never  allow  a  man  to  stand 
on  a  thwart),  with  his  boat  hook  fending  off  the  bow,  all  other 
men  remain  seated.  Coxswain,  at  after  thwart,  with  after  boat 
hook.  Tiller  shipped,  or  yoke  lines  rigged.  Oars  are  lying  on 
thwarts,  rowlocks  are  unshipped.  The  officer  steps  into  the 
boat.    Takes  his  seat,  gets  hold  of  yoke  lines. 

"  Shove  off  forward!  "    Bow  swings  out,  if  there  is  current. 

"  Shove  off  aft!  "  Stroke  oar  (coxswain)  gives  boat  a  good 
shove  with  his  hook  and  she  rides  clear  of  the  ship's  side. 


BOATS 


429 


"  Out  oars!  "  The  oarsmen  ship  the  rowlocks  on  the  side  on 
which  they  are  sitting  and  lift  the  blade  of  the  oars  into  these. 
That  is,  the  men  to  port  ship  the  rowlocks  and  place  the  blades 
for  the  men  sitting  to  starboard.  This  prevents  scrambling 
about  the  boat.  Then  each  man  takes  the  handle  of  his  own 
oar  and  slides  it  outboard  parallel  with  the  water,  and  per- 
pendictdar  to  the  line  of  the  keel,  blade  parallel  with  the  water. 
This  is  the  position  taken  at  the  order  "  Oars! "  when  rowing. 


"  Oars!  " 

Boat  being  on  the  starboard  side  and  wishing  to  go  clear. 
"  Hold  water  starboard,  give  way  port!  "  the  boat  swigs  rapidly 
to  starboard. 

With  a  green  crew  it  is  well  to  give  the  command  "  Oars!  " 
bringing  all  oars  out  of  the  water  as  before,  and  then  the  com- 
mand "  Give  way  together! "  With  a  good  crew  and  the 
officer  watching  the  stroke,  he  can  give  the  latter  command  at 
the  proper  time  and  start  them  off  without  coming  to  rest. 

All  commands  should  be  preceded  by  the  order  "  Stand  by!  " 
Except  in  close  quarters  where  the  whole  crew  are  at  attention 
and  stand  by  orders  may  be  dispensed  with. 

In  approaching  a  landing  or  in  coming  alongside  of  a  vessel  at 
anchor,  judgment  must  be  used  with  regard  to  the  strength  and 


i 


430 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


direction  of  the  current,  if  any,  the  state  of  the  sea,  and  the 
weight  and  carrying  power  of  the  boat.  Be  careful  in  making 
an  approach  to  have  the  boat  under  complete  control,  do  not 
come  alongside  too  fast,  if  in  doubt  have  the  crew  lay  on  their 
oars  for  a  moment,  then  give  'way  again  if  need  be.  Trail  bow 
in  plenty  of  time,  and  at  the  order  "  Trail  oarsl "  the  oarsmen 
allow  their  oars  to  trail,  or  if  necessary,  boat  the  oars,  by  giving 
the  order"  In  bow!  "  and  follow  this  by  "  Boat  your  oars! " 

In  coming  alongside  the  bow  and  stroke  oarsmen  take  care  of 
the  boat,  get  out  the  boat  hooks  and  tend  her  at  the  gangway. 
The  others  remain  seated  unless  ordered  to  do  different.  As  soon 
as  a  boat  comes  alongside  of  a  wharf  or  jetty,  the  oarsmen  put 
out  their  fenders  as  they  boat  their  oars. 

To  point  oars  in  a  boat  is  to  use  them  on  the  bottom  to  shove 
her  off  if  she  is  aground. 

Some  officers  use  the  order  "  ^way  enough! "  As  a  matter 
of  fact  it  is  simply  giving  information  to  the  rowers  and  letting 
them  act.    The  better  plan  is  to  give  positive  orders,  managing 

the  entire  business  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  officer  in  charge. 

Handling  a  double  banked  boat.  Here 
the  commands  are  somewhat  different 
due  to  the  placement  of  the  oarsmen. 

Getting  under  way  from  a  gangway  or 

a  wharf  the  procedure  is  as  follows : 

"  Stand  by! "    Crew  are  at  attention.    The  bow  men  take 

care  of  their  painter  or  mind  their  boat  hook,  usually  the  man 

next  the  ship's  side  has  the  boat  hook  and  his  mate  tends  the 

painter. 

"  Up  oars!  "  The  men  toss  their  oars,  holding  them  upright 
trimmed  with  blades  fore  and  aft,  all  oars  being  up  but  the  bow 
and  stroke  oar  next  the  gangway. 

The  boat  is  now  ready,  these  orders  having  been  attended 
to  before  the  boat  is  so  reported.  Passengers  then  enter  boat, 
lying  at  gangway  with  oars  up. 

"  Shove  off  forward!  "  Bow  oarsmen  shove  boat  clear  and 
let  go  sea  painter,  or  haul  in  painter  if  boat's  gear  is  used.  After 
boat  hook  holds  on  a  moment  to  give  her  a  sheer  away  from 
the  side  if  current  is  running.  Then  "  Shove  off  aft!  "  and  the 
after  boat  hook  gives  her  a  shove  ahead  clear  of  the  side. 


Boat  hooks. 


BOATS 


431 


"  Let  fall!  "    The  oars  are  dropped  into  the  rowlocks  in  the 

position  of  "  oars.^^ 

"  Give  way  together!  "  As  soon  as  the  bow  and  stroke  oars- 
men can  do  so  they  toss  their  oars,  the  bow  oars  kissing  and  let 

fall  taking  up  the  stroke. 

In  coming  alongside  the  order  "  In  Bows! "  brmgs  in  the 
forward  oars,  the  men  toss  and  boat  their  oars,  getting  them  in 
as  expeditiously  as  possible.  They  then  face  forward  with 
boat  hook  on  side  next  ship  and  outside  man  ready  to  catch  the 

gangway  rope. 

As  the  ship  is  approached  lay  on  the  oars  if  in  doubt,  but  if 
certain  of  enough  headway  give  the  order  "  Toss!  "  At  this 
command  the  oars  come  up  smartly,  tips  "  kiss,"  and  blades  are 
trimmed  in  line  fore  and  aft  as  before. 

"  Boat  your  oars!  "  when  alongside. 

There  are  many  fine  points  to  boat  handling  under  oars  that 
can  only  be  learned  by  constant  practice. 

Backing  water  to  get  sternboard,  holding  water,  and  backing 
and  holding,  or  pulling  and  holdmg,  enable  the  rowing  boat  to 
be  taken  into  any  place  where  there  is  room  enough  to  work  the 
oars.  When  running  into  a  narrow  passage  as  between  boats 
in  a  basin,  trail  or  toss,  rather  than  to  sUde  in  the  looms,  as  an 
error  of  judgment  may  cost  you  several  oars  besides  looking 

rather  bad.  .  .    t 

Again  be  sure  to  boat  oars  properly.    Blades  af t  m  a  whaler 

or  single  banked  boat,  and  blades  forward  in  a  double  banked 

boat.    The  reason  is  at  once  apparent  when  working  the  boats. 
"  Stern  all! "  that  great  command  of  the  whaler,  simply 

means  back  water.    This  should  be  preceded  by  "  Hold  water." 

until  the  boat  has  lost  her  headway. 
The  following  points  should  be  kept  in  mind  in  handUng  boats 

imder  oars : 

A  laden  boat  holds  her  way  much  longer  than  a  hght  boat. 

In  pulling  across  a  current  head  up  against  the  current  and 
try  to  get  a  range  on  your  required  course. 

In  a  river  when  pulling  against  the  main  stream,  hug  shore 
where  current  is  liable  to  be  less. 

In  a  motor  boat  get  compass  bearing  of  ship  or  shore,  with 
boat  headed  on  course.    This  will  take  care  of  any  devi- 
ation. 
i6 


432 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


Do  not  go  alongside  of  a  vessel  having  stemboard,  or  when 
she  is  backing  her  engines. 

In  boarding  a  vessel,  especially  a  man-of-war,  have  your  boat 
pull  off  and  lay  clear  of  the  gangway.  If  you  will  be  on 
board  for  some  time,  ask  permission  to  have  your  boat  hauled 
out  to  the  boom.  When  about  to  leave  ask  to  have  your 
boat  brought  to  the  gangway. 


Running  Out  A  Line 

The  following  from  "  The  Deck  and  Boat  Book  "  of  the  U  S 
Navy  summarizes  what  is  to  be  said  about  this  important  use 
of  boats: 

*2'  ^^!f  *^®  greater  part  of  the  Ime  in  the  stern  sheets,  but 
take  end  enough  m  the  bow  to  make  fast  when  you  reach  the 
landmg.    Pull  away  and  let  the  ship  pay  out  more  line  until 

l^ZV^X^^^^^^f.^  ^""^I!^^  ^.^^^  ^^^*  *^  ^^^^h,  then  pay 
out  from  the  boat.  Always  have  plenty  of  good  seizing  stuff  for 
making  all  secure,  and  if  you  are  to  stand  by  the  line,  have  an 
ax  ready  for  cuttmg  m  case  you  are  ordered  to  do  so. 

2.  If  laymg  out  with  the  tide,  take  less  line  in  the  boat  than 
otherwise.    If  against  the  side,  it  will  save  work  to  take  all  the 

tlJlf  iwi  wtiP""?  ""P  f?"^  "^^^  ^^^*»  *^^^  ^^^g  the  end  back  to 
^Mi  ^'n  ^'*^  ^  ^^""^  ^'^^  *^  h^  ^^d  o^t  in  a  strong  current,  it 

^thT.  iL  .i?^'!u'^  *^  ^^^  '^^^"^  boats-one  to  run  away 
with  the  end,  the  other  to  underrun  the  line  at  intervals,  floating 
It  and  pullmg  upstream  with  the  bight.  ^ 

pnH  w!?®  "?li^  *°  ^^  secured  to  a  post,  but  a  bowline  in  the 
end  before  starting  and  throw  this  over  the  post.  Bend  on  a 
cfo«T^  Ijne  and  let  the  bow  oarsman  throw  this,  if  hands  are 
standmg  by  to  receive  it,  or  jump  ashore  with  it  himself  if  neces- 

xn 

Management  of  Open  Boats  in  a  Surf 

The  foUowmg  rules  on  the  management  of  open  boats  in  a 
surf  have  long  been  accepted  as  standard  practice  : 


BOATS 


433 


Rules  of  the   Royal  National  Lifeboat  Institution,  of  Great 

Britain^  on  the  Management  of  Open  Rowing  Boats 

in  a  Surf;  Beaching  Them,  Etc. 

In  Rowing  to  Seaward 

As  a  general  rule,  speed  must  be  given  to  a  boat  rowing  against 
a  heavy  surf. 

Indeed,  under  some  circumstances,  her  safety  will  depend  on 
the  utmost  possible  speed  being  attained  on  meeting  a  sea. 

For,  if  the  sea  be  really  heavy,  and  the  wind  blowing  a  hard 
onshore  gale,  it  can  only  be  by  the  utmost  exertions  of  the  crew 
that  any  headway  can  be  made.  The  great  danger  then  is, 
that  an  approaching  heavy  sea  may  carry  the  boat  away  on  its 
front,  and  turn  it  broadside  on,  or  up-end  it,  either  effect  being 
immediately  fatal.  A  boat's  only  chance  in  such  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^^^ 
a  case,  is  to  obtain  such  way  as  shall  enable  her  ^j^cient  way 
to  pass  end-on,  through  the  crest  of  the  sea,  and  ^  ^^ 
leave  it  as  soon  as  possible  behind  her.  Of 
course  if  there  be  a  rather  heavy  surf,  but  no  wind,  or  the  wind 
off  shore,  and  opposed  to  the  surf,  as  is  often  the  case,  a  boat 
might  be  propelled  so  rapidly  through  it,  that  her  bow  would 
fall  more  suddenly  and  heavily  after  topping  the  sea,  than  if  her 
way  had  been  checked ;  and  it  may  therefore  only  be  when  the 
sea  is  of  such  magnitude,  and  the  boat  of  such  a  character,  that 
there  may  be  chance  of  the  former  carrying  her  back  before  it, 
that  full  speed  should  be  given  to  her. 

It  may  also  happen  that,  by  careful  management  under  such 
circumstances,  a  boat  may  be  made  to  avoid  the  sea,  so  that  each 
wave  may  break  ahead  of  her,  which  may  be  the  ^^^.  ^^^  ^^^ 
only  chance  of  safety  in  a  small  boat;  but  if  the  ^^^^^  breakers 
shore  be  flat  and  the  broken  water  extend  to  a 
great  distance  from  it,  this  will  often  be  impossible. 

The  following  general  rules  for  rowing  to  seaward  may  there- 
fore be  relied  on: 

1.  If  sufficient  command  can  be  kept  over  a  boat  by  the  skill 
of  those  on  board  her,  avoid  or  "  dodge  "  the  sea  if  possible, 
so  as  not  to  meet  it  at  the  moment  of  its  breaking    ^^^  important 
or  curling  over.  ^^^^ 

2.  Against  a  head  gale  and  heavy  surf,  get  all 

possible  speed  on  a  boat  on  the  approach  of  every  sea  which 
cannot  be  avoided. 

If  more  speed  can  be  given  to  a  boat  than  is  sufficient  to  pre- 
vent her  being  carried  back  by  a  surf,  her  way  may  be  checked 
on  its  approach,  which  will  give  her  an  easier  passage  over  it. 


434  STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 

On  Rtuining  Before  a  Broken  Sea,  or  Surf,  to  the  Shore 

The  one  great  danger,  when  running  before  a  broken  sea,  is 
that  of  broaching-io.  To  that  peculiar  effect  of  the  sea,  so  fre- 
quently destructive  of  human  life,  the  utmost  attention  must  be 
directed. 

The  cause  of  a  boat's  broaching-to,  when  running  before  a 
broken  sea  or  surf,  is,  that  her  own  motion  being  in  the  same 
direction  as  that  of  the  sea,  whether  it  be  given  by  the  force  of 
oars  or  sails,  or  by  the  force  of  the  sea  itself,  she  opposes  no 
resistance  to  it,  but  is  carried  before  it.  Thus,  if  a  boat  be 
running  with  her  bow  to  the  shore,  and  her  stern  to  the  sea,  the 
effect  of  a  surf  or  roller,  on  its  overtaking  her,  is  to  throw  up  the 
stem,  and  as  a  consequence  to  depress  the  bow;  if  she  then  has 
suficient  inertia  (which  will  be  proportional  to  weight)  to  allow 
the  sea  to  pass  her,  she  will  in  succession  pass  through  the 
descending,  the  horizontal  and  the  ascending  positions,  as  the 
crest  of  the  wave  passes  successively  her  stern,  her  midships, 
and  her  bow  in  the  reverse  order  in  which  the  same  positions 
occur  to  a  boat  propelled  to  seaward  against  a  surf.  This  may 
be  defined  as  the  safe  mode  of  running  before  a  broken  sea. 

But  if  a  boat  on  being  overtaken  by  a  heavy  surf,  has  not 
sufficient  inertia  to  allow  it  to  pass  her,  the  Srst  of  the  three  posi- 
tions above  enumerated  alone  occurs — ^her  stern  is  raised  high 
in  the  air  and  the  wave  carries  the  boat  before  it  on  its  front  or 
unsafe  side,  sometimes  with  frightful  velocity,  the  bow  all  the 
time  being  deeply  immersed  in  the  hollow  of  the  sea,  where  the 
water,  being  stationary  or  comparatively  so,  offers  a  resistance, 
whilst  the  crest  of  the  sea,  having  the  actual  motion  which  causes 
it  to  break,  forces  onward  the  stern,  or  rear  end  of  the  boat. 

A  boat  will,  in  this  position,  sometimes  aided  by  careful  oar- 
.  steerage,  run  a  considerable  distance  until  the  wave  has  broken 
and  expended  itself.  But  it  will  often  happen,  that  if  the  bow  be 
low,  it  will  be  driven  under  water,  when  the  buoyancy  being  lost 
forward,  whilst  the  sea  presses  on  the  stern,  the  boat  wSl  be 
thrown  (as  it  is  termed)  end-over-end;  or  if  the  bow  be  high,  or 
it  be  protected,  as  in  most  lifeboats,  by  a  bow  air-chamber,  so 
that  it  does  not  become  submerged,  that  the  resistance  forward, 
acting  on  one  bow,  will  slightly  turn  the  boat's  head,  and  the 
force  of  the  surf  being  transferred  to  the  opposite  quarter,  she 
will  in  a  moment  be  turned  round  broadside  by  the  sea  and  be 
thrown  by  it  on  her  beam-ends,  or  altogether  capsized.  It  is 
in  this  manner  that  most  boats  are  upset  in  a  surf,  especially  on 
flat  coasts,  and  in  this  way  many  lives  are  annually  lost  amongst 
merchant  seamen  when  attempting  to  land,  after  being  com- 
pelled to  desert  their  vessels. 
Hence  it  follows  that  the  management  of  a  boat,  when  landing 


BOATS 


435 


through  a  heavy  surf  must,  as  far  as  possible,  be  assimilated  to 
that  when  proceeding  to  seaward  agimst  one,  at  least  so  far  as 
to  stop  her  progress  shoreward  at  the  moment  of  ^^^^^^^l' 
taken  by  a  heavy  sea,  and  thus  enabling  it  to  pass  her.  There 
are  different  ways  of  effecting  this  object:  ^„.^  .„„  xt,^ 

1.  By  turning  a  boat's  head  to  the  sea  before  entermg  the 
broken  water,  and  then  backing  in  stern  foremost,  puUmg  a  few 
strokes  ahead  to  meet  each  heavy  sea,  and  then  ^^^^^  important 
again  backing  astern.  If  a  sea  be  really  heavy,  ^^^^ 
and  a  boat  small,  this  plan  will  be  generally  the 
safest,  as  a  boat  can  be  kept  more  under  command  when  the 
full  force  of  the  oars  can  be  used  agamst  a  heavy  surf,  than  by 

backing  them  only.  .  t,    i.    i„- «ii 

2  K  rowing  to  shore  with  the  stern  to  seaward,  by  backmg  aU 
the  oars  on  the  approach  of  a  heavy  sea,  and  rowing  ahead  again 
as  soon  as  it  has  passed  to  the  bow  of  the  boat,  thus  rowing  m 
on  the  back  of  the  wave;  or,  as  is  practised  m  some  lifeboats, 
placing  the  after-oarsmen  with  their  faces  forward,  and  makmg 
them  row  back  at  each  sea  on  its  approach.  ...    n-o* 

3.  If  rowed  in  bow  foremost,  by  towing  astern  a  pig  pf  baUast 
or  large  stone,  or  a  large  basket,  or  canvas  bag  termed  a   dfogue 
or  drag,  made  for  the  purpose,  the  object  of  each  bemg  to  hold 
the  boat's  stern  back,  and  to  prevent  her  bemg  turned  broadside 

to  the  sea  or  broaching-to.  ,     ^     .  ^u^  tvt^^^mit 

Drogues  are  in  common  use  by  the  boatmen  on  the  WorfolK 
coast;  they  are  conical-shaped  bags  of  about  the  same  form  and 
proportionate  length  and  breadth  as  a  candle  extmguisher,  about 
two  feet  wide  at  the  mouth  and  four  and  a  half  feet  long.  They 
are  towed  with  the  mouth  foremost  by  a  stout  ^j^^  ^j  drogue 
rope,  a  small  line,  termed  a  tripping  line,  bemg 
fast  to  the  apex  or  pointed  end.  When  towed  with  the  mouth 
foremost,  they  fill  with  water,  and  offer  a  considerable  resistance, 
thereby  holding  back  the  stern;  by  lettmg  go  the  stouter  rope 
and  retainmg  the  smaller  Une,  their  position  is  reversed,  when 
they  collapse,  and  can  be  readily  hauled  mto  the  boat. 

Drogues  are  chiefly  used  in  sailmg-boats,  when  they  both  ^rve 
to  check  a  boat's  way  and  to  keep  her  end  on  to  the  sea.  iney 
are,  however,  a  great  source  of  safety  in  rowing-boats,  and  the 
rowing  lifeboats  of  the  National  Lifeboat  Institution  are  now  aU 

provided  with  them.  ^  ,         j  xu    ^«-^ 

A  boat's  sail  bent  to  a  yard,  and  towed  astern  loosed,  the  yard 
bemg  attached  to  a  line  capable  of  being  veered,  haiUed  or  let 
go,  wiU  act  in  some  measure  as  a  drogue,  and  will  tend  mucn  to 
break  the  force  of  the  sea  immediately  astern  of  the  boat. 

Heavy  weights  should  be  kept  out  of  the  extreme  ends  of  a 
boat;   but  when  rowing  before  a  heavy  sea  the  best  trim  is 
deepest  by  the  stem,  which  prevents  the  stern    ^^.^.^  ^j  ^^^ 
being  readily  thrown  on. 


!1 


436 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


BOATS 


437 


A  boat  should  be  steered  by  an  oar  over  the  stern,  or  on  one 
quarter  when  running  before  a  sea,  as  the  rudder  wiU  then  at 
tunes  be  of  no  use.    If  the  rudder  be  shipped,  it 
should  be  kept  amidships  on  a  sea  breaking  over   ^^^^^^^^  ^^ 
the  stern. 

The  following  general  rules  may  therefore  be  depended  on 
When  runnmg  before,  or  attempting  to  land,  through  a  heavy 
surf  or  broken  water:  ^ 

1.  As  far  as  possible  avoid  each  sea  by  placing  the  boat  where 
the  sea  will  break  ahead  or  astern  of  her. 

^'  ?,t^®  f  ®^  ^®  ^®^  heaYYy  or  if  the  boat  be  very  small,  and 
especiaUy  if  she  have  a  square  stem,  bring  her  bow  round  to 
seaward  and  back  her  m,  rowing  ahead  against 
each  heavy  surf  that  cannot  be  avoided  suf-    ^'^^  ^^^^"""^ 
ficiently  to  allow  it  to  pass  the  boat.  "''^^ 

3.  If  it  be  considered  safe  to  proceed  to  the  shore  bow  fore- 
most, back  the  oars  against  each  sea  on  its  approach  so  as  to 
stop  the  boat's  way  through  the  water  as  far  as  possible  and  if 
there  is  a  drogue,  or  any  other  instrument  in  the  boat  that  may 
be  used  as  one,  tow  it  astern  to  aid  in  keeping  the  boat  end-on 
to  the  sea,  which  is  the  chief  object  in  vJew. 

4.  Bring  the  principal  weights  in  the  boat  towards  the  end  that 
is  to  seaward,  but  not  to  the  extreme  end. 

5.  If  a  boat,  worked  by  both  sails  and  oars,  be  runnmg  under 
sau  lor  the  land  through  a  heavy  sea,  her  crew  should,  under  all 
circumstances,  unless  the  beach  be  quite  steep,  take  down  her 
masts  and  sails  before  entering  the  broken  water,  and  take  her 
to  land  under  oars  alone,  as  above  described. 

If  she  has  sails  only,  her  sails  should  be  much  reduced,  a  half- 
lowered  foresail  or  other  small  head-sail  being  sufficient. 

Beaching  or  Landing  Through  a  Surf 

The  running  before  a  surf  or  broken  sea,  and  the  beaching  or 
l^dmg  of  a  boat,  are  two  distinct  operations;  the  managenient 
ot  boats,  as  above  recommended,  has  exclusive 
reference  to  running  before  a  surf  where  the  ^^ff^^^^^^    ^^- 
shore  is  so  flat  that  the  broken  water  extends  to  ^^^^^^^^^P  beach 
some  distance  from  the  beach.    Thus  on  a  very  ^^A^^  ^^^^^ 
steep  beach,  the  first  heavy  fall  of  broken  water  will  be  on  the 
beach  itself,  whilst  on  some  very  flat  shores  there  will  be  broken 
water  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  sometunes  extending  to  even 
four  or  five  miles  from  the  land.    The  outermost  line  of  broken 
water,  on  a  flat  shore,  where  the  waves  break  m  three  or  four 
fathoms  water,  is  the  heaviest,  and  therefore  the  most  danger- 
ous, and  when  it  has  been  passed  through  in  safety,  the  danger 
lessens  as  the  water  shoals,  until,  on  nearing  the  laiid,  its  force 


is  spent  and  its  power  harmless.    As  the  character  of  the  sea  is 
quite  different  on  steep  and  flat  shores,  so  is  the    ^^^^  ^^^^^ 
customary  management  of  boats  on  landing  dif-    j^ethods 
ferent  in  the  two  situations.    On  the  flat  shore, 
whether  a  boat  be  run  or  backed  in,  she  is  kept  straight  before 
or  end  to  the  sea  untU  she  is  fairly  aground,  when  each  surf 
takes  her  further  in  as  it  overtakes  her,  aided  by  the  crew,  who 
will  then  generally  jump  out  to  lighten  her,  and  drag  her  in  by 
her  sides.    As  above  stated,  sail  will,  in  this  case,  have  been  pre- 
viously taken  in  if  set,  and  the  boat  wiU  have  been  rowed  or 
backed  in  by  oars  alone. 

On  the  other  hand,  on  the  steep  beach,  it  is  the  general  prac- 
tice, in  a  boat  of  any  size,  to  retain  speed  right  on  to  the  beach, 
and  in  the  act  of  landing,  whether  under  oars  or  sail,  to  turn  the 
boat's  bow  half  round  towards  the  direction    ^^^^^  ^^^^^^ 
from  which  the  surf  is  running,  so  that  she  may    ^^^/j^^^ 
be  thrown  on  her  broadside  up  the  beach,  when 
abundance  of  help  is  usually  at  hand  to  haul  her  as  quickly  as 
possible  out  of  the  reach  of  the  sea.    In  such  situations,  we 
believe,  it  is  nowhere  the  practice  to  back  a  boat  in  stern  fore- 
most under  oars^  but  to  row  in  under  full  speed  as  above  de- 
scribed. 

The  average  merchantman  will  have  only  the  problem  of 
beaching  or  running  before  a  sea  to  contend  with.  In  the  event 
of  working  a  life  boat  up  to  a  beach  upon  which  the  surf  is 
running,  remember  that  quite  a  bad  surf  will  look  harmless  when 
seen  from  the  sea.  If  the  boat  has  been  out  for  a  considerable 
length  of  time  and  the  crew  are  weak  and  perhaps  impatient,  use 
great  care  in  going  through.  Stand  off,  if  possible,  until  help 
arrives  abreast  the  boat. 

The  writer  has  in  mind  the  experience  of  a  Coast  Guard 
officer  takmg  passage  on  a  Pacific  Coast  steamer  with  his  wife. 
It  was  necessary  to  abandon  the  vessel  and  this  gentleman, 
being  experienced,  was  placed  in  charge  of  a  boat  by  the  master 
of  the  vessel.  The  boat  was  filled  with  laborers  and  the  officer 
had  his  wife  with  him.  After  a  trying  time  he  made  the  coast, 
having  separated  from  the  other  boats  during  the  night. 

He  made  for  a  lighthouse  and  saw  that  the  boat  was  observed. 
A  heavy  surf  was  running,  although  it  did  not  look  bad  from  the 

boat. 

The  laborers  who  were  at  the  oars  were  tired  and  thirsty,  they 
insisted  upon  going  in  at  once.  They  saw  the  shore  and  would 
brook  no  delay. 


m 


•!      : 


J 


1 

4 


III 


438 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


"  Unfortunately  I  never  carry  a  gun,"  this  gentlemen  said  in 
explaining  his  experience.  They  were  rowing,  there  were  no 
sailors  in  the  boat,  a  few  of  the  men  only  partly  tmderstood  my 
frantic  efforts  to  stop  them. 

"  If  I  had  had  a  gun  I  would  have  shot  one,  at  least  wounded 
him,  and  might  have  kept  control  of  the  boat. 

"  We  went  through  the  surf  and  were  capsized  a  half  hour 
before  assistance  arrived.  My  wife  was  drowned,  though  I 
succeeded  in  getting  her  almost  to  the  beach  three  times. 

"  The  laborers  were  all  saved  but  were  too  dazed  and  fright- 
ened to  render  me  any  assistance." 

Officers  and  petty  officers  in  charge  of  life  boats  should  be 
armed.  It  may  be  necessary  at  some  time  to  carry  out  drastic 
measures  of  discipline  for  the  safety  of  all  concerned. 

xni 

Riding  Out  a  Gale  in  Small  ^oats 

At  times  it  becomes  necessary  to  ride  out  heavy  weather  in 
small  boats  where  vessels  have  been  abandoned  far  from  shore. 
Under  such  circumstances  every  precaution  must  be  taken  to 
make  the  boats  more  seaworthy.  Canvas  washboards  rigged 
up  forward  are  often  very  helpful.  The  boat  should  be  kept 
trimmed  and  bailed. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done,  of  course,  is  to  rig  a  sea  anchor. 
The  U.  S.  Regulations  require  that  all  boats  be  fitted  with  a 
sea  anchor,  also  that  they  shall  be  provided  with  an  oil  tank 
constructed  to  distribute  the  oil  and  so  fitted  that  it  can  be 
attached  to  the  sea  anchor,  this  tank  must  have  a  capacity  of 
one  gallon  at  least. 

So  far  the  best  arrangement  for  this  purpose,  combining  the 
sea  anchor  and  the  oil  tank,  is  the  Rouse  Patent  Sea  Anchor. 
This  device,  the  invention  of  Captain  Frederick  Rouse  of  New 
York,  has  proven  of  great  value.  The  small  li/^  gallon  tank 
should  hold  out  at  least  eight  hours. 

However  any  seaman  worth  his  salt  should  be  able  to  impor- 
vise  a  sea  anchor,  rigging  boat  spars  to  a  bridle  and  weighting 
it  with  the  boat  anchor.  In  riding  to  a  sea  anchor  pay  out  suf- 
ficient line,  be  certain  that  the  line  is  well  secured  to  the  anchor, 


BOATS 


439 


that  the  bridle  will  not  slew  and  that  the  line  is  protected  from 
chafe  where  it  runs  over  the  bow  of  the  boat. 


fOi7  Tlxnk 


/Swi'ye/ 


Me  fat   frame  "' 


'Canvas  laced 
to  Frame 


The  Rouse  Sea  Anchor. 

A  tripping  line  is  useless.  If  the  sea  anchor  is  to  come  in  the 
sea  will  be  sufficiently  smooth  to  allow  the  boat  to  be  hauled  up 

to  the  anchor. 

Where  oil  is  to  be  used  and  the  oil  bag  is  not  directly  attached 
to  the  anchor,  it  might  be  well  to  rig  a  block  and  line  for  hauling 
the  oil  bag  in  when  empty  and  sending  it  back  after  filling.  This 
must  be  done,  of  course,  as  soon  as  the  anchor  is  constructed. 

XIV 

Boarding  a  Wreck 

The  following  concise  directions  are  taken  from' "  The  Deck 
and  Boat  Book  "  of  the  U.  S.  Navy: 

1.  Whenever  practicable,  a  vessel,  whether  stranded  or 
afloat,  should  be  boarded  from  to  leeward,  as  the  principal 
danger  is  that  the  boat  may  collide  against  the  vessel  or  be 
swamped  by  the  rebound  of  the  sea,  and  the  greater  violence  of 
the  sea  on  the  weather  side  of  the  vessel  renders  such  accidents 
more  liable  to  occur  on  that  side. 

2.  //  a  stranded  vessel  is  broadside  to  the  sea,  the  chief 
danger  in  boarding  to  leeward  is  the  possible  falling  of  the 
masts,  or  that  the  boat  may  be  stove  by  the  wreckage  alongside. 


f 


440 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


Under  such  circumstances  it  may  be  necessary  to  take  a  wrecked 
crew  into  a  lifeboat  from  the  bow  or  stern  of  the  wreck.  In 
boarding  a  wreck  that  is  stranded  on  a  flat  shore,  lifeboats 
usually  anchor  to  windward  and  veer  down  from  a  safe  distance 
until  near  enough  to  throw  a  line  on  board. 

3.  In  rescuing  people  from  a  drifting  wreck,  approach  from 
leeward,  taking  care  to  avoid  wreckage  floating  alongside.  K 
there  is  much  wind  it  is  best  to  lay  well  off,  throw  a  strong  line 
aboard,  have  the  people  secure  the  line  around  their  bodies,  one 
at  a  time,  and  jump  overboard,  for  if  the  boat  gets  alongside  of  a 
wreck  which  is  rapidly  drifting  to  leeward,  there  is  danger  of 
swamping,  and  much  difficulty  in  getting  her  clear  of  the  side. 

4.  Should  it  be  necessary  to  go  alongside,  it  is  preferable  to 
run  the  bow  or  stern  to  the  gangway  or  sea  ladder,  keeping  her 
headed  at  right  angles  to  the  ship's  keel,  with  oars  out  ready  for 
pulling  or  backing  away. 

5.  An  exception  to  the  usual  rule  of  boarding  a  drifting  vessel 
to  leeward  occurs  in  the  case  of  a  vessel  of  very  low  freeboard, 
such  as  small  schooners  etc.  Board  such  craft  on  the  weather 
quarter  to  avoid  being  stove  in  by  her  main  boom  chains,  etc. 

In  the  not  unusual  case  of  a  passenger  o^  other  vessel  founder- 
ing, with  one  or  more  vessels  standing  by,  great  judgment  is 
necessary  in  order  that  lives  may  be  saved.  The  best  boat,  or 
boats  should  be  lowered,  all  superfluous  gear  taken  out,  with 
the  exception,  perhaps  of  sea  anchor  and  oil.  Extra  coils  of 
two  and  a  half  or  three  inch  manila  may  be  needed. 

The  rescuing  vessels  should  try,  in  an  open  sea,  to  blanket  the 
wreck,  and  to  provide  a  "  slick  "  by  the  careful  distribution  of 
oil  from  windward.    (See  page  711). 

Where  a  line  cannot  be  drifted  down,  it  may  be  possible  to 
put  a  line  over  the  vessel  by  use  of  the  Lyle  gun,  and  in  a  sea  of 
extra  height,  men  may  be  dragged  to  the  rescuing  ship,  to  lee- 
ward by  means  of  an  endless  line  as  in  the  case  of  the  breeches 
buoy  operated  from  the  shore. 

It  is  extremely  difficult  to  do  more  than  indicate  certain  possible 
operations.  In  such  situations  seamanship  comes  into  its  own 
and  many  years  of  preparation  find  their  usefulness  in  the  saving 
of  life  and  property. 

Where  radio  is  working,  an  understanding  can  be  arrived  at 
between  the  wreck  and  the  rescuers.  Otherwise  use  the  Inter- 
national Code,  or  flag  semaphores,  though  the  code  is  far  more 
definite  and  reliable  over  considerable  distances.    Be  certain 


BOATS 


441 


that  both  sides  understand  the  manner  of  rescue  to  be  adopted. 
In  any  event  it  might  be  well  for  the  master  of  the  rescuing 
vessel  to  always  assume  direction.  If  this  rule  w§re  imi- 
versally  understood  a  great  deal  of  hesitation  and  confusion 
would  be  saved,  even  though  the  skipper  of  a  liner  might  have 
to  take  orders  from  the  captain  of  a  tramp. 

XV 
Man  Overboard 


A  quarter  boat  ready  for  instant  lowering.  A.  Knotted  life  lines.     B. 

Boat  pad  to  prevent  chafe  against  strong  back.  C.  Slip  or  pelican  hook  to 

release  gripes.    Old  fashioned  ^davits  ^  swung  out.    Boat  griped  against 
strongback. 

When  a  man  falls  overboard  the  things  to  be  done  at  once 
are  as  follows : 

A.  Stop  engines  or  he  may  be  cut  up  by  the  screws.    Give 

helm  away  from  the  side  from  which  he  has  fallen,  f.e., 
if  man  goes  over  on  s larboard j  port  your  helm. 

B.  Drop  buoys  from  wings  of  bridge,  these  are  the  buoys  to 

which  water  lights  are  attached. 


I 


I  ' 


m 


I 


442 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


C.  Order  lee  life  boat  cleared  away. 

D.  Keep  sharp  lookout  on  surface  of  water  in  position  of  the 

j7ake  at  time  of  making  turn. 

£.  At  night  don't  bother  to  keep  lookout  for  man,  head  for 
buoys  and  get  boat  out. 

F.  Put  searchlight  in  commission  and  sweep  vicinity  of  buoys, 
keeping  lookout  with  night  glasses. 

In  any  well  regulated  ship  a  lifeboat's  crew  is  designated  in 
each  watch.  These  men  should  be  mustered  at  night  at  the 
beginning  of  the  watch  and  should  be  in  readiness  for  a  call. 

Much  of  the  above  should  be  done  at  once,  especially  the 
directions  under  A. 

With  the  helm  hard  over,  the  vessel  will  pass  directly  over  the 
place,  or  very  near  it  at  least,  where  the  man  was  dropped. 
With  the  water  light  going  this  can  readily  be  seen.  Start 
engines  ahead  slow,  and  when  the  course  has  been  regained, 
or  nearly  so,  stop.  ^ 

Then  stand  by  to  lower  away  life  boat. 

The  usual  precautions  in  lowering  are  to  be  observed. 

In  reporting  man  overboard  it  is  well  to  add  which  side. 

"  Man  Overboard — Port!  "  or 

"  Man  Overboard — Starboard!  " 

This  will  give  the  officer  on  the  bridge  the  necessary  informa- 
tion for  turning. 

As  soon  as  anyone  goes  overboard,  whoever  sees  him  should 
at  once  release  a  life  buoy,  and  if  he  sees  the  man  throw  the 
buoy  at  him. 

When  falling  overboard  strike  out  away  from  the  ship. 

At  sea  in  a  fog,  boat  leaving  ship  should  carry  a  compass, 
though  rettim  to  vessel  can  usually  be  made  by  sound  signal. 

In  an  extra  heavy  sea,  vessel  going  into  it,  it  is  best  to  stop, 
form  a  lee,  and  send  boat  back  under  lee  of  vessel.  When  sea 
is  too  high  to  admit  of  lowering  boat,  work  vessel  back  to  point 
where  man  went  overboard  and  throw  line  to  him.  If  necessary 
lower  a  man  to  him,  put  rescuer  into  a  life  jacket. 

Use  oil  where  it  can  be  done.     (See  page  711). 


BOATS 

XVI 
Sailing  Boats 


443 


A  fine  sport. 

Boat  rigs  for  the  life  and  working  boats  of  vessels  have  gradu- 
ally simmered  down  to  the  following: 
The  standing  lug. 
The  sprit  sail. 


Ensign  Halliard  Ckaff 
fzrru/e- 


^Roping-.. 


Lacing 
-Eyekfs 

■Masi- Sheave 

-Masf  t^ead  Banc^ 

-MasfTrave/er 

■Slings  of  Yard 
-Yard  Fore 

■  i\" -Shroud 


Main 
Sail 

ReefPoinfs-/ 
Boom^ 


Main  , 
Sheet 


Block 
on  shroud 

—Shroud  whip 

^'Foremast 


m\ 


Standing  lug. 


H'-^ 


m' 


m 


fn  r  1 1  I 


444 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


These  sails,  with  the  addition  of  a  jib,  are  used  singly  or  on 
two  masts.  For  large  boats  two  masts  are  generally  stepped 
because  of  greater  ease  in  handling. 

The  standing  lug.  The  standing  lug  rig  on  two  masts  with  a 
"  lug  foresail,"  hauling  aft  without  a  boom,  is  the  simplest  rig 
that  still  presents  easy  handling  and  quick  reefing  features. 
The  rig  is  self  explanatory  from  the  illustrations.  When  reefed 
down  very  little  sail  is  exposed,  and  when  under  stress  the  use 
of  a  jib  and  trysail  on  the  fore  and  trysail  on  the  main  can  be 
provided  for. 


f*eak^ 


l/fs^j,\y'-Throai- 


Leech-.y 


Sprit  sail  rig. 

One  of  the  main  points  about  life  boat  sailing  gear  is  to  get 
something  that  will  make  up  smooth,  will  not  become  balled 
up,  and  can  easily  be  understood. 

Masts  should  be  marked  near  the  step  with  the  letters  FORE 
and  AFT  cut  into  the  mast,  so  that  it  will  not  be  stepped  with  the 
lead  of  shrouds  and  sheaves  wrong. 

The  sprit  rig.  This  is  a  very  handy  rig  for  small  boats.  It 
has  certain  advantages  in  the  way  of  spreading  the  sail,  but  is 


1 


BOATS 


445 


'Pendant 


not  over  handy  in  setting  because  of  the  shipping  of  the  sprit. 
The  advantages  of  the  sprit  are  a  very  fiat  sail.  The  sprit  takes 
all  of  the  sag  out  of  a  sail  and  sets  it  like  a  board.  The  writer 
was  fortunate  enough  to  have  a  very 
fine  gig  rigged  with  two  masted  sprit 
sails.  Being  a  whale  boat  with  a  six 
inch  keel,  very  few  boats,  or  yachts  for 
that  matter,  could  pass  her. 

The  sprit  is  supported  on  the  mast  by  a 
strop  called  a  "snottef\  This  consists 
of  a  short  rope  with  eyes  spliced  in  each 
end.  One  end  is  passed  around  the 
mast  and  through  the  other  eye,  the 
heel  of  the  sprit  then  rests  in  the  hang- 
ing eye.  The  sail  is  then  "peaked" 
by  pushing  up  on  the  snotter,  then  sheet 
aft,  after  the  head  is  up. 

With  a  heavy  sprit  rig  a  pennant  and 
block  are  fitted  to  the  mast  head,  and 
the  heel  of  the  sprit  is  stepped  in  an 
eye  seized  to  a  stout  mast  ring,  the 
whole  thing  is  lifted  by  a  whip  as  shown 
in  the  drawing. 

When  the  snotter  has  a  tendency  to 
work  down  make  it  long  enough  to  get 
a  round  turn  about  the  mast. 

Sheet,  'Care  should  be  taken  to 
reeve  the  sheet  properly. 

Booms,  In  life  boats  it  is  recom- 
mended to  do  away  with  booms  as  they 
add  so  much  more  to  the  complication. 
When  a  long  passage  must  be  mad^  un- 
der sail  booms  can  easily  be  improvised 
by  using  oars,  lashing  them  together. 

Fore  sail  should  be  attached  to  fore  mast,  and  both  masts 
plainly  marked. 

Sloop  rig.    This  rig  is  handy  for  a  special  sailing  boat  and  is 
given  for  reference. 

Schooner  rig.    Useful  for  a  larger  boat.    Given  for  reference. 


I 


i  f 


.Snoffer 


1/^ 
Snotter  with  whip. 


11 


1 1 


446 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


The  cat  rig.  Mast  stepped  far  forward  with  a  single  gaff  and 
boom  mainsail. 

The  Falmouth  lugger.  A  very  handy  little  rig.  Standing  lug 
and  mizzen. 

The  sliding  gunter.    A  good  rig,  handy,  foolproof  (almost). 


,6aff 

■■jPeak  Halliards 


-Throaf  Halliards 
-Jib  Halliards 
Head 


'rHanks 

.JibSfay 


Reef 
Poinh 


xfat/s  of  Boom 


'Bob  Stay 


Sloop  rig. 


Handling  boats  under  sail.  The  successful  boat  sailor  must, 
in  a  small  way  carry  out  the  principles  of  handling  larger  craft 
under  canvas. 

First.  He  must  pay  special  attention  to  the  weather.  If  about 
to  leave  the  vessel  for  a  sail,  know  what  to  expect.  Give  heed  to 
storm  warnings,  find  out  what  winds  prevail,  if  in  a  foreign  port, 
and  if  out  in  a  small  boat  on  the  open  sea  watch  the  weather  and 
note  the  wind  and  sea  with  the  greatest  care.  Sailing  ship  men 
do  this  as  a  matter  of  habit.  Steamship  sailors  are  liable  to  be  a 
trifle  careless  about  the  wind. 

Second.  See  all  gear  properly  set  up,  shrouds  taut,  masts 
stepped  and  secured,  and  stayed,  and  all  running  gear  rove 
properly,  and  in  order. 


BOATS 


447 


Third.  Have  boat  in  sailing  trim,  usually  a  few  inches  by  the 
stern.  Dispose  weights  in  bottom  of  boat.  Have  all  hands  sit 
down  preferably  on  bottom  boards. 

Wind  aft.  This  is  a  dangerous  point  of  sailing  in  a  rough  sea 
and  great  care  should  be  taken  to  watch  the  helm  or  any  shift 
of  wind,  as  the  boat  may  yaw  about.    Many  advocate  run- 


fSaff 


^/iPeak  Halliards 

..Throai  Halliards 
^'Mainstay 

'"[Peak  Halliards 


'{Cap 

.'JibHalliard 


ReeP   r=:4joppwqLfM^^^ 


Main 
Sheet 
Travelk 


^Throai  Halliards 

Jaws  and 
Parrel 
,       ^^Lashing 

II.    \   „ 

JibSfay 


Reef 
Poinfs 

Jib 
Sheet 


Schooner  rig, 

ning  off  'the  course  one  side  and  then  the  other,  somewhat 
after  the  manner  of  the  historic  zigzag  of  war  time  days,  and 
nights. 

When  going  before  the  wind  be  on  the  lookout  against  gybing^ 
that  is  the  topping  up  of  the  main  boom,  the  sail  bellying  forward 
of  the  mast,  and  the  boom  slapping  up  against  it. 

Keep  the  weight  well  aft  in  running. 

Wing  and  wing.  Boat  running  before  the  wind,  fore  and 
mainsails  spread  on  opposite  sides,  the  fore  sail  sheet  held  out 
with  an  oar  or  a  boat  hook. 

Running  large.  Sailing  with  wind  free  on  either  side.  This 
is  usually  the  best  point  of  sailing  of  a  ship's  boat,  wind  some- 
where on  the  quarter,  and  all  drawing. 


t 

': 

,! 

1 

f 

if 

ili 


B'l 


ii.: 


II 


448 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Squalls.  Heavy  wind  puffs  under  above  conditions  of  sailing 
are  best  met  by  dropping  the  peak,  or  if  no  boom  is  fitted,by 
letting  fly  the  sheets.  This  latter  is  to  be  done  only  in  the  event 
of  a  very  bad  squall. 

When  sheets  have  been  let  fly  cast  off  halyards  and  haul  down 
at  once.  Never  belay  a  sheet  no  matter  how  fine  the  weather 
may  appear  to  be. 

p^^ff_      V         {Peak  Halliards 


'Throaf 
HaH'iaKls 

^\  Jaws  of 
6afF 


yHoops 


Leech-, 


Cat  boat. 

Sailing  on  the  wind.  When  the  boat  cannot  make  her  course 
it  becomes  necessary  to  sail  as  close  to  the  wind  as  possible, 
tacking  by  various  stages  in  working  to  windward. 

In  sailing  close  hauled^  as  it  is  called,  do  not  trim  sheets  too 
flat,  and  trim  the  boat  so  that  she  will  have  a  small  tendency  to 
come  up  into  the  wind,  necessitating  a  small  amount  of  weather 
helm.  The  sails  should  be  kept  full  and  by  that  is  the  forward 
cloths  just  about  to  tremble.  In  rough  water  give  the  boat  a 
good  full  and  she  will  go  better  and  gain  more  than  by  pinching 
her  into  the  wind. 


BOATS 


449 


Tacking  (a  two  masted  boat).  Give  boat  a  good  full,  get  as 
much  way  on  her  as  possible.  Order  the  men  standing  by 
sheets,  to  be  ready  "  Ready  about  "  is  the  proper  order.    Then 

^^Ease  down  the  helmP^ 
— "  Let  fly  fore  and  jib 
sheets! "  "  Haul  main 
boom  slowly  amidships! " 

As  soon  as  the  boat 
comes  up  into  the  eye  of 
the  wind,  if  she  is  slow, 
have  the  jib  held  out  flat 
at  a  small  angle  with  the 
keel,  to  windward.  This 
will  help  turn  her  head 
around  on  the  new  tack. 
Do  not  hold  out  the  jib 
like  a  bag.  This  only 
stops  the  way  of  the  boat. 
If  the  boat  should  begin 
to  make  stern  way.  Shift 
over  helm. 

As  soon  as  she  is 
around,  "  Trim  aft  fore 
and  jib  sheets! "  and  ease 
off  main  boom. 

When  a  boat  or  ship 
gets  into  the  wind  and 

will  not  go  about  she  is  said  to  be  in  irons.    Box  her  around 
with  the  jib. 

Tacking  a  single  sticker  put  down  helm  and  go  about. 

Wearing.  If  in  a  heavy  sea  and  on  the  wind  with  a  laden  boat 
it  may  be  necessary  to  wear,  or  to  gybe^  as  it  is  called  in  a  small 
boat.    With  considerable  wind,  brail  up  or  lower  the  mainsail. 

Then  put  the  helm  up,  her  head  falls  away  from  the  wind, 
ease  the  jib  sheets,  and  the  fore  sheet,  as  the  wind  comes  aft 
and  shifts  on  the  new  eather  side,  haul  over  the  main  boom  and 
sheet  it  aft  to  bring  her  up  into  the  wind.  Keep  head  sheets 
loose  until  wind  is  forward  of  beam  then  trim  aft  all  sheets. 

With  plenty  of  sea  room  wearing  is  the  proper  thing  to  do 
with  a  laden  boat. 


Sliding  gunter. 


i 


Tft 


ii . 


h 


450 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


A  good  boat,  in  smooth  water  should  sail  to  within  five  points 
of  the  wind.    Yachts  will  go  to  four,  square  riggers  to  six. 

In  sailing  on  the  wind,  the  back  draft  of  the  fore,  is  liable  to 
shake  the  luff  of  the  mainsail.  Where  a  jib  is  carried  and 
trimmed  flat,  this  is  the  best  guide  for  a  helmsman  sitting  well 
on  the  weather  quarter  of  his  boat.  A  small  wind  vane  is  very 
useful  however  and  a  strip  of  bunting  at  the  main  truck  comes  in 
very  handy,  especially  in  light  winds. 


Falmouth  lugger. 

Squalls  when  on  the  wind.  These  are  best  met  by  putting 
down  the  helm  and  luffing  up  into  the  wind.  Then  sail  can  be 
shortened  if  desired. 

Reefing.  Luff  up  into  the  wind,  lower  the  yard  (standing  lug) 
gathering  in  the  sail.  Pass  tack  lashing,  pass  reef  points 
around  foot  of  sail,  not  around  boom,  hoist  away. 

Reef  foresail  first,  then  main. 

If  weather  looks  doubtful  do  not  hesitate  to  reef  in  plenty  of 
time.  The  reef  can  always  be  shaken  out,  but  if  you  wait  too 
long  trouble  may  ensue. 

Conclusion.  These  notes  on  boat  sailing  have  been  made  as 
brief  as  possible.  No  book  can  teach  the  art  of  sailing.  It  must 
be  acquired  by  practice.  The  steamship  officer  should  at  least 
be  required  to  sail  an  open  boat.  On  the  bridge  at  night  the 
lights  of  a  sailing  craft  will  have  a  new  meaning  to  him.  Given 
the  direction  of  the  wind,  and  he  will  know  within  a  few  points 


BOATS 


451 


of  how  she  may  be  heading.  He  will  also  know  just  where  she 
cannot  sail  and  this  will  be  a  great  help  to  him  in  avoiding  her 
as  he  must,  under  the  Rules  of  the  Road,  Article  20,  keep  out  of 
the  way  of  all  sail  vessels. 


When  sailing  keep  every  one  seated.    All  gear  clear  for  running. 

The  following  questions  and  answers  from  the  BluejackeVs 
Manual  of  the  U.  S.  Navy  give  the  main  points  to  be  observed 
in  bringing  a  boat  under  sail  alongside  of  a  gangway.  Similar 
tactics  will  make  a  good  landing  at  a  wharf. 

Q.  What  precautions  in  coming  alongside  under  sail? 

A.  It  requires  care,  judgment  and  experience.  Never  at- 
tempt to  go  alongside  under  sail  if  a  boat  or  other  obstruction 
that  the  mast  could  touch  overhangs  the  gangway.  Don't  go 
alongside  under  sail  in  rough  weather  when  the  rolling  motion 
of  the  boat  would  cause  the  masts  to  strike  the  gangway  plat- 
form. Under  these  circumstances  unstep  the  masts  and  bring 
the  boat  alongside  under  oars. 

Q.  What  is  the  best  method  of  coming  alongside  under  sail 
when  the  ship  is  riding  to  a  windward  tide? 

A.  Approach  the  gangway  from  abaft  the  beam.  Tend  all 
gear   and  shorten  sail  when  boat  has  sufficient  way  to  reach 


4 

! 


* 


'■''f 


452 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


gangway.    Bow  and  stroke  oarsmen  tend  boat  hooks,  and  other 

men  perform  their  duties  in  shortening  sail. 
Q.  n  the  ship  is  riding  to  the  wind? 

A.  Approach  gangway 
from  about  abeam.  Tend 
all  gear.  Bow  and  stroke 
oarsmen  stand  by  with 
boat  hooks.  When  there 
is  enough  way  to  make 
the  gangway,  command : 
"In  jib  and  foresail." 
Let  go  jib  tack  and  sheet ; 
smother  jib  into  fore- 
mast. Lower  foresail  or 
brail  it  up.  At  the  same 
time  put  tiller  hard 
down;  haul  main  boom 
amidships  or  a  bit  on 
weather  quarter.  This 
tlprows  the  boat's  head 
into  the  wind;  hauling 
the  main  boom  to  wind- 
ward deadens  her  head- 
way when  desirable. 
When  alongside  com- 
mand "  In  mainsail " ; 
stow  sails  and  tmstep 
if  desirable.  This  is 
the  surest  and  safest 
method;  but  with  skill 
in  handling,  all  sails  may 
be  taken  in  together,  the 

tiller  put  hard  down,  and  the  boat  rounded  up  to  gangway.    This 

requires  more  skill  and  judgment.    It  shoidd  not  ordinarily  be 

attempted. 

Q.  If  there  is  any  current,  how  make  allowances  for  it? 

A.  Head  for  a  point  further  forward  or  aft  as  the  case  may  be. 

In  coming  alongside  of  a  wharf  or  jetty  with  the  wind  directly 
on  to  the  landing.  Get  in  sail  in  plenty  of  time  and  come  in 
under  a  jib  or  luff  into  the  wind  and  drift  down,  lowering  sail  in 
plenty  of  time. 


The  sprit  is  a  very  handy  rig. 


CHAPTER  14 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


Compass 

The  compass,  as  everyone  knows,  dates  back  to  the  earliest 
times.  The  following  interesting  data  on  the  invention  of  the 
compass  and  upon  the  origin  of  its  cardinal  divisions  is  taken,  in 
part,  from  an  article  in  Shipping  of  September,  1917. 

There  is  unquestionable  evidence  contained  in  a  document 
of  the  year  1269  that  at  that  time  a  pivoted  compass  was  in  use 
by  navigators  and  a  description  of  this  instrument  is  contained 
in  the  *  Epistola  de  Magnete,*  of  Petrus  Peregrinus  de  Maricourt, 
written  at  Lucera  and  addressed  to  Sigerus  de  Fauconcourt. 
Several  manuscripts  of  this  remarkable  treatise  are  in  existence, 
notably  at  the  Oirford  Library.  It  seems  that  about  1450  some- 
one wrote  that  the  compass  had  been  invented  at  Amalfi  by  a 
certain  Flavius  and  about  a  century  later  a  so-called  historian 
wrote  that  the  name  of  that  Flavius  was  Gioja.  No  evidence 
exists  that  Gioja  ever  lived,  although  he  is  supposed  to  have 
made  such  a  portentous  invention.  Another  superstition  re- 
garding the  compass  is  that  which  ascribes  the  discovery  of  the 
properties  of  the  magnetic  needle  to  the  Chinese,  European 
mariners  being  supposed  to  have  acquired  the  compass  from 
them  through  the  Arabs.  But  this  supposition  entirely  overlooks 
the  fact  that  the  existence  of  magnetism  was  known  Ito  Euro- 
pean culture  at  the  time  of  Aristotle  and  we  have  no  means  of 
ascertaining  whether  or  not  this  knowledge  was  not  made  use 
of  in  practical  navigation.  The  Chinese  never  shone  as  navi- 
gators, although  they  are  supposed  to  have  at  one  time  journeyed 
by  sea  as  far  as  the  Persian  Gulf.  But  their  compass  was  a 
very  crude  affair,  and  although  their  method  of  suspending  the 
needle  made  it  more  sensitive  than  the  European,  their  compass 
card  (divided  in  24  points)  was  so  defective  that  there  is  no 
reason  to  believe  it  could  ever  have  been  used  by  Europeans, 
for  the  reason  that  if  there  had  existed  at  that  time  any  inter- 
change of  ideas  between  the  West  and  the  Far  East  the  Chinese 
would  not  have  clung  so  long  to  so  crude  a  compass  as  they  were 
using.    On  the  other  hand,  Indians  and  Arabs  as  early  as  the 

453 


'1    ! 


^\  I 


If 


r 


454 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


sixteenth  century  were  using  compasses  of  European  make  and 
there  is  no  evidence  that  they  ever  used  the  Chinese  card. 
Therefore  the  story  of  the  compass  being  of  Chinese  origin  must 
also  be  relegated  to  the  junk  pile  of  unfounded  allegations. 
There  is  on  the  contrary  every  reason  to  suppose  that  the  com- 
pass was  but  a  natural  evolution  brought  about  by  the  combina- 
tion of  the  magnetic  needle  with  the  *  Rosa  Ventorum,*  known 

to  the  Ancients.  This 
*  Rose  of  the  Winds '  is 
known  to  be  much  older 
than  the  compass.  It  goes 
back  to  the  days  of  the 
Temple  of  the  Winds  at 
Athens,  which  was  built 
by  Andronicus  Cyrrhes- 
tes.  The  Rose  contained 
eight  cardinal  points  di- 
viding the  heavens  accor- 
ding to  the  prevailing 
winds.  These  points  were 
Tr^montano,  Greco,  Le- 
vante,  Scirocco,  Ostro, 
Africo  or  Libeccio,  Po- 
nento  and  Maestro.  The 
north  point  was  indicated 
by  a  broad  arrowhead  or 
spear,  as  well  as  by  a  T 
(initial  of  Tramontano). 
In  time  after  the  Rosa 
Ventorum  had  been 
adapted  to  indicate  the 
swing  of  the  magnetic 
needle,  the  sjonbol  used 
to  designate  the  Tramon- 
tano evolved  into  a  fleur- 
de-lys.  This  was  about 
1492.  The  Rosa  Ven- 
torum also  had  a  cross  at 
the  east  and  it  is  noteworthy  that  the  compasses  of  British  ships 
carried  this  cross  until  the  eighteenth  century.  The  subdivision 
of  the  Rosa  Ventorum  into  32  points,  or  rhumbs,  is  generally 
believed  to  have  been  the  invention  of  Flemish  mariners.  It  is 
certain  that  a  compass  divided  substantially  on  modern  lines  was 
known  to  Chaucer  about  1391.  All  the  expressions  used  to  de- 
note the  accessories  of  the  mariner's  compass  denote  the  pre- 
dominance as  mariners  formerly  held  by  the  Southern  races. 
Thus  the  word  *  binnacle,'  used  to  describe  the  stand  holding 


A  modern  binnacle. 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


455 


the  compass,  is  a  corruption  of  the  word  *bittacle,'  which  in 
turn  was  derived  from  the  Portuguese  'abitacolo,*  the  house 
in  which  the  compass  was  housed.  Compasses  improved  very 
little  in  efficiency  until  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
So  little  reliance  could  be  placed  upon  the  compasses  then  in 
use  that  in  1820  Peter  Barlow  reported  to  the  British  Admiralty 
that  half  of  the  compasses  used  in  British  warships  were  mere 
lumber  and  only  fit  to  be  destroyed.  He  suggested  instead  of 
the  prevailing  method  of  single  suspension,  a  pattern  having 
four  or  five  parallel  straight  strips  of  magnetized  steel  fixed  under 
a  card.  This  method  was  eventually  adopted  and  remained 
the  British  Admiralty  standard  until  the  Thomson  (Lord  Kelvin) 
compass  came  out  in  1876. 

The  construction  of  the  compass,  in  principle  at  least,  is  simple. 
A  magnetized  bar  of  steel,  or  iron,  called  the  needle^  is  balanced 
on  a  pivot  so  that  it  will  rotate  freely  in  the  horizontal  plane,  com- 
ing to  rest  in  the  line  of  the  magnetic  meridian  at  any  particular 
place  where  it  is  free  from  other  disturbances.  On  board  ship 
the  compass  needle  is  deflected  from  the  magnetic  meridian  by 
the  unequal  attraction  of  the  surrounding  iron  and  steel  in  the 
hull  and  fittings  of  the  vessel.  This  deflection  is  called  devi- 
ation. Compasses  are  adjusted^  by  placing  certain  magnets  in 
such  positions,  about  the  needle,  that  they  act  in  a  direction 
opposite  to  and  of  equal  force  to  the  deflecting  iron  in  the  vessel. 
A  perfectly  adjusted  compass  would  lie  in  the  plane  of  the  mag- 
netic meridian  on  all  headings  of  the  vessel.  Such  a  compass 
would  have  no  deviation.  The  subject  of  compass  errors  and 
their  correction  is  one  of  navigation  and  is  fully  treated  in  the 
many  excellent  works  on  that  subject.  The  seaman,  is  con- 
cerned with  the  fact  that  there  is  such  a  thing  as  deviation^  and 
should  always  take  it  into  accoimt  in  laying  courses  when  piloting. 

In  addition  to  deviation^  the  compass  is  generally  pointing  to 
one  side  or  the  other  of  true  north  by  an  angle  known  as  the 
magnetic  variation  of  the  place,*    At  different  points  on  the 

*  History  furnisjies  some  interesting  instances  of  the  early  ignorance  of 
the  existence  of  magnetic  variation.  On  September  13,  1492,  consternation 
prevailed  among  the  sailors  on  board  Columbus's  ship,  The  Santa  Maria, 
when  it  was  noticed,  for  the  first  time,  that  the  compass  needle,  instead  of 
pointing  a  little  East  of  the  North  Star,  as  it  had  done  all  along  since  their 
leaving  European  shores,  though,  to  be  sure,  by  a  gradually  diminishing 
amotmt,  then  pointed  somewhat  West  of  the  North  Star,  and  continued  to 


i 


^  : 


li 


i4 


456 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


/ 


earth's  surface,  the  needle,  pointing  roughly  to  the  magnetic 
pole,  which  does  not  coincide  with  the  true  pole  at  the  axis  of 
the  earth's  rotation,  forms  an  angle  with  the  true  meridian. 
This  angle  is  shown  on  sea  charts  by  means  of  the  compass  rose 
and  by  lines  of  equal  variation,  for  some  certain  year,  together 
with  a  notation  of  the  annual  increase  or  decrease  for  that 
locality. 

By  means  of  the  deviation  table,  giving  the  deviation  for  all 
headings,  and  the  variation  taken  from  the  chart  and  corrected, 
the  compass  error  is  found,  and  from  this,  the  true  bearing  of 
an  object,  or  the  true  course  made  by  compass,  can  be  obtained. 

The  method  of  appl3ring  the  error,  of  checking  it  by  bearings 
of  terrestrial  or  celestial  objects  and  bodies,  is  part  of  the  science 
of  navigation — perhaps  the  most  important  part  of  navigation. 
Bowditch — The  American  Practical  Navigator — explains  the 
groimdwork  of  these  fascinating  calculations. 

do  so  as  the  ship  passed  to  the  Westward.  Columbus  on  his  first  voyage  not 
only  discovered  a  new  world,  but  also  an  important  scientific  fact.  Before 
that  time  the  variation  of  the  needle  from  the  true  North  was  considered  due 
to  the  imperfection  in  the  mechanical  construction  of  the  magnetic  needles, 
and  was  not  before  recognized  as  a  distinct  error.  Incidentally  it  may  be 
stated  that  during  this  first  voyage  Columbus  passed  through  one  place,  a 
little  West  of  Fayal,  in  the  Azores,  where  the  needle  pointed  to  the  true  North, 
and  a  few  years  later  Sebastian  Cabot  observed  another  such  place  somewhat 
farther  to  the  North,  the  observations  of  the  two  thus  roughly  locating  for 
the  first  time  an  agonic  line. 

The  earliest  observations  on  land  of  the  fact  that  the  magnetic  needle  does 
not  point  exactly  "  true  to  the  Pole  "  appears  to  have  been  made  by  George 
Hartmann,  a  maker  of  compass  sundials,  who,  in  about  the  year  1570,  found 
that  at  Rome  the  needle  pointed  6  deg.  East  of  true  North.  About  125  years 
later,  after  observations  of  the  declination  of  the  needle  from  the  true  North 
and  South  line  began  to  multiply,  it  was  found  that  at  London  between  1580, 
the  date  of  the  first  declination  observations  at  that  place,  and  1634  the 
needle  had  changed  its  direction  of  pointing  from  11 V2  <leg.  East  to  4  deg. 
East,  or  a  change  to  the  Westward  of  7  deg.  Thus  another  important  phe- 
nomenon was  discovered,  the  cause  of  which  remains  without  adequate 
solution  up  to  the  present  time,  though  some  of  the  best  minds  through  the 
intervening  years  have  studied  it.  This  phenomenon  is  the  so-called  secular 
variation  of  the  earth's  magnetism,  by  the  action  of  which  changes  of  varying 
magnitudes  are  continuously  occurring  in  the  distribution  of  the  earth's 
magnetism.  The  continual  observation  and  study  of  these  changes  and  the 
correction  of  magnetic  charts,  as,  for  example,  the  lines  of  equal  magnetic 
variation  suppUed  to  navigators,  follow  as  a  consequence. 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


457 


Having  stated  the  fundamental  errors  of  the  compass,  we  can 
go  a  step  further  in  elaborating  upon  its  present  design. 

The  simple  bar  or  needle  has  been  superseded  by  swinging 
two  or  more  needles,  in  parallel,  on  either  side  of  the  pivot. 
To  the  needles  is  attached  the  compass  card  carrying  the  divi- 
sions about  which  the  seaman  is  most  concerned. 

Dry  compasses  consist  of  a  segmental  circle  of  paper  mounted 
on  an  alumintim  ring,  suspended  from  the  central  boss  con- 
taining a  jeweled  cup  by  thirty-two  silk  threads.  The  needles 
suspended  below  the  card,  are  single  wires  and  depend  from  the 
card  ring  by  a  second  series  of  silk  threads.  This  brings  the 
weight  of  the  needles  down  low  and  makes  the  card  very  steady. 
The  pi^ot  supporting  the  jeweled  cup  held  in  the  boss  of  the 
card,  rises  from  the  bottom  of  the  compass  bowl,  and  the  bowl, 
in  txirn,  is  carried  on  a  ring,  ring  and  bowl  supported  by  knife 
edge  bearings  placed  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  These 
bearings  are  called  gimbles;  the  ring  is  the  gimble  ring. 

The  bearings  on  the  bowl,  resting  on  the  ring,  are  fore  and  aft, 
those  on  the  ring,  resting  on  the  binnacle  (the  compass  box), 
are  athwartship.  So,  no  matter  how  the  ship  may  heel  or  pitch, 
the  compass  pivot  remains  vertical  and  the  compass  card  hori- 
zontal. 

In  the  dry  compass  the  parts  of  the  card  are  made  as  light  as 
possible  to  avoid  friction  on  the  pivot. 

To  dampen  the  oscillation  of  the  bowl  in  a  seaway,  with  vessel 
moving,  a  chamber  in  the  bottom  of  the  bowl  is  partly  filled 
with  a  vi^cuous  oil — a  sort  of  sluggish  friction  brake.  The 
action  of  this  is  self-evident. 

The  Liquid  Compass  differs  in  construction.  The  needles  are 
formed  by  bunching  magnetized  wires  in  the  form  of  small 
cylinders,  and  the  card,  of  metal,  is  carried  by  these  bundles  of 
magnets.  The  boss  is  carried  by  a  central  hub,  also  of  metal, 
and  also  attached  to  the  magnets.  There  are  usually  four 
bundles  of  magnets,  two  in  each  side  of  the  pivot.  This  rather 
rigid  and  heavy  arrangement  is  floated  in  a  mixture  of  glycerine 
and  water  or  of  alcohol  and  water,  or  alcohol  alone.  Hollow  air 
chambers  in  the  hub  supply  buoyancy,  the  whole  thing  almost 
floats,  so  that  the  cup,  under  the  center  of  the  hub,  bears  down 
lightly  upon  the  pivot  rising  from  the  bottom  of  the  bowl.    The 


il 


I 


m 

i 

m 


458 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


459 


TW^ 


■;  I 


i 

i. 


bowl  is  covered  with  a  heavy  glass,  all  air  is  excluded,  and  the 
compass  swings  freely  in  the  liquid.  An  expansion  chamber 
provides  for  temperature  changes. 

The  liquid  compass  has  reached  a  high  state  of  perfection, 
and  has  many  things  in  its  favor.  In  the  United  States  Navy 
all  magnetic  compasses  are  of  the  liquid  type. 

The  seaman  should  study  the  construction  of  his  compasses ;  he 
should  know  how  to  adjust  them.  The  binnacle  should  be  kept 
locked  and  the  key  in  charge  of  the  master.  When  a  compass  is  to 
be  adjusted,  under  favorable  conditions,  the  master,  or  navigator, 
must  attend  to  it  themselves,  or  the  compass  is  placed  in  charge 
of  a  compass  adjuster.  The  writer  remembers,  as  a  youngster, 
trying  to  read  the  Admiralty  Manual  on  Compass  Adjustment, 
a  thick  red  book  filled  with  a  frightful  amount  of  mathematics. 
Recently  the  following  advice  on  compass  adjustment  printed  in 
The  Oracle  of  the  Oriental  Navigation  Co.  came  to  his  attention 
and  is  given  here  because  it  states  truths  in  such  clear  language 
that  seamen  who  read  it  may  profit  by  its  simplicity. 

"  While  the  compass  is  a  delicate  instrument,  and  while  it  is 
well  to  have  it  attended  to  by  an  expert  occasionally,  there  is  a 
tendency  among  some  officers  to  regard  it  as  a  mystery  only  to 
be  approached  by  shore  adjusters.  This  is  undesirable  both 
because  it  is  unnecessary  and  because  a  good  officer  in  training 
to  command  will  naturally  want  to  be  master  of  his  tools  rather 
than  afraid  of  them. 

"  Suppose  you  have  taken  an  ore  cargo  in  Rio,  and  your 
compass  is  out.  Choose  early  morning  or  late  evening  on  a  clear 
day  (the  sun  changes  bearing  too  rapidly  around  mid-day), 
work  out  a  table  of  azimuths  for  this  time,  or  if  you  prefer  plot 
three  on  co-ordinate  paper  and  fair  a  curve  through  them.  With 
your  pelorus  or  with  a  shadow  pin  bring  the  sun  on  the  correct 
azimuth  for  the  time;  the  ship  will  then  be  heading  north 
magnetic.  Open  your  binnacle  base  and  you  will  see  two  car- 
riers with  magnetized  wires  in  them  whose  ends  are  painted 
red  and  blue.  Remove  all  those  lying  athwartship  of  the  vessel. 
Your  ship  being  on  north  magnetic  for  at  least  two  minutes, 
note  the  compass.  Place  the  wires  in  the  thwartship  carrier 
with  red  ends  to  same  side  of  binnacle  the  0°  of  compass  points 
to — ^E,  deviation,  red  ends  to  starboard; — ^W,  red  to  port, — 
and  run  the  carrier  up  until  needle  is  amidships.  If  possible 
use  enough  wires  so  tiiat  carrier  will  be  about  half  way  up  for 
this.  Now  steady  in  the  same  way  on  East  Magnetic,  and 
remove  wires  from  the  fore-and-aft  carrier.    Do  the  same  as 


before :  if  E'ly  deviation,  put  in  wires  red  ends  forward ;  Westerly, 
red  ends  aft.    Bring  0°  to  lubber's  line  by  moving  carrier. 

"  Now  steady  on  N.  E.  Magnetic,  slack  up  the  nuts  on  the 
two  soft  iron  spheres  and  move  them  equally  in  or  out  untu  the 
N.  E.  point  coincides  with  the  lubber's  line.  Secure  every- 
thing, and  swing  ship  for  residuals.  Plot  the  remainmg  del- 
ation and  if  you  have  done  a  good  job  it  ought  to  be  a  smooth, 
wavy  curve  not  over  3°  out.  . 

"  Some  tune  later,  when  in  a  seaway,  note  if  the  card  swings 
badly  with  the  roll  of  the  ship.  K  so,  remove  the  compass  care- 
fuUy  and  in  the  center  of  the  binnacle  you  will  find  a  rod  hangmg 
by  a  chain.  Pull  this  rod  up  enough  to  *  damp '  the  swmgs  of 
the  compass,  but  remember  that  too  much  wiU  make  your  card 
sluggish  in  good  weather.  Incidentally  this  rod  should  be  cap- 
sized in  its  tube  whenever  the  magnetic  equator  is  crossed. 

"  If  your  azimuths  are  correct  and  your  helmsman  is  good, 
the  whole  job  can  be  done  in  half  an  hour.  Once  you  have  done 
it  and  checked  your  work  with  a  deviation  table,  you  can  laugh 
thereafter  at  the  high-priced  adjuster,  and  feel  secure  of  your 
courses." 

The  writer  of  the  above,  Lieut.-Commander  R.  T.  MerriU, 
an  official  of  the  Oriental  Navigation  Company,  and  a  navy 
officer  of  wide  experience,  has  summed  up  the  final  act  of  a 
rather  compUcated  subject.  Seamen  are  advised  to  study 
Lecky's  Wrinkles  and  to  carefully  con  their  Bowditch,  before 
opening  the  door  of  the  binnacle— also,  there  are  many  methods 
of  carrying  the  magnets,  but  of  course  the  resultant  positions  are 
similar  to  those  described.* 

Having  taken  a  rapid  survey  of  the  magnetic  compass  we  will 
now  get  down  to  the  seamanship  end  of  the  business,  the  use  of 
the  divisions  on  the  card— alike  for  all  compasses,  in  so  far  as 
the  different  systems  are  alike. 

First,  outside  of  the  card,  and  marked  on  the  bowl,  is  the 

*  It  is  considered  preferable  for  a  compass  and  correctors  to  remain  in  a 
compensating  binnacle  when  the  ship  is  to  be  laid  up  for  several  months.  The 
effect  of  the  compensation  is  to  neutraUze  the  effect  of  the  iron  of  the  ship,  so 
that  there  should- be  less  effect  upon  the  compass  than  if  the  binnacle  were 

not  compensated.  .     .    i  • 

No  effect  should  be  produced  on  the  quadrantal  correctors  if  spherical  m 
form  and  properly  made.  Should  any  effect  occur,  it  can  be  at  once  detected 
by  loosening  the  securing  nuts  of  the  quadrantal  correctors  and  rotating  each 
sphere  half  a  turn,  at  the  same  time  observing  whether  the  compass  is  af- 
fected.—U.  S.  Hydrographic  Office. 


^ 

i 

i 


i 
I 


Vf  ' 


460 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


lubbefs  liney  a  sharp  black  vertical  mark  in  the  true  fore  and 
aft  line  of  the  vessel.  This  indicates  the  ship's  head  and  the 
point  where  the  lubber's  line  cuts  the  rim  of  the  compass  card 
is  the  Compass  heading  at  that  particular  time. 

No  doubt  in  the  very  old  days,  when  an  ancient  mariner 
cocked  his  weather  eye  at  the  north  star,  a  point  or  two  "  to 
windard  o'  the  bowline,^*  and  told  off  the  course,  the  lubber's 
line,  painted  on  the  rim  of  that  new-fangled  contraption,  the 
compass,  was  a  truly  contemptible  thing  only  fit  for  weak-minded 
land  lubbers.  This,  lubber's  line  like  a  few  hundred  other  old 
things  still  sticks  with  us  at  sea. 

n 

Boxing  the  Compass 

But  the  spirit  of  change  is  on  us  and  many  people  finding  it  a 
slow  process  to  learn  to  box  the  compass^  by  points  and  quarter 
points,  are  clamoring  for  degrees.  "Throw  overboard  this 
old  stuff  "  they  say  "  and  give  us  something  easy  and  scientific," 
This  seems  to  be  the  cry.  In  fact  there  is  a  great  deal  of  change 
going  on,  even  the  old  lubber's  line  is  being  tampered  with  as 
we  will  see  later  on  in  dealing  with  the  gyroscopic  compass. 

But  in  adopting  new  things,  in  the  matter  of  the  sea,  it  is 
safer  to  first  be  certain  that  the  old  ones  are  really  no  longer  of 
any  use.  Everjrthing  at  sea  is  so  different,  so  damned  unnatural 
to  a  landsman,  that  some  of  the  most  natural  things  to  a  sailor, 
are  looked  down  upon  by  lawyers,  editors  and  the  like,  who  have 
a  genius  for  getting  themselves  into  snug  places  of  authority 
ashore. 

Let  us  examine  the  points  of  a  compass.  The  compass  card 
with  its  thirty-two  points  is  divided  as  follows : 

Cardinal  points  North  Inter  cardinal  points  Northeast 


East 

South 

West 

"  Three  name  "  points,  North,  north,  east 

East  north  east 
East  south  east 
South  south  east 


South  east 
South  west 
North  west 

South  south  west 
West  south  west 
West  north  west 
North  north  west 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


461 


"  By  "  points  North     South  east  by  east  West  by  south 

by  east  South  east  by  south  West  by  north 

North  east  by  north  South  by  east  North  west  by  west 

North  east  by  east     South  by  west  North  west  by  north 

East  by  north  South  west  by  south  North  by  west 

East  by  south  South  west  by  west 

These  points,  worked  out  by  seamen  through  the  ages,  are 
not  as  they  are  without  much  logical  reason  behind  it  all.  For  a 
time  we  have  had  with  us  a  school  of  men  both  in  the  govern- 
ment and  merchant  services  who  have  taken  a  careless  view  of 
many  fundamental  matters  connected  with  the  sea.  To  most 
of  these  men  the  seaman,  untaught  so  far  as  schooling  within 
four  steady  walls  is  concerned,  is  looked  upon  as  being  some- 
what out  of  date.  On  the  other  hand,  under  sea  conditions, 
methods  that  appear  to  be  rough  and  ready  are  often  the  most 
valuable. 

Our  writer  in  Shipping,  of  September,  1917,  the  article  being 
unsigned,  had  something  more  to  say  about  compasses  that  will 
bear  repeating: 

"  Reference  has  been  made  to  the  elimination  of  cardinal 
points  and  their  substitution  by  degree-subdivision.  This  latter 
method  is  undoubtedly  more  scientific,  but  it  has  the  defect  of 
giving  no  direct  indication  of  relative  direction.  To  seamen,  a 
designation  of  135  deg.  for  S.  E.,  for  instance,  does  not  appear 
sufficiently  plausible.  Furthermore,  the  method  of  steering 
by  degrees  alone  might  psychologically,  prove  dangerous  in  the 
mercantile  marine  for  certain  reasons  which  we  shall  explain. 
The  ftmdamental  principle  underlying  point-division  is  based 
upon  a  fact  peculiar  to  man's  naive  method  of  thinking  and 
reasoning.  We  naturally  think  of  *  dividing '  as  meaning  exactly 
the  same  as  *  halving.'  If  a  child  is  told  to  divide  an  apple 
among  three  persons,  he  will  first  halve  it,  and  then  halve  one 
of  the  halves.  And  even  after  he  has  realized  the  fact  that  the 
three  portions  are  unequal,  his  further  efforts  to  render  the 
division  more  equitable  will,  as  a  rule,  result  only  in  further 
halvings.  And  man,  actuated  by  this  same  principle,  when 
asked  to  determine  in  what  direction  the  sim  appears  to  be 
in  the  heavens,  will  first  ascertain  it  to  be,  say,  between  S  and  E. 
Then  he  will  consider  whether  it  be  nearer  to  S  or  nearer  to  E; 
in  this  way  he  establishes  the  position  of  SE.  Then  he  will 
proceed  to  find  out  if  it  is  nearer  to  SE  or  S,  and  will  fiz^SSE 


462 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


i 


♦II 


as  a  further  point  of  departure;  and  so  on.    The  division  of  the 
compass-card  into  points  corresponds  perfectly  with  the  above- 
described  mental  process  of  obtaining  subdivisions  by  con- 
tinued halvings.    Its  chief  advantage  is  likewise  in  close  relation 
thereto.    This  advantage  consists  in  its  extreme  plausibility  and 
the  splendid  view  it  gives  of  the  system  of  directions.    This 
view  is  rendered  still  more  striking  by  means  of  graduated 
signatures,  the  main  points  looming  up  very  conspicuously,  while 
the  auxiliary  points  grow  less  and  less  prominent  in  proportion 
to  their  relative  degree  of  importance ;  all  of  which  is  requisite  in 
practical  seamanship,  as,  for  example,  steering  by  unstable  card, 
or  with  poor  light,  or  turnmg  through  certain  desired  angles,  etc. 
To  this  we  must  add  the  close  connection  of  this  division  with 
the  importance  which  seamen  attach  to  the  traditional  cardinal 
points,  and  to  a  nomenclature  by  which  one  can  know  at  one  e 
in  which  quadrant,  and  whereabouts  in  that  quadrant,  a  given 
direction  is  to  be  looked  for.    The  absence  of  just  this  direct 
indication  is  what  practical  seamen  object  to  in  the  division  of 
the  compass  into  degrees,  particularly  the  graduation  from  0  deg. 
Merchant  seamen  have  objected  to  degree-graduation  because 
the  helmsman  cannot  follow  it  and  nee\is  the  guidance  of  point- 
division  in  order  to  keep  his  course.    It  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  the  mariner  refers  to  nearly  all  the  occurrences  relating  to 
wind,  weather,  and  navigation  in  terms  of  compass-points  and 
the  merchant  navigator,  in  spite  of  what  scientists  may  say,  can- 
not do  without  the  terms  N,  E,  S,  W,  and  desires,  moreover,  to 
see  them  represented  in  the  compass. 

To  box  the  compass  the  points  are  named  in  succession  from 
North  around  to  North,  either  way.  Or  from  any  other  point 
and  around. 

To  box  the  compass  by  quarter  points,  the  divisions  are 
named  progressively  until  we  get  to  a  "by"  point  running 
in  the  opposite  direction.  Then  we  start  with  three  quarters 
and  work  down  to  one  quarter.  An  inspection  of  the  table  will 
show  how  this  is  done. 

The  pelorus  or  dumb  compass  is  a  compass  card  mounted  at 
some  convenient  place  and  is  used  for  taking  bearings  of  objects 
when  the  compass  itself  cannot  be  employed.  The  pelorus  is 
set  to  the  course  and  the  vessel  held  as  steady  as  possible  while 
taking  these  bearings.  The  pelorus  is  marked  in  points  and  in 
degrees. 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


463 


Boxing  by  Points 

North 

North  by  east 

North  north  east 

North  east  by  north 

North  east 

North  east  by  east 

East  north  east 

East  by  north 

East 

East  by  south 

East  south  east 

South  east  by  east 

South  east 

South  east  by  south 

South  south  east 

South  by  east 

South 

South  by  west 

South  south  west 

South  west  by  south 

South  west 

South  west  by  west 

West  south  west 

West  by  south 

West 

West  by  north 

West  north  west 

North  west  by  west 

North  west 

North  west  by  north 

North  north  west 

North  by  west 

North  ' 


Boxing  by  ^^  Points 

N  V4E 

NVzE 

N3^E 

NbyE 

N  by  E  1/4  E 

N  by  E  1/2  E 

N  by  E  3^  E 

N  NE 

N  N  E  1/4  E 

N  N  E  1/2  E 

N  N  E  3^  E 

NEby  N 

NE34N 

N  E  1/2  N 

N  E  1/4  N 

NE 

N  E  1/4  E 

N  E  1/2  E 

NE3^E 

NEbyE 

N  E  by  E  1/4  E 

N  E  by  E  1/2  E 

N  E  by  E  3^  E 

ENE 

E  N  E  1/4  E 

E  N  E  1/2  E 

E  N  E  34  E 

Eby  N 

E34N 

EViN 

EiAN 

E,  etc.,  etc. 


m 


Relative  Bearings 

Relative  hearings  are  bearings  with  relation  to  the  vessel  and 
are  most  important  in  connection  with  maneuvering  to  avoid 


\ 


i 


17 


464 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


collision.  The  relative  direction  of  the  wind,  with  reference  to  a 
sailing  vessel,  is  most  important  particularly  to  the  officer  in 
charge  of  a  steamer ,  who,  under  the  rules  of  the  road,  must  so 
handle  his  vessel  as  to  keep  clear  of  the  sailer. 

A  vessel  is  heading  North  and  the  wind  is  from  the  following 
points : 

Relative  direction  of  wind  with 
Wind  respect  to  vessel 

North Ahead 

N  by  E One  point  on  starboard  bow 

NNE Two  points  on  starboard  bow 

N  E  by  N Three  points  on  starboard  bow 

N  E Broad  on  starboard  bow 

N  E  by  E Three  points  forward,  starboard  beam 

ENE Two  points  forward,  starboard  beam 

E  by  N One  point  forward,  starboard  beam 

E Abeam 

E  by  S One  point  abaft,  starboard  beam 

ESE Two  points  abaft,  starboard  beam 

S  E  by  E Three  pointy  abaft,  starboard  beam 

S  E Broad  off  starboard  quarter 

S  E  by  S Three  points  on  starboard  quarter 

SSE Two  points  on  starboard  quarter 

S  by  E One  point  on  starboard  quarter 

South Astern 

And  so  on  around  the  port  side  to  north. 

Relative  bearings  of  any  object,  vessel,  lighthouse,  etc.,  are 
also  roughly  located  in  the  same  way.  Insist  upon  quick  accur- 
ate bearings  from  lookouts  when  reporting.  A  lookout  aloft  will 
sing  out* 

"  Sail  ho ! " 

Officer :  "  Where  away?  " 

Lookout:  "  Broad  on  port  bow."    Etc. 

Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  placed  on  the  importance  of  this 
subject  of  the  compass  and  relative  bearings.  Know  the 
compass — every  sailor  should  have  the  compass  engraved  upon 
his  brain,  together  with  the  action  of  the  helm.  Men  who  have 
many  lives  in  their  charge  have  special  responsibilities.  We  all 
take  the  surgeon  and  his  work  very  seriously.  If  he  makes  a 
mistake  one  person  perishes.  If  the  watch  officer,  on  a  liner, 
makes  a  mistake,  a  few  hundred  lives,  at  least,  are  liable  to  pay 
for  his  error. 

*A  good  plan,  suggested  by  Capt.  W.  J.  Bernard,  is  to  mark  the  points  from 
the  bow  on  the  rim  of  the  crow's  nest  to  guide  lookouts  in  reporting  bearings 
accurately. 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


465 


A  Few  Compass  Problems 

You  are  heading  north.    You  sight  a  sail  broad  on  your  port 
quarter.    How  does  she  bear? 


Ans.  S  W. 


You  are  close  hauled  on  the  starboard  tack  (in  a  square  rigger, 
sailing  six  points  from  the  wind)  heading  North.  You  put  your 
helm  up  and  haul  the  wind  one  point  abaft  the  weather  beam. 
How  will  you  be  heading  then?  Ans.  N  W  by  N. 

A  fore  and  after  will  lie  (in  theory  at  least)  about  four  points 
from  the  wind.  You  are  close  hauled  on  the  port  tack,  your 
schooner  heading  S  W  by  S.  What  is  the  direction  of  the 
wind?  Ans.  S  by  E. 

You  go  about.    How  will  you  be  heading?         Ans.  S  E  by  E. 

Endless  problems  can  be  stated  for  practice.  Such  problems 
are  always  coming  up  when  vessels  meet.  The  wide-awake 
officer  of  the  watch  will  always  work  them  out  in  his  mind  even 
when  no  apparent  danger  exists. 

We  will  state  one  more  problem. 

You  are  on  the  bridge  of  a  steamer  at  night,  making  fifteen 
knots  to  S  S  W  (course  202.5  degrees).  Your  smoke  is  rolling 
ahead  of  you  three  points  to  port  and  about  one  half  as  fast  as 
you  are  going  through  the  water.  Of  course  you  have  figured 
out  the  direction  and  force  of  the  wind  immediately  upon  taking 
over  the  watch.  You  have  looked  at  the  sea  and  have  seen  the 
white  caps  a  point  on  your  starboard  quarter.  You  know  the 
wind  is  blowing  a  fresh  full  sail  breeze  from  North  by  East, 
about  5  to  6  by  the  Beaufort  Scale. 

On  the  bridge  there  seems  to  be  a  pleasant  light  breeze  three 
points  on  the  starboard  quarter. 

You  suddenly  catch  a  glimpse  of  green  light  in  a  fold  of  the 
smoke  blowing  ofif  ahead  on  the  lee  bow.  A  large  sailing  ship 
is  ofif  somewhere  on  your  port  bow  slamming  along  with  all 
sail  set,  anywhere  from  ten  to  twelve  knots  through  the  water. 
She  has  the  right  of  way.    How  may  she  be  heading? 

Ans.  You  have  seen  her  green  light,  broad  on  your  port  bow 
(SSE),  therefore  she  may  be  running  to  S  W,  or  gomg  close 
hauled  on  starboard  tack  heading  N  W  by  W,  or  anywhere  in 


I 


466 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


q 


liii 


between  these  points.    That  is,  roughly,  her  possible  heading 
under  the  conditions  given  is  confined  to  the  seven  points  of  the 
compass  indicated.     Also  she  is  certainly  crossing  your  bow. 
What  would  you  do? 
Ans.  Starboard  helm  at  once  and  pass  astern  of  her. 

Officers  of  sufficient  training  will  have  had  many  such  problems 
come  to  them  in  the  course  of  their  experience.    Often  there  is 


^0       ^'X 


f 


*"   \vV^ 


V'^ 


^"^^  \\\\V 


Outside  circle  the  "  scientific  "  compass  card.    Good  for  navigation; 

not  much  good  for  seamanship. 


no  time  to  note  bearings,  call  the   captain,  etc. 
officer  must  act  at  once. 


The  watch 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


467 


But,  to  arrive  at  such  decisions  the  watch  officer  must  abso- 
lutely know  his  compass  and  how  to  work  out  relative  bearings 
in  his  mind,  seeing  the  possible  direction  of  another  craft  quickly 
and  correctly.  Smoke  rolling  ahead  has  been  the  cause  of  many 
collisions.    Some  day  the  motor  shipcnay  do  away  with  this. 

Compass  Graduations  by  Degrees 

The  method  of  graduation  from  North  to  East  and  West, 
ninety  degrees  each  way,  from  South  to  East  and  West,  ninety 
degrees  each  way,  is  well  understood.  The  letters  N,  E,  S,  and 
W,  and  their  combinations,  must  always  be  given.  That  is 
N  E  is  N  45  degrees  E.  S  W  is  S  45  degrees  W.  North,  East, 
South  and  West  are  given  direct  without  naming  degrees. 

The  approved  method  in  the  newer  navigation  is  to  divide  the 
horizon  into  360  degrees,  with  0  at  North  and  to  name  the 
directions  right-handed,  as  follows : 

North 0  degrees 

N  E 45  " 

East 90  " 

SE 135  " 

South ...180  " 

SW 225  " 

West 270  " 

NW 315  " 


The  Gyro  Compass* 

The  gyro  compass  has  come  to  stay  and  seamen  should  have  a 
better  understanding  of  its  many  points.  The  following  inter- 
esting and  instructive  data  on  the  gyroscopic  compass  is  con- 
tributed by  Mr.  C.  D.  Jobson  of  the  Sperry  Gyro  Company. 

The  gjrro-compass  obtains  its  directive  force  from  the  rotation 
of  the  earth,  and  always  points  to  the  true  or  geographic  north. 

*  The  Sperry  Gyro  Company  conducts  a  special  school  for  those  who  are 
interested  in  the  use  and  care  of  their  compass,  gyro  stabilizers,  etc.  Address 
the  Company  at  Manhattan  Bridge  Plaza,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 


V 


J 
f 


468 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


It  has  no  variations  and  as  magnetism  does  not  effect  it,  it 
consequently  has  no  deviation;  therefore,  as  a  compass,  it  is  a 
valuable  aid  to  navigation. 

A  balanced  rotating  gyroscope  with  three  degrees  of  freedom 
will  always  point  in  th^  same  direction  or  will  maintain  its 
"  fixi^  of  plane,"  unless  affected  by  an  outside  force.  There- 
fore, if  a  gyroscope  with  three  degrees  of  freedom  has  a  weight 


Sperry  gyro  compass — master  compass. 

hung  from  it,  as  the  earth  rotates  the  gyroscope  points  in  the 
same  direction  holding  the  weight  and  relative  to  the  earth 
this  weight  is  raised  and  gravity  immediately  began  to  pull 
it  down— this  force  of  gravity  exercises  an  outside  force  on 
the  gyroscope  and  the  resultant  of  the  two  forces  will  be  the 
direction  the  gyroscope  will  travel.    The  action  of  gravity  con- 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


469 


tinues  until  the  weight  comes  to  rest  held  by  gravity,  at  which 
time  the  axis  of  the  gyroscope  will  be  parallel  with  and  pointmg 
to  the  geographic  north  and  south  and  will  be  rotating  in  the 
same  direction.  In  other  words,  a  gyroscope  with  a  weight  hung 
on  it  will  line  itself  up  with  the  axis  of  the  earth  and  rotate  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  earth  and  can  consequently  be  used  as  a 

compass.  ^ 

First  Successful  Gyro  Compass 

Elmer  A.  Sperry's  first  compass  was  installed  on  the  Princess 
Anne  of  the  Old  Dominion  Lme  in  1911,  and  after  very  good 
success  was  removed  and  installed  on  the  U. 
S.  S.  Delaware  the  same  year.    It  proved  so 
successful  that  the  United  States  Navy  im- 
mediately purchased  ten  compasses,  and  af- 
ter they  were  installed  the   entire  United 
States  Navy  was  equipped,  and  the  British, 
French,  Italian,  Russian,  Spanish,  Danish, 
Japanese,  and  other  navies  of  the  World  im- 
mediately followed  suit,  and  today  there  are 
over  1200  Sperry  Gyro-Compasses  in  the 
naval  service  of  the  world. 

After  the  European  War  the  demands  for 
gyro-compasses  in  the  navies  having  been  j^^,,,,  ^^.^  ,^^p^, 
satisfied  many  ships  of  the  Merchant  Marme  ^^^„^  Binnacle  bowl 
are  being  equipped  with  the  Sperry  Gyro-  lowered,  Note—cor- 
Compass.  Among  them  the  Mauretania,  rection  dials.  See 
Aquitania,  Martha  Washington,  Bergens- p(^9e  471.  , 
fjord,  Panhandle  State,  etc.,  etc. 

The  Sperry  Gyro-Compass  consists  of  the  master  compass, 
switchboard  and  repeater  panel,  motor  generator,  storage 
battery,  steering  repeater  compass,  bearing  repeater  compass 
and  alarm  bell.  The  motor  generator  is  run  from  the  ship's 
electric  supply  and  regenerates  the  proper  voltage  to  run  the 
gyroscopes  in  the  master  compass,  same  being  controlled 
through  the  switchboard;  the  storage  battery  is  used  in  an 
emergency  to  run  the  motor  in  case  the  ship's  supply  fails. 
The  steering  and  bearing  repeater  compasses  are  small  electric 
compasses  that  are  controlled  by  the  master  compass  in  the 
same  manner  that  a  master  clock  controls  any  number  of  repeater 


470 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


tj^^^^i 


on  the  ship's  bridge  and  is  used  by  helmsman  to  steer  the  proper 
courses.  The  bearing  repeater  is  on  the  wing  of  the  bridge  and 
clocks.  The  steering  repeater  is  mstalled  at  the  steering  wheel 
is  used  to  take  bearings,  i.e.,  to  obtain  a  beaiing 
or  the  position  of  another  ship,  lighthouse,  or  in 
fact  any  object  relative  to  the  position  of  the  ship 
taking  the  bearing.  Also  the  position  of  the  sun 
can  be  taken,  and  by  the  use  of  azimuth  tables 
the  true  course  can  be  found,  which  is  a  check  on 
the  compass. 

Messrs.  Martienssen  and  Anschutz  Kaempfe 
have  invented  a  gyro-compass.  This  compass  only 
has  two  degrees  of  freedom  and  is  floated  in  mer- 
cury;  also  the  gyroscopes  run  in  a  bowl  of  hydro- 
gen put  in  at  a  pressure.  The  use  of  this  compass 
has  been  confined  purely  to  German  warships. 

The  following  data  on  the  prro  compass  is  by  Mr. 
Bradley  Jones  and  is  used  here  with  his  permission. 

Steering  re-  Latitude  Error 

peater.  Since  the  action  of  the  gyroscope  depends  on 

tne  balance  between  two  forces,  one  being  the 
momentum  of  the  gyroscope's  rotation  and  the  other  being  the 
unbalancing  caused  by  the  earth's  rotation ;  any  change  in  either 
of  these  will  cause  a  change  in  the  conditions  of  bailee.  The 
gyroscope  s  speed  being  kept  constant  its  momentum  will  remain 
unchanged.  9n  the  contrary  the  effect  of  the  earth's  rotation 
varies  with  atitude.  While  the  earth  rotates  at  uniform  speed^ 
an  object  at  the  equator  travels  around  at  a  speed  of  approxi- 
mately 25,000  miles  in  the  24  hours  or  a  little  more  th^^l,C^o 
miles  per  hour;  wWle  an  object  at  say  60°  lat.  travels  at  only 

S  tK;  ^^hJ?  ^""^  *^  ^r^Y^^^g  on  a  smaller  diameter 
circle.  Thus  the  conditions  governmg  the  precession  of  a  whisel 
at  the  equator  will  not  be  the  same  at  any  other  latitude 

rnmLlc  A'  ^  ^f^'^^.^^  coustaut  relation  between  the 
compass  reading  at  varymg  latitudes,  it  is  easily  possible  to 
calculate  a  table  of  corrections  which  may  be  appUenhen  the 

in^  c?^  1   '^^°^"^-    ^'  *^^   compass   lubber-line   may   he 
adjusted,  for  an  average  latitude  and  any  errors  disregarded 
A  vessel  plymg  between  New  York  and  EnglLd  might  be  Xsted 

at  55    only  .6   E;  it  may  be  disregarded  in  most  cases  safely. 
If  a  vessel  travels  east  or  west  it  may  be  considered  to  be 


I 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


471 


either  aiding  or  decreasing  the  effect  of  the  earth's  rotation. 
K  it  travels  north  or  south;  that  is  either  as  true  directions  or  as 
components  of  direction,  the  balancing  becomes  further  compli- 
cated by  having  to  consider  forces  acting  in  three  directions  on 
the  gyroscope  system.  Any  error  resulting  from  not  properly 
compensating  for  this,  is  termed  the  *  north  (or  south)  steaming 
error.'    In  foreign  makes,  this  is  taken  care  of  by  a  set  of  tables. 

In  the  American  designed  compass,  while  it  is  entirely 
possible  to  use  tables  to  correct  for  these  errors,  provision  is 
made  for  correcting  both  of  these  errors  by  shifting  the  lubber- 
line.  Two  graduated  dials  are  set  to  correspond  with  the 
latitude,  and  speed  respectively  and  these  dials  automatic- 
ally shift  the  lubber-line  and  compensate  for  the  respective 
errors.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  by  this  means  the  errors 
are  not  eliminated,  as  the  axle  of  the  gyroscope  does  not  actu- 
ally point  north  and  south,  and  while  shifting  the  lubber-line 
so  that  it  no  longer  coincides  with  the  fore-and-aft  line  of  the 
ship  enables  one  to  correctly  interpret  the  ship's  course.  In 
the  *  repeaters  '  which  automatically  copy  the  action  of  the  main 
or  *  master '  compass  in  various  parts  of  the  ship,  by  a  simple 
arrangement  it  is  feasible  to  have  true  directions  shown. 

With  the  gjrroscope  there  is  of  course,  no  troublesome 
swinging  of  the  ship,  to  determine  deviation.  There  is  no 
need  to  determine  the  effect  of  the  cargo  on  the  compass  needle 
for  unlike  the  magnetic  type  it  is  unaffected  by  the  nearness  of 
iron  or  steel.  It  can  easily  be  believed,  as  the  makers  claim, 
that  the  cost  of  the  newer  type  is  soon  offset  by  saving  in  fuel 
and  wages  by  steering  straighter,  truer  courses.  Perhaps  even 
more  important  is  the  psychological  effect,  for  with  the  manifold 
cares  and  anxieties  incidental  to  their  s^ely  guiding  their  ship 
to  its  destination,  what  a  relief  it  is  to  the  navigators,  no  longer 
to  be  forced  to  depend  on  the  magnetic  needle  with  its  variations 
and  susceptibilities  to  error  by  any  chance  bit  of  iron  or  steel 
but  to  have  for  their  use  an  instrument  on  whose  readings  they 
may  always  depend. 

V 

The  Lead 

To  ascertain  the  depth  of  water  on  entering  or  leaving  a  port, 
or  in  any  case  where  there  is  supposed  to  be  less  than  twenty 
fathoms,  soundings  are  taken  by  the  hand  lead,  A  quarter- 
master being  stationed  in  the  lead  chains  for  the  purpose.  Hand 
lead  lines  are  marked  as  follows : 

At  2  fathoms  from  the  lead,  with  2  strips  of  leather. 

At  3  fathoms  from  the  lead,  with  3  strips  of  leather. 


. 


472 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


473 


«!; 


Ul 


At  5  fathoms  from  the  lead,  with  a  white  cotton  rag. 
At  7  fathoms  from  the  lead,  with  a  red  woolen  rag. 
At  10  fathoms  from  the  lead,  with  leather,  having  a  hole  in  it. 

At  13  fathoms  from  the  lead, 
as  at  3. 

At  15  fathoms  from  the  lead, 
as  at  5. 

At  17  fathoms  from  the  lead, 
as  at  7. 

At  20  fathoms  from  the  lead, 
with  2  knots. 

At  25  fathoms  from  the  lead, 
with  one  knot. 

At  30  fathoms  from  the  lead, 
with  three  knots. 

At  35  fathoms  from  the  lead, 
with  one  knot. 

At  40  "fathoms  from  the  lead, 
with  four  knots.    And  so  on. 

These  are  known  as  the 
"  marks."  The  numbers  omit- 
ted, as  1,4, 6,  8,  etc.,  are  called 
the  "deeps,"  and  they  are 
spoken  of  together  as  the 
"  marks  and  deeps  of  the  lead 
line." 

All  lead  lines  should  be 
marked  when  wet. 
Soundings  by  the  hand-lead  are  taken  while  the  vessel  has 
headway  on,  the  leadsman  throwing  the  lead  forward,  and 
getting  the  depth  as  the  vessel  passes,  while  the  line  is  nearly 
perpendicular.  He  conmiunicates  to  the  officer  the  soundings 
obtained,  thus : 

If  the  depth  corresponds  with  any  of  the  marks,  he  calls, 
for  instance  "  By  the  mark  S!  "  If  the  mark  is  a  little  below 
the  surface,  he  calls,  "  Mark  under  water  Sr  If  the  depth  is 
greater,  or  one  half  more  than  any  of  the  marks,  he  calls, 
"  And  a  quarter r  or  "  And  a  half  5!  "  If  the  depth  is  a 
quarter  less,  he  caUs,  "  Quarter  less  5.'"    If  he  judges  by  the 


Heaving  the  lead  on  the  Schoolship 
Newport, 


distance  between  any  two  of  the  marks  that  the  depth  of  water 
is  4,  6,  8,  9,  11,  12,  14,  16,  18,  19,  or  21  fathoms,  he  calls,  "  By 
the  deep  4,"  etc. 
On  the  hand-lead  line  there  are  nine  "  marks  "  and  eleven 

"  deeps." 

Soundings  should  be  given  in  a  sharp,  clear  and  decided  tone 
of  voice.  In  steamers,  this  is  certainly  the  best  plan,  for  while 
the  old-fashioned  "  song  "  is  being  drawled  out,  the  vessel  may 

run  ashore. 

Hand  leads  generally  weigh  7  or  14  lbs.,  though  the  following 
weights  are  also  made,  4,  6,  8,  10,  and  16  lbs. 

An  expert  leadsman  will  grasp  the  line  about  two  fathoms 
from  the  end  (a  small  wooden  toggle  is  sometimes  seized  into 
the  lay  of  the  line)  and  by  swinging  it  back  and  forth  a  few  times, 
keeping  the  line  taut  as  the  lead  rises  horizontal,  he  will  get  it 
over  his  head,  and  with  two  full  turns,  will  send  the  lead  and 
line  along  at  a  tangent,  parallel  with  the  ships  side  and  almost 
parallel  with  the  water.  The  coiled  line  must  run  out  of  his 
other  hand  without  kinks.  As  the  lead  plunges,  he  grasps  the 
running  line  with  the  hand  used  in  heaving,  and  pulls  in  rapidly, 
until  he  feels  the  lead  on  the  bottom.  When  the  line  is  up  and 
down,  he  bends  over,  plumbs  the  lead  on  the  bottom  and  get  the 
feeU  hard,  sticky,  etc.,  as  he  reads  the  sounding  and  sings  out 
to  the  bridge.  The  lead  is  swung  overhead  in  the  opposite  way 
in  which  a  wheel  would  turn  if  going  ahead.  It  is  released  at 
the  bottom  of  the  swing  and  shoots  ahead  close  to  the  water. 
Only  considerable  practice  will  make  a  good  leadsman.  ' 

In  coming  into  port  do  not  expect  good  casts  when  the  vessel 
is  going  above  six  or  seven  knots.  Casts  of  eight  to  nine  fathoms 
can  then  be  made  with  reliability.  When  going  faster  the 
fourteen  pound  lead  is  used  and  an  extra  good  leadsman  is 
needed. 

The  markings  of  all  lead  lines  should  be  examined  from  time 
to  time,  the  lin^s  being  measured  when  wet.  Always  have 
at  least  three  lead  lines  and  five  or  six  leads  ready  at  hand  in  the 
bridge  chest.  The  white  rags  at  five  and  fifteen  fathoms  should 
be  white  cotton  bunting.  The  red-rags  at  seven  and  seventeen 
fathoms  should  be  red  woolen  rag.  On  a  dark  night  the  feel  will 
give  the  mark;  if  the  hands  are  too  cold  take  the  rag  to  the  lips. 


474 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


if .  I 


i  ■; 


American  hemp,  ItaUan  hemp  or  braided  cotton  cord  is  gener- 
ally used  for  lead  lines,  though  any  pUable  signal  halyard  stuff 
will  do.    A  hand  lead  line  is  usually  60  fathoms  in  length. 

Too  much  care  cannot  be  given  to  the  position  and  fitting  of 
the  lead  stands.  These  should  be  under  or  forward  of  the 
bridge  on  each  side  and  far  enough  below  the  side  light  boxes 
so  the  lead  will  not  strike  them  when  swung  overhead.  Have  a 
breast  band  fitted  if  the  lead  is  to  be  used  for  any  considerable 
tmie,  and  have  the  leadsmen  protected  from  the  wet  with  a 
tarpaulin  apron.  A  second  hand  should  stand  by  to  haul  in  the 
Hne  after  each  cast.  Often  a  small  snatch  block  is  handy  for 
this  purpose.  The  leadsman  if  assisted  will  only  have  to  coU 
his  line  for  the  next  cast  as  it  comes  aboard. 

Heaving  the  lead  is  so  important  that  practice  at  sea  is  desir- 
able. Where  boys  are  carried  they  should  be  given  regular 
practice  in  heaving,  using  a  small  canvas  bag  filled  with  water. 
This  keeps  them  busy  and  does  no  har^  if  it  flys  over  the  rail, 
or  comes  down  on  their  heads  when  they  first  try  to  swing  it 
clear  around. 

In  taking  the  chains  at  night  it  is  well  to  know  the  height  of 
the  raU  above  water,  in  calling  the  depths.  Wherever  possible 
have  two  men  in  the  chains  on  both  sides,  check  one  against 
another.    Left-handed  leadsmen  should  be  developed. 

The  blue  pigeon  has  kept  many  ships  off  the  ground,  and  no 
modern  device  has  yet  been  perfected  that  will  take  the  place  of 
Its  direct  and  reliable  readings.  No  shipmaster  should  be  at  sea 
long  without  the  certain  knowledge  that  he  has  some  able 
seamen  in  his  crew  who  are  dependable  leadsmen.  Remember 
a  good  leadsmen  always  calls  out  the  character  of  the  bottom, 
as  hardy  soft,  sticky y  etc.,  when  he  makes  a  cast;  this  informa- 
tion is  of  great  value  in  coming  to  an  anchorage. 

The  coasting  lead  is  a  heavy  lead  used  in  depths  of  from 
twenty-five  to  one  hundred  fathoms.  It  weighs  from  twenty- 
five  to  fifty  pounds  and  is  cast  by  carrying  the  lead  well  forward, 
and  passing  the  line  along  the  rail  aft.  On  a  saHing  ship  the 
lead  line  may  be  carried  around  the  stern,  the  lead  cast  from  the 
lee  bow,  and  the  final  depth  taken  on  the  weather  quarter 
The  markings  are  20  fathoms,  fish  line  with  2  knots ;  30  fathoms, 
fish  line  with  3  knots,  etc.  A  line  with  one  knot  marks  each 
5  fathoms  between. 


4^ 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


475 


The  deep  sea  lead  {dipsea  lead)  is  seldom  used.  It  weighs 
50  lbs. — ^the  line  is  120  fathoms  or  over.  Markings  same  as 
coasting  lead. 

All  leads  are  hollowed  on  the  bottom  and  are  armed  with 
tallow  or  soap  to  bring  up  specimens  of  the  sea  bottom.  This  is 
specially  so  of  the  leads  used  with  the  sounding  machine  where  a 
line  of  deep  soundings  may  be  taken  on  approaching  a  coast  in 
thick  weather.  Then  the  character  of  the  bottom  is  of  great 
help  in  determining  the  approximate  position  of  the  vessel. 

The  Drift  Lead,  While  at  single  anchor,  it  is  good  practice 
always  to  have  a  lead  somewhat  heavier  than  the  hand-lead, 
say  from  fourteen  to  twenty  pounds,  over  the  side,  and  resting 
on  the  bottom,  with  a  man  to  attend  it.  Of  course,  this  is  only 
necessary  in  a  stiff  breeze,  or  at  night.  By  this  you  will  have 
instant  notice  if  the  vessel  drags  her  anchor. 

VI 

The  Sounding  Machine 

The  sounding  machine  now  generally  used  at  sea  was  first 
developed  by  the  late  Lord  Kelvin.  The  machine  consists  of  the 
following  parts : 

The  frame  carrjring  the  drum  upon  which  the  sounding  wire 
is  wound.  Handles  are  hinged  to  the  journal  of  the  drum  and 
this  in  turn  is  controlled  by  a  friction  brake.  When  a  sounding 
is  to  be  taken  the  handles  are  thrown  out,  the  lead  is  ai^med,  a 
depth  recording  tube  is  placed  in  the  brass  holder,  open  end 
down,  the  lead  is  steadied  over  the  stern,  and  the  brake  is 
released.  As  the  lead  plunges  down,  the  vessel  going  ahead,  a 
brass  finger  pin  is  held  over  the  wire  just  forward  of  the  roller 
of  the  after  fair  lead  over  which  the  wire  runs.  The  feel  of  the 
wire,  at  the  sudden  slack  when  it  strikes  bottom,  are  attained 
by  practice.  Immediately  after  making  bottom,  the  handles  are 
wound  in  (this  connects  them)  and  the  lead  is  brought  back  on 
board  by  means  of  the  drum.  A  dial  on  the  machine  shows  the 
actual  amount  of  wire  run  out.  Should  the  finger  pin  be  lost  a 
piece  of  wood  will  do  just  as  well  in  feeling  the  run  of  the  line. 
This  method  of  feeling  when  bottom  has  been  made  is  most 
important  in  getting  good  soundings  and  is  only  had  by  practice. 


476 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


477 


It  is  a  good  plan  to  save  the  tubes  taken  with  short  casts  and  to 
use  them  for  practice  in  deeper  water  whenever  this  may  be 
necessary.    The  time  taken  up  in  practice  will  be  well  spent  when 
casts  have  to  be  made  at  night  coming  on  the  coast  during  bad 
winter  weather,  with  snow  and  sleet.    At  times  like  this  only 
experienced  men  are  worth  anything  at  the  sounding  machine. 
The  writer  has  seen  the  most  remarkable  soundings  sent  to  the 
bridge  by  amateurs,  a  hundred  fathoms  and  over  with  very 
little  water  under  the  ship.    The  machine  is  allowed  to  run  out 
after  the  lead  has  struck  bottom,  and  if  the  vessel  is  not  going 
very  fast  the  lead  lies  on  the  bottom,  the  sounding  tube  is  hori- 
zontal and  fills  with  water,  recording  great  depths.    It  is  a  good 
practice  to  always  have  a  responsible  officer  at  the  sounding 
machine  when  important  casts  are  to  be  taken.    In  the  old  days 
in  the  American  Line  the  junior  officer  of  the  watch  had  this  job. 
Depth  recording  devices  consist  of  some  means  to  measure 
the  pressure  of  the  water  when  the  lead  is  bn  the  bottom.    Know- 
ing the  pressure,  a  scale  can  be  prepared  which  will  show  the 
head  of  water,  or  the  depth.    The  method  in  general  use  is  to 
fit  a  glass  tube,  closed  at  the  upper  end,  and  to  measure  the 
distance  the  water  is  forced  up  into  the  tube  against  the  air  which 
is  compressed  above  it.    This  measure  is  made  in  different  ways. 
Tubes  are  coated  on  the  inside  with  a  chemical  composition 
(chromate  of  silver).    This  is  reddish,  and  the  action  of  the  salt 
water  turns  the  coating  white,  giving  a  very  satisfactory  mark  of 
the  distance  the  water  pressure  has  forced  salt  water  into  the 
tube.*    The  tubes  are  two  feet  long,  the  scale,  a  two-sided  gradu- 
ated ruler,  is  calibrated  to  translate  this  distance  into  fathoms. 
As  the  depth  increases  the  graduations  become  smaller  and  of 
course  less  accurate. 

Each  cast  uses  up  a  tube,  and  to  prevent  this  waste  (?)  tubes 
with  the  inside  surface  made  opaque  by  grinding  have  been 
used.  The  rise  of  the  water  can  readily  be  seen  on  the  ground 
glass.  The  closed  end  of  the  tube  can  be  opened  and  the  tube 
dried  out.  As  a  practical  matter,  the  ground  glass  tube  is  not 
an  economy.  Time  is  too  valuable  to  be  taken  up  in  drying  tubes, 
although  a  few  such  tubes  for  emergency  use  are  advisable  on 

*  The  mark  should  be  sharp  and  perpendictilar  to  the  length  of  the  tube. 
A  spunding  with  a  slanting  mark  should  be  regarded  with  suspicion. 


r 


board  ship.  The  writer  has  examined  different  depth  scales 
and  care  must  be  taken  to  have  a  scale  that  will  read  correctly 
with  any  particular  tube.  This  is  not  always  the  case.  Tubes 
must  be  accurately  made  and  of  exactly  the  same  inside  diameter 
throughout. 

The  following  practical  and  valuable  notes  on  the  degree  of 
dependability  and  the  use  of  sounding  tubes  are  taken  from 
reports  of  the  U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey. 

"  Although  of  undoubted  value  as  a  navigational  instrument, 
the  sounding  tube  is  subject  to  certain  defects  which,  operating 
singly  or  in  combinations,  may  give  results  so  misleading  as  to 
seriously  endanger  the  vessel  whose  safety  is  entirely  dependent 
upon  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  depths. 

"  Efforts  have  been  made  from  time  to  time  by  the  Coast  and 
Geodetic  Survey  to  utilize  tubes  for  surve3ring  operations.  The 
results  obtained,  however,  have  been  so  unsatisfactory  that  the 
general  use  of  such  tubes  for  surveying  work  has  been  dis- 
couraged. 

"In  practical  tests,  carefully  made  by  surveying  parties, 
where  up-and-down  casts  of  the  lead  were  taken  with  tubes 
attached  to  the  lead,  errors  in  the  tube  amounting  at  times  to 
as  much  as  25  per  cent,  of  the  actual  depths  have  been  noted. 
Errors  of  10  to  12  per  cent,  of  the  actual  depth  were  quite 
common, 

"  It  is  also  worthy  of  note  that  in  the  great  majority  of  cases 
the  tubes  gave  depths  greater  than  the  true  depths,  which,  in 
actual  use  in  coastwise  navigation,  would  usually  have  resulted 
in  the  conclusion  that  the  ship  was  farther  offshore  than  was 
really  the  case." 

To  Test  a  Sounding  Machine 

"Before  undertaking  the  sounding  necessary  to  make  any 
partictdar  landfall  the  vessel  should  be  stopped  for  an  up-and- 
down  cast  of  the  lead  in  order  to  test  the  accuracy  under  the 
prevailing  conditions  of  the  tubes  which  are  to  be  used.  For 
this  purpose  it  is  not  necessary  to  get  bottom;  simply  run  out 
60  to  80  fathoms  of  wire  and  then  see  how  closely  the  tubes  regis- 
ter that  amount.  A  number  of  tubes  can  be  sent  down  at  one 
time,  and  it  is  then  possible  to  select  one  or  two  which  register 
most  nearly  correct. 

"  It  is  well  to  keep  a  permanent  record  of  the  results  of  each 
tube  tested.  By  so  doing  the  navigator  will  soon  obtain  valuable 
information  as  to  the  performance  of  the  various  tubes  and 
the  degree  to  which  they  may  be  trusted.    Such  a  record  should, 


i 


I 


4>- 
f 


I 


478 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


res^iSt^^^'  *^^  ^*^  account  the  various  conditions  affecting  the 

A  "  Home  Made  "  Sounding  Tube 
"  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  sounding  tubes  which  give  good 
results  can  readily  be  made  from  plain  glass  or  metal  tubes 
aboard  ship—gauge  glasses,  for  instance.  One  end  of  the  tube 
is  closed  with  a  cork  and  sealing  wax.  A  narrow  strip  of  chart 
paper  of  uniform  width,  on  which  a  line  has  been  ruled  with  an 
mdelible  pencil,  is  mserted  the  entire  length  of  the  tube.  The 
paper  is  held  in  place  by  bending  the  projecting  lower  end  up- 
h^H      Tif  *J^^i;*s?^^  9f.t?e  tube  and  securing  it  with  a  rubber 

'^\  iu®  ^^'^?,*  ^  ^^^^  *^®  water  rises  in  the  tube  will  be 
mdicated  by  the  blurring  of  the  pencil  line. 

"  n  the  ah-  column  in  the  tube  is  24  inches  long,  the  sounding 
SYf      J?«    ^'■?'?  ^y  scale  graduated  for  tubes  of  that  length 
If  of  a  different  length,  a  special  scale  must  be  prepared:  its 
graduations,  compared  to  those  of  the  24-inch  scale,  will  be  pro- 
portional to  the  comparative  lengths  of  the  two  tubes. 

U  certain  precautions  are  taken,  these  tubes  will  give  results 
which  compare  favorably  with  commerfeial  tubes.  The  paper 
should  be  mserted  uniformly  in  the  tube,  and  its  upper  end,  or  a 
S^  *!,  T  "^h^  ^^^  measurement  is  taken,  should  coincide 
mth  the  top  of  the  air  column.  Metal  tubes  have  the  advantage 
of  uniform  bore,  but  if  metal  tubes  are  used  the  paper,  in  order 
l?^'^^'^f.^l^?^ty  should  be  fastened  at  the  upper  end  when 
Tifi  ^^  l^  ^^"^g  sealed  and  then  stretched  lightly  at  the  bottom. 
The  depth  should  always  be  read  from  the  dry  portion  of  the 

fe^nrth  "^         ^^*  ^^^^^^^  ^^  ^"^^'®^*  *^  considerable  change  in 

Depth  recorders  depending  upon  spring  pressure  working 
agamst  a  piston,  are  sometimes  used.  A  marker  rides  on  a  scale 
and  the  readings  are  direct.  Such  devices  are  aU  right  when 
handled  by  experts,  but  are  liable  to  get  out  of  order  at  sea. 

Other  types  of  depth  recorders  trap  the  water  at  lowest  depth 
and  measure  the  sounding  by  the  amount  of  water  they  bring  up. 
Such  mstruments  are  far  too  complicated  for  use  at  sea.  The 
chemically  coated  glass  tube  seems  to  be  the  best  thing  so  far.* 

Sounding  machines  are  generally  placed  aft,  a  few  paces  from 
the  taffrail,  the  frame  of  the  machine  screwed  to  deck  plates 

*  "  Physical  Laws  Underlying  The  Scale  Of  A  Sounding  Tube,"  by  Walter 
D.  Lambert,  Geodetic  Computer,  U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  goes  into 
Ais  matter  very  thoroughly.  It  is  a  very  valuable  forty-five  page  pamphlet. 
Pnce  fi^cents^  Sold  by  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Govermnent  Printing 
Office,  Washington,  D.  C. 


'f 


i 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


479 


fitted  for  its  reception.  When  lyiag  in  port  for  any  length  of 
time  it  is  well  to  unship  the  sounding  machine  and  stow  it 
in  the  after  wheelhouse,  getting  it  out  when  preparing  for 
sea. 

Many  sounding  machines  work  from  the  bridge  deck,  the 
sounding  wire  leading  out  over  the  side  through  a  swivel  block 
carried  on  the  end  of  a  sounding  spar.  This  should  be  at  least 
three  fathoms  from  the  side  of  the  vessel  and  fitted  with  a  lift, 
and  forward  and  after  guys.  The  block  is  swiveled  to  a  traveller 
and  is  hauled  in  and  out  along  the  spar  so  that  the  lead  may  be 
got  at  when  hauled  up.  This  arrangement  has  much  to  recom- 
mend it  and  enables  the  officer  on  the  bridge  to  keep  an  eye  on 
the  casts  without  leaving  his  post. 

The  following  practical  instructions  for  the  sounding  machine 
are  general.  Officers  should  study  the  particular  machine  on 
board  and  become  familiar  with  all  of  its  parts  and  their  ope- 
ration. 

"  1.  The  work  of  taking  a  cast  is  to  be  done  by  two  men, 
under  the  superintendence  of  an  officer.  For  brevity,  the  men 
will  be  referred  to  as  brakesman  and  leadsman.  The  regular 
post  of  the  brakesman  is  at  the  starboard  side  of  the  sounding 
machine.  The  regular  post  of  the  leadsman  is  beside  the  taffrail 
fair-lead. 

"  2.  The  men  go  to  their  posts,  and  without  further  orders  the 
brakesman  puts  on  the  two  handles  and  fixes  them  securely 
by  means  of  the  screws.  At  the  same  time  the  leadsman  sees 
that  the  lead  is  properly  armed,  and  takes  it  along  to  the  fair- 
lead.  The  officer  examines  the  tube  and  places  it  in  the  guard- 
cylinder. 

"  3.  The  brakesman  standing  on  the  starboard  side  of  the 
machine  sees  that  the  arm  is  prevented  from  turning  •  by 
means  of  the  catch.  He  then  takes  hold  of  the  handle  and  puts 
the  brake  on  by  turning  the  handle  in  the  direction  for  winding 
in  the  wire.  When  the  brake  is  sufficiently  tightened,  the 
brakesman  calls  out  *  brake  on.'  The  leadsman  then  lets  down 
the  sinker  without  a  jerk  till  it  hangs  upon  the  rope.  The 
brakesman  then,  holding  the  handle  in  one  hand,  releases  the 
arm  and  pays  out  by  turning  the  handle  until  the  link  (con- 
necting the  plaited  rope  to  the  wire)  has  passed  over  the  fair- 
lead.  The  leadsman  then  calls  out  *  on  brake ' ;  at  which 
order,  the  brakesman  engages  the  arm  in  the  catch.  The 
brakesman  then  reports  *  brake  on,'  and  the  leadsman  allows 
the  sinker  to  hang  free. 


I 


480 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


'IB: 


"  4.  The  brakesman  now,  having  seen  that  the  index  of  the 
counter  is  at  zero,  takes  the  brass  finger-pin,  and  holding  it 
lightly  by  its  handle,  presses  it  against  the  wire  and  waits  for  the 

officer  to  give  the    order 
*  let  go.' 

"  5.  The  brakesman  in- 
stantly turns  his  handle  in 
the  direction  for  pajring  out 
until  the  drum  with  wire 
rotates  freely.  While  the 
wire  is  running  out  he 
holds  the  handle  in  one 
hand  and  the  finger-pin 
pressing  against  the  wire 
in  the  other  hand.  The 
brakesman  watches  the 
counter,  and  if  the  bottom 
has  not  been  reached  be- 
fore coming  to  250,  he  com- 
mences to  apply  the  brake 
as  soon  as  he  sees  the  in- 
dex of  the  counter  at  250, 
so  as  to  stop  before  300 
is  reached.  As  Soon  as  the 
brakesman  feels  the  wire 
V  slacken,  he  at  once  begins 
turning  the  handle  in  the 
direction  for  hauling  in, 
until  the  brake  is  tightened 
up  and  the  egress  of  the 
wire  stopped.  He  then  re- 
leases the  arm  D  and  com- 
mences to  wind  in. 

"  6.  The  leadsman  winds 
with  his  left  hand  and 
guides  the  wire  to  the  drum  with  a  piece  of  waste  canvas  in  his 
right  hand.  The  brakesman,  winding  with  both  hands,  watches 
the  counter  from  time  to  time  during  the  winding  in,  and  when 
the  link  is  5  fathoms  from  the  fair-lead,  he  calls  out  *  hand  the 
lead.* 

"  Note, — ^When  the  speed  exceeds  ten  knots  it  is  desirable 
to  have  another  man  to  help  in  the  winding.  He  is  to  stand 
looking  aft,  and  to  work  with  both  his  hands  on  the  port  handle, 
the  leadsman  working  on  the  same  handle  with  his  left  hand. 

"  7.  The  leadsman  instantly  leaves  the  machine,  goes  to  the 
taffrail,  and  steadies  the  link  and  cord  by  his  hand  as  they 
come  up,  and  guides  the  link  over  the  fair-lead;    while  the 


The  Hand  sounding  machine. 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


481 


brakesman  continues  slowly  winding  in  until  the  link  reaches  the 
wire  drtmi;  and  placing  it  properly  on  the  wire  drum  he  winds 
in  one  turn  more;  then,  taking  care  that  the  link  is  a  little 
above  the  middle  of  the  after  side  of  the  drtun,  so  that  its  weight 
may  help  to  keep  the  wire  stretched,  he  puts  on  the  brake. 
Meantime  the  leadsman  hauls  by  hand  on  the  sinker.  The 
leadsman  then  takes  the  lead  on  board,  shows  the  tube  to  the 
officer,  examines  the  arming  for  specimen  of  bottom,  shows  it 
to  the  officer,  and  prepares  the  arming  for  a  fresh  cast,  and  then 
goes  forward  to  the  machine  and  stands  by  for  another  sounding. 
"  8.  The  reading  on  the  counter  shows  approximately  the 
number  of  fathoms  of  wire  run  out.  This  may  be  something 
more  than  twice  the  depth  for  speeds  under  11  knots;  or  it 
may  be  almost  as  much  as  three  and  a  half  times  the  depth  if 
the  speed  be  15  or  16  knots.  The  proportion  of  wire  to  depth 
differs  not  only  with  the  speed  of  the  ship,  but  also  with  the 
roughness  of  the  sea  and  with  the  depth  itself. 

"  Cautions  and  Explanations 

"  9.  The  wire  will  break  at  a  kink  under  a  very  moderate  pull 
or  a  very  slight  jerk.  Without  a  kink,  and  with  proper  care,  the 
wire  can  scarcely  be  broken  in  practice  with  the  machine.  No 
wire  should  ever  be  lost  in  service,  unless  by  some  extremely  rare 
accident,  not  foreseen,  and  therefore  not  provided  against. 

*^  10.  Absolute  security  against  kinks  would  be  had  if  the 
wire  could  be  prevented  from  ever  slacking.  It  does  slacken 
somewhat  the  moment  the  lead  touches  the  bottom,  but  not  to  a 
dangerous  degree  if  the  ship  is  going  at  anjrthing  more  than 
5  knots,  and  if  the  brake  is  instantly  applied,  when,  by  the  wire's 
yielding  to  the  brass  pin,  the  commencement  of  slacking  is 
shown.  The  brake  should  be  instantly  applied,  so  as  to  slow  the 
motion  of  the  wheel,  but  not  with  force  enough  to  stop  the  wheel 
suddenly.  There  is  much  more  danger  of  losing  the  wire 
through  a  kink  in  taking  an  up-and-down  cast  than  in  a  fljring 
cast  with  the  ship  rimning  at  12  or  14  knots.  Whenever  a  cast 
is  taken  at  any  speed  less  than  S  knots,  it  is  advisable  to  manage 
the  brake  so  as  to  moderate  the  speed  of  egress  according  to 
Judgment,  letting  the  wheel  run  around  at  something  like  three 
turns  per  second.  If  the  ship's  speed  is  more  than  5  knots, 
observe  all  the  rules  laid  down  in  the  instruction  preceding. 

'Ml.  When  taking  the  last  cast  of  a  series  of  soundings, 
wipe  off  wire  with  a  greasy  rag  as  it  comes  in  over  the  rail." 

Soundings  taken  at  random  are'  of  little  value  in  fixing  or 
checking  position  and  may  at  times  be  misleading.  In  thick 
weather,  when  near  or  running  close  to  the  land,  in  shoal  water, 


482 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


or  in  the  vicinity  of  dangers,  soundings  should  be  taken  con- 
tinuously and  at  regular  intervals,  and,  with  the  character  of  the 
bottom,  systematically  recorded.  An  exact  agreement  with  the 
soundings  on  the  chart  need  not  be  expected,  as  there  may  be 
some  little  inaccuracies  in  reporting  the  depth  on  a  ship  moving 
with  speed  through  the  water,  or  the  tide  may  cause  a  dis- 
crepancy, or  the  chart  itself  may  lack  perfection,  but  the  sound- 
ings should  agree  in  a  general  way  and  a  marked  departure  from 
the  characteristic  bottom  shown  on  the  chart  should  lead  the 
navigator  to  doubt  his  position  and  proceed  with  caution;  espe- 
cially is  this  true  if  the  water  is  more  shoal  than  expected.  By 
laying  the  soimdings  on  tracing  paper,  according  to  the  scale 
of  the  chart,  along  a  line  representing  the  track  of  the  ship,  and 
then  moving  the  paper  over  the  chart  parallel  with  the  course 
until  the  observed  soundings  agree  with  those  on  the  chart,  the 
ship's  position  will,  in  general,  be  quite  well  determined. 

The  value  and  importance  of  soundings,"  especially  in  thick  or 
foggy  weather,  can  best  be  shown  by  an  example:  In  Lake 
Superior,  on  the  steamboat  course  from  Devils  Island  to  Duluth, 
when  50  fathoms  or  more  are  obtained  by  sounding,  the  master 
knows  at  once  that  he  is  to  the  northward  of  his  course,  and, 
owing  to  strong  local  disturbance,  liable  to  strand  on  the  north 
shore.  The  value  of  this  information  can  not  be  overestimated. 
Again,  in  approaching  Boston,  almost  due  north  of  Race  Point 
and  a  little  to  the  northward  and  eastward  of  Stellwagen  Bank, 
a  hole  has  been  found  of  nearly  100  fathoms,  the  adjacent  sound- 
ings being  between  50  and  60  fathoms-  This  hole  is  so  sudden 
and  pronounced  that  it  would  be  almost  impossible  to  make  a 
mistake  about  it,  and  in  coming  into  Boston  in  thick  weather 
makes  a  very  good  "  fix,"  and  is  invariably  looked  for  by  cap- 
tains making  this  trip  in  foggy  weather. 

Motor  sounding  machines  have  come  into  use,  doing  away 
with  the  labor  of  winding  in  the  wire  after  each  cast.  The  motor 
is  carried  in  the  base  of  the  machine,  all  very  compact  and  up  to 
date. 

A  suggestion.  Why  not  mount  the  sounding  machine  in  a 
small  house,  opening  aft?  Have  a  telephone  to  the  bridge  and 
take  soundings  in  winter  with  a  certain  degree  of  comfort  and 
regard  for  accuracy.    A  liner  running  on  the  American  coast 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


483 


during  a  heavy  snow  storm  would  get  better  and  more  accurate 
soundings  in  this  way.  The  house  would  also  serve  as  a  pro- 
tection for  a  valuable  machine  and  for  the  stowage  of  logs, 
signal  lights,  etc. 

Something  more.  The  sounding  machine  having  actual 
physical  contact  with  the  bottom  may  soon  be  a  thing  of  the  past. 
The  Pacific  Marine  Review  of  October,  1919,  carries  the  descrip- 
tion of  a  device  called  the  Marimeter,  then  being  fitted  to  the 
S.S.  Governor.    Here  is  the  description: 

''  The  marimeter,  sends  a  sound  to  the  ocean's  bottom  whence 
it  is  reflected  and  returns  as  an  echo,  the  machine  meanwhile 
recording  the  precise  time  of  travel.  From  this  the  depth  is 
easily  calculated  from  the  speed  of  a  sound-wave  in  salt  water. 
With  the  marimeter  four  soundings  may  be  taken  per  minute, 
whereas  the  old  methods  require  10  to  20  minutes  for  each 
operation.  The  manufacturers  assert  that  it  is  the  greatest 
safeguard  to  shipping  ever  invented,  with  the  single  exception 
of  wireless  telegraphy.  The  marimeter  was  invented  by  Samuel 
Spitz  of  Oakland,  Cal.  The  practical  development  and  its  appli- 
cation to  marine  soundings  have  been  under  the  direction  of 
John  Eldridge.  The  first  installation  is  now  being  made  on  the 
Pacific  Steamship  Company's  steamer  Governor,  while  the 
vessel  is  in  dry  dock  in  Seattle.    Says  the  writer: 

The  principle  upon  which  this  ingenious  device  works  is 
electricity  controlled  by  sound  vibration.  A  sound  wave  is  sent 
out  from  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  mechanically  and  the  instant 
this  soimd  is  started  it  is  picked  up  electrically  and  relayed  to 
the  recording  instrument  and  the  dial  of  the  recording  instru- 
ment begins  to  register.  The  sound  wave  travels  to  the  bottom 
of  the  ocean  and  returns  in  the  form  of  an  echo,  and  this  echo  is 
also  picked  up  by  the  diaphragm  in  the  bottom  of  the  boat  and 
is  also  relayed  by  electricity  to  the  recording  instrument,  causing 
the  pointer  to  immediately  stop.  The  depth  will  be  shown  in 
fathoms,  and  four  soundings  may  be  made  per  minute,  all 
directly  under  the  ship's  keel. 

Sound  travels  at  practically  a  uniform  rate  in  the  water  (about 
4000  feet  a  second).  The  depth  is  measured  by  accurately 
taking  and  recording  mechanically  the  time  for  sound  to  travel 
down  and  back.  This  will  show  the  actual  depth  under  the  keel 
of  the  boat." 


II 


484 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


K  such  a  device  can  be  perfected  for  general  use  at  sea,  a 
tremendous  advance  will  have  been  made.  The  navigator  will 
press  a  button,  standing  in  the  wheel  house,  and  simply  read  off 
the  depth  on  a  beautiful  white  dial. 

vn 

The  Submarine  Sentry 

The  submarine  sentry  is  a  sort  of  inverted  kite  resembling 
in  shape  a  hod  used  for  carrying  bricks.  It  is  fitted  with  a 
span  and  a  trigger  projecting  downward  which  releases  the 
span  and  the  letting  up  of  pressure  on  the  towing  wire  sounds  an 
alarm.  The  winch  to  which  the  sentry  cable  is  wound  carries  a 
dial  which  shows  the  depth  of  the  sentry  at  any  partcular  length 
of  wire.  This  is  a  very  useful  contraption  but  is  not  so  generally 
supplied  to  vessels  as  it  should  be.  Vessels  going  foreign,  or 
tramping  into  strange  waters  might  well  carry  a  sentry  for  use  in 
threading  through  unchanted  shoals  and  the  like.  Otherwise 
with  the  taffrail  log  trailing  on  one  quarter  and  the  sounding 
machine  working  from  the  other  quarter  there  is  little  room 
left  for  the  above  device.  Speed  also  is  limited  to  about  four- 
teen knots. 

vm 

The  Log 

The  measurement  of  speed  through  the  water  is  essentially 
an  operation  of  seamanship,  as  much  as  the  steering  of  the 
vessel.  The  recording  of  distance  run  and  direction  made  good 
falls  within  the  sphere  of  navigation,  although  it  is  seamanship 
applied  to  navigation. 

Perhaps  the  oldest  method  of  measuring,  or  estimating,  the 
speed  of  a  vessel  through  the  water  is  to  observe  the  water 
rushing  by  and  to  note  objects,  such  as  weed,  waves,  etc.  The 
practiced  eye,  accustomed  to  see  from  a  certain  position,  will 
gauge  speed  with  a  remarkable  degree  of  accuracy.  In  coming 
alongside  of  other  vessels,  entering  harbor,  docking,  and  in 
maneuvering  to  avoid  collision  at  sea,  this  method  of  measuring 
speed  comes  to  the  fore.  Under  such  circumstances  no  one 
thinks  of  consulting  logs.    Taffrail  logs  are  generally  hauled  in 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


485 


by  that  time  (in  or  near  port),  and  all  the  faculties  are  concen- 
trated on  the  big  job  of  handling  the  vessel  itself.  It  is  simply 
another  instance  of  getting  back  to  first  principles.  Where  very 
slow  movements  of  a  ship  are  being  made,  as  in  docking,  some 
masters  turn  a  small  stream  of  water  overboard  near  the  bridge, 
this  instantly  advises  them  of  any  change  in  speed  or  whether 
going  ahead  or  astern. 

The  dutchman^s  log  consisting  of  a  chip,  thrown  overboard 
near  the  bow  and  drifting  aft  past  certain  marks  on  the  rail,  was 
a  very  practical  means  of  measuring  speed  in  the  times  of  slow 
old  tubs  taking  half  a  year  or  more  to  double  the  cape  on  the  long 
passage  to  the  East  Indies. 


Chip  log.    A,  with  chip  uprigh  t,    B,  plug  jerked  ou  t  of  socke  t  for  hauling  in. 

The  chip  log^  still  used  on  sailing  craft,  is  a  very  accurate  means 
of  measuring  speed  up  to  say  fifteen  knots.  It  is  a  splendid 
check  on  the  performance  of  the  taffrail  log  or  of  some  newer 
logs  that  record  speed  in  miles  per  hour  on  a  dial.  When  the 
chip  log  and  line  are  properly  marked,  line  wet  in  marking,  and 
the  sand  glass  has  been  compared  with  the  chronometer  and 
found  to  be  accurate,  the  whole  business  is  simple  and  certain. 

The  apparatus  consists  of  the  chip^  a  quadrantal  sector  of 
wood,  weighted  with  lead  on  its  circular  side  and  fitted  with  a 
bridle,  and  a  socket  and  toggle.  The  toggle  is  held  in  the 
socket  by  friction  and  is  released  when  a  jerk  is  given  the  line 
on  hauling  in.  The  radius  of  the  quadrant  should  be  about  six 
inches. 

.  The  log-line  is  made  of  signal  halyard  stuff,  150  fathoms  long. 
One  end  is  secured  to  the  chip  and  the  other  to  a  reel  on  which 


I 


486 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


the  line  is  wound.  The  line  is  marked  at  15  fathoms  from  the 
chip  end  by  a  piece  of  bunting.  This  part  of  the  line  is  called 
stray  line.  From  this  piece  of  bunting  the  line  is  marked  at 
every  47  feet  3  inches  by  a  piece  of  fish  line  held  between  the 
strands  of  the  log-line,  the  line  being  marked  by  a  knot  in  the 
fish  line  for  every  division  (47  feet  3  inches)  from  the  bunting. 
Thus  at  94  feet  6  inches  from  the  bunting  the  piece  of  fish  line 
has  two  knots  in  it,  etc.  These  main  divisions,  called  knots, 
are  further  subdivided  into  five  equal  parts  by  pieces  of  white 
bunting  between  the  strands  to  indicate  two-tenths  of  a  knot. 


Heaving  old-fashioned  chip  log. 

The  log-glass  is  a  sand  glass  similar  to  an  hour  glass  con- 
structed to  run  for  28  seconds.    A  14-second  glass  is  also  used. 

Three  men  are  needed  to  "  heave  the  log."  One  heaves  the 
chip-log  and  tends  the  log-line,  one  holds  the  reel,  and  one 
tends  the  log-glass. 

To  find  the  speed  by  the  chip-log,  hold  the  reel  well  up  by  its 
handles  and  unwind  some  of  the  stray  line.  Insert  the  toggle 
in  its  socket  and  heave  the  chip  overboard,  allowing  the  line  to 
run  out  freely.  As  the  first  piece  of  bunting,  which  marks  the 
end  of  the  stray  line,  passes  over  the  taffrail  call  out  "  turn  " 
and  invert  the  log-glass  sharply.  Just  as  the  last  particle  of 
sand  passes  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  glass  call  out 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


487 


"  mark  "  and  seize  the  log-line,  which  has  been  rimning  out 
freely.  The  subidivisional  mark  which  is  now  at  the  taffrail 
indicates  the  speed  of  the  vessel  in  knots  and  tenths.  For 
instance,  if  the  cord  having  six  knots  is  at  the  rail,  the  vessel 
is  making  six  knots  per  hour.  This  can  be  demonstrated  as 
follows : 

Principle  of  Construction,  When  the  chip  hits  the  water  it 
ceases  to  partake  of  the  motion  of  the  ship  and  becomes  station- 
ary in  the  water.  Between  the  first  mark  and  the  interval  of 
time  is  28  seconds  (the  time  it  takes  the  sand  to  run  from  the 
top  to  the  bottom  of  the  glass).  In  this  interval  of  time  the 
vessel  moves  6  times  47  feet  3  inches  (as  shown  by  the  log-line). 
Now  in  feet  6  X  47.25  X  60  X  60  is  the  distance  that  the  vessel 

28 
would  move  in  one  hour  at  the  same  rate. 

^   6  X  47.25  X  60  X  60       ^  ,      ^ 

Or — — — — — =  6  knots  per  hour. 

28  X  6080  ^ 

The  28-second  glass  is  used  for  low  speeds.  For  speeds  over 
6  knots  a  14-second  glass  is  used  and  the  reading  of  the  log- 
line  is  doubled. 

To  haul  in  the  line  after  a  reading. is  obtained,  give  the  line  a 
sharp  tug.  This  will  release  the  toggle  and  the  chip  will  lay 
flat  on  the  surface  and  can  be  hauled  in  hand  over  hand  and 
reeled  up. 

Of  course  everyone  knows  that  a  knot  is  6080  feet,  and  when 
we  speak  of  a  mile  at  sea  we  always  mean  a  knot.  The  knot, 
mile,  and  minute  of  latitude  (mean)  are  all  the  same,  that  is 
6080  feet  in  length.* 

Speed  by  revolutions.  Many  vessels  gauge  their  speed  by 
the  revolutions  of  the  propeller,  or  propellers,  in  the  case  of  twin 
and  triple  screw  craft.    An  accurate  measure  of  the  revolutions 

*  In  the  United  States  the  sea  mile  or  nautical  mile  or  knot,  used  for  the 
measurement  of  distances  in  ocean  navigation,  has  a  length  of  6,080.27  feet; 
in  France,  Germany,  and  Austria  the  nautical  or  sea  mile  has  a  length  of 
6,076.23  feet;  in  England  the  nautical  mile,  corresponding  to  the  "  Admiralty 
knot,"  is  6,080  feet.  The  geographic  mile,  which  is  the  length  of  one  minute 
of  longitude  of  the  equator  of  the  terrestrial  spheroid,  is  6,087.15  feet  long. 
The  statute  mile,  used  principally  in  measurements  on  land,  is  5,280  feet.— 
Questions  and  Answers,  No.  1,  U.  S.  Hydrographic  Office. 


488 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


489 


is  kept  by  the  counters,  the  pitch  of  the  screws  is  known,  that  is 
we  know  the  distance  they  would  travel  through  a  solid  medium 
in  one  revolution,  and  the  slip  or  the  percentage  the  screw  falls 
short  of  its  theoretical  advance  is  estimated. 
Given 

Pitch  of  screws 

Revolutions  (total  or  per  minute) 

Percentage  of  slip 

We  can  easily  figure  out  speed  and  distance.  Revolution 
speed  tables  are  usually  prepared  for  a  vessel  and  the  whole 
matter  simmers  down  to  guessing  what  the  slip  is  under  certain 
conditions.  Wind,  sea,  draft,  trim  and  condition  of  the  bottom 
of  the  vessel  all  effect  the  amount  of  slip.  If  some  accurate 
method  of  determining  the  exact  slip  were  available,  this  method 
of  measuring  distance  through  the  water  would  be  ideal. 

Devices  fitted  for  counting  and  recording  the  speed  at  which 
the  shaft  and  propeller  is  turning  are  called  tachometers.  The 
recording  dials  on  the  bridge  are  most  useful  in  indicating  at 
once  the  changes  in  speed  and  direction  of  the  engines  and  gives 
the  master  information  he  needs  in  maneuvering  his  vessel. 

One  of  the  most  practical  devices  giving  visual  indication  of 
the  direction  and  action  of  the  engines  is  the  McNab  direction 
indicator,  operated  by  a  pneumatic  pump,  a  positive  means  of 
keeping  the  bridge  informed  as  to  the  action  of  the  engines. 

The  principle  of  pneumatic  action  is  also  used  in  the  Cum- 
ming's  Log,  where  after  every  fifty  revolutions  of  the  propeller, 
a  small  valve  at  the  engine  room  counter  opens  to  the  vacuum 
of  the  main  condenser  and  actuates  the  counter  on  the  bridge. 

The  Navigator  Log  employs  the  well-known  principle  6i  the 
pitot  tube.  Here  the  difference  in  pressure  on  two  sides  of  a 
diaphragm  records  the  speed.    The  Sal  Log  is  a  similar  device. 

The  navigator  log  is  a  Swedish  invention.  The  log  is  simple 
in  operation.  The  business  end  of  it  protrudes  vertically  from 
the  bottom  of  the  vessel  and  consists  of  a  hollow  tube  with  two 
passages.  Near  the  end  of  the  tube  are  two  holes,  one  facing  the 
direction  in  which  the  ship  is  traveling,  and  the  other  opening 
on  the  side  of  the  ship.  A  passage  through  which  the  water  flows 
leads  from  each  hole  to  the  mechanism  inmiediately  inside  the 
hull. 


The  hole  facing  towards  the  ships  bows  registers  the  water 
pressure  produced  by  the  speed  of  the  vessel,  while  that  on  the 
side  gauges  the  hydrostatic  pressure,  or  that  resulting  from  the 
draft  of  the  ship.  The  pressures  record  themselves  upon  a 
membrane  in  an  indicator  located  in  the  engine-room,  which 
measures  the  difference  between  the  speed  and  draft  pressure 
of  the  vessel  and  thus  determines  her  speed.  From  the  engine- 
room  indicator  there  is  conveyed  to  a  second  indicator  on  the 
bridge  by  means  of  an  electric  current  a  registration  of  every 
knot  traveled  by  the  ship.  The  officer  on  duty  is  thus  able  to 
tell  not  only  how  fast  his  ship  is  traveling,  but  also  the  total 
number  of  knots  the  ship  has  traveled  since  the  indicator  was 
set. 

The  log  is  said  to  begin  to  act  as  soon  as  the  vessel  is  set  in 
motion  and  to  indicate  with  the  greatest  precision  both  the 
speed  of  the  vessel,  as  well  as  the  distance  traveled.  It  further 
begins  to  register  at  very  low  speed  (1  to  iVi  knots),  and  acts 
independently  of  all  external  conditions,  such  as  changes  of 
temperature,  the  draft  of  the  vessel,  the  rolling  and  pitching  of 
same,  etc. 

The  apparatus  is  well  protected  and  easy  to  instal.  When 
once  in  place  it  requires  little  attention.  Nor  does  it  call  for 
frequent  adjustments,  refilling,  winding,  etc. 

The  Nicholson  log  was  another  one  of  the  pitot  tube  devices, 
but  depended  upon  mechanical  means  for  its  readings.  It  is 
seldom  used  today. 

The  Taffrail  Log 

The  taffrail  log  consists  of  a  rotator  trailing  astern  at  the 
end  of  a  length  of  log  line  (cotten  plaited  stuff)  an  indicator 
mounted  on  a  pivoted  fork  resting  on  the  taffrail.  The  rotation 
of  the  small  screw  or  rotator  is  commimicated  to  the  recording 
device  on  the  rail.  It  is  a  simple  device,  its  operation  can  be 
readily  seen  from  the  bridge.  The  log  line  may  become  fouled 
and  the  log  should  be  streamed  on  the  side  opposite  from  the 
ash  ejector,  as  this  will  effect  its  readings.  Gulf  weed  is  a 
prolific  source  of  trouble.  The  moment  a  change  in  distance  is 
noted,  at  the  hourly  reading,  the  log  should  be  hauled  in  and 


I  I 


Ill 


490 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


examined,  unless  the  engine  speed  has  been  altered  during  the 
interval  and  accounts  or  it.    A  scrap  of  rag  twined  about  the 


The  Bliss  Star  taffrail  log. 

line  near  the  rotator  or  a  bit  of  yarn  or  weed  will  generally  be 
found. 

The  speedier  a  vessel  the  longer  the  line  will  have  to  be. 
The  log  line  for  a  vessel  of  150  feet  should  not  be  less  than 
200  feet.    On  fast  craft  longer  lines  are  needed.    The  pitch  of  the 

rotor  blades  can  easily  be  altered 
and  care  should  be  taken  to  put  the 
log  overboard  and  calibrate  it  over  a 
measured  distance  in  waters  reason- 
ably free  from  current. 

At  very  slow  speed  the  log  is  liable 
to  lag  and  the  rotor  will  hang  down 
with  the  log  line  floating;  unsatisfac- 
tory readings  are  generally  the  result. 
In  a  sailer  it  is  well  to  use  a  Bliss 
taffrail  log  where  slow  speeds  are 
frequent. 

Certain  logs,  such  as  the  Walker 
Cherub,  ring  a  bell  at  intervals.  The  Walker  log  does  this  each 
sixth  of  a  knot.    A  handy  table  should  be  computed  and  hung 


Dial  of  a  taffrail  log. 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


491 


in  the  wheelhouse  so  that  the  time  interval  between  "  bells  ** 
will  give  the  rate  of  speed  at  a  glance. 

This  relation  between  speed  and  time  can  easily  be  plotted 
in  the  form  of  a  curve  and  pasted  to  a  card  (varnished)  to  be 
hung  in  the  wheelhouse.    A 
stop  watch  is  handy  for  mea- 
suring the  interval  of  time. 

Most  logs  for  the  higher 
speeds  are  fitted  with  a  fiy 
wheel  or  governor,  as  the 
line  is  otherwise  liable  to  be 
filled  with  turns,  then  speed 
up  the  recording  clock  and 
untwist  itself,  and  again  lie 
idle  while  the  line  accumu- 
lates another  set  of  turns. 
The  governor  prevents  this 
action  and  does  much  toward 
making  the  taffrail  log  fairly 
reliable. 

The  log  should  always  be 

streamed  as  soon  as  the  pilot         ,  „       ..      ..  .     „  „ 

.     J  J  X 1       ^  t-   1-  ^'  Recording  dial.    B.  Rotator.      C. 

IS  dropped,  or  at  least  before    ^^^^^  ^j  ^^^j  ^,^^  ^„  ,.„^^  ^     ^^.^ 

taking  the  departure,  so  that    often  happens  and  must  be  looked  after 
it  is  working  freely  when  the    when  log  slows  up. 
readings  are  taken.    As  soon 

as  the  vessel  stops,  no  matter  when  or  for  how  long,  haul  in  the  log. 
When  the  log  is  hauled  in  while  the  vessel  has  way  upon  her, 
imhook  the  inboard  end  of  the  line  and  trail  this  over  the  opposite 
quarter  while  hauling  in  the  rotator.  Otherwise  the  hauling  in 
of  the  rotator  fills  the  log  line  with  additional  turns  and  makes 
it  awkward  to  coil.  When  the  rotator  is  on  board  haul  in  the 
free  end  and  coil  down.  Always  hang  up  the  line  to  dry  before 
stowing  away,  clean  rotator  and  wipe  off  the  log. 

For  night  reading  an  electric  connection  should  be  made  near 
the  log.    A  log  dial  made  luminous  would  seem  to  be  desirable. 

Some  logs  are  streamed  from  a  spar  near  the  bridge  wing. 

The  harpoon  log.    This  was  a  contraption  towed  astern  and 
fitted  with  vanes  revolving  from  its  tail  and  connected  to  record- 


492 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


493 


ing  mechanism  in  the  log.    To  get  the  readings  the  "  harpoon  " 
was  hauled  in  each  watch.     Now  only  an  interesting  relic. 


m 


The  Sperry  Log  and  Shoal  Water  Alarm 
The  sperry  log  consists  of  a  rotator  placed  in 
a  vertical  tube  projecting  through  the  bottom 
skin  of  the  vessel.  Suitable  valves  are  provided 
for  the  withdrawal  of  the  tube.  The  action  of 
the  log  is  seen  from  the  sketch.  Water  enters 
the  vertical  tube  placed  on  or  near  the  center  line 
of  the  vessel  and  at  the  "  turning  point "  of  the 
length  of  hull.  The  small  propeller  records  the 
passage  of  water  through  the  tube  and  this,  in 
turn,  is  measured  by  an  electric  counter  and 
transmitted  to  the  bridge. 

The  shoal  water  alarm  consists  of  an  automatic 
comparison  between  the^speed  made  by  the  log 
and  the  revolutions  made  by  the  propellers.  As  a 
vessel  slows  up  in  shoal  water  the  speed  of  ship, 
for  a  given  speed  of  propellers,  decreases.  This 
relation  of  propeller  speed  and  .ship  speed  is 
practically  constant  under  all  speeds  in  deep 
water. 

By  means  of  cams,  laid  out  to  correspond  to 
varying  relations  between  speed  and  R.P.M.  of 
propellers,  two  contacts  are  held  at  a  certain  dis- 
tance apart  under  normal  deep  water  conditions. 
When  the  water  shoals  this  ratio  is  changed, 
the  contacts  close,  and  an  alarm  bell  rings. 
The  dial  diagrams  are  self  explanatory. 
Like  all  things  on  board  ship,  the  Sperry  log  must  be  taken 
care  of  and  handled  with  intelligence  in  order  to  obtain  reliable 
results. 

X 

Piloting 

Piloting,  and  coming  in  with  the  land,  is  another  part  of  sea- 
manship where  the  navigator  and  the  sailor  exercise  their  skill 
at  the  same  time.     No  seaman  will  close  in  with  a  coast  until 


Sperry  log 
rotator. 


!: 


he  has  informed  himself  fully  as  to  the  conditions  prevailing. 
The  sailing  directions,  the  charts,  the  buoy  and  light  lists,  and 
the  tide  tables  should  be  consulted  and  carefully  digested,  not 
by  the  master  alone,  but  by  one  or  more  of  the  ship's  officers. 


TRIP  OlSTANCt  TRAVELCO 
IN  KNOTS,  TENTHS  AND 
HUNORCOTHS 


TOTAL     KNOTS    TRAVELCO 


AHEAD  OR  ASTERN  INDICA- 
TOR OF  ENGINES 


DESIRED  SPEED  IN   KNOTS 

ACTUAL  SPEED  THROUGH 
WATER  IN  KNOTS  WITH 
HIGH  DECREE  OF  PRECI- 
SION OBTAINED  FROM 
ruRBO  TRANSMITTER  PRO- 
JECTING  FROM  HULL 


CONTACT  FOR  SHOAL 
WATER  ALARM  OPERATES 
SIGNAL  WHEN  SHIP 
REACHES  MINIMUM  WATER 
DEPTH 

AS  INDICATED  ON  SCALE 
HERE 

AND  AS  ARRANGED  BY  SET- 
TING OF  HANDLE  HERE 

PROPELLER  SPEED  OR 
WHERE  SEVERAL  SHAFTS 
THEIR  AVERAGE  SPEED 


Bridge  dials.    Sperry  log  and  shoal  water  alarm. 

It  is  well  to  talk  over  the  situation  and  be  certain  that  those  who 
are  to  be  in  charge  of  the  bridge  are  familiar  with  the  conditions.* 
Where  complete  data  is  not  available,  the  greatest  care  should 
be  taken  to  get  soundings,  check  all  bearings,  and  see  all  marks 
laid  down  on  the  charts.  Where  buoys,  other  marks,  kelp,  etc., 
are  met  with  that  are  not  foimd  on  the  chart  proceed  with  caution. 
The  greatest  care  should  be  taken  in  going  into  shallow 
waters  for  the  first  time.    It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  proceed  into 

*  ^*  Officers  spend  much  time  in  perfecting  themselves  in  deep  sea  navi- 
gation where  the  ship  is  not  endangered,  but  do  not  always  acquire  the  maxi- 
mum knowledge  available  before  piloting  into  port  where  the  danger  really 
exists." — ^Lieut.-Commander  R.  R.  Mann,  U.  S.  Navy,  in  Proceedings^  U,  S. 
Naval  Institute^  Nov.,  1919. 


^ 


494 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


495 


such  waters  near  the  low  stage  of  the  tide,  except,  of  course 
where  high  tide  is  needed  to  get  in  over  bars. 

Tidal  currents  are  liable  to  take  dangerous  directions  across 
channels,  often  depending  upon  the  winds  prevailing  at  any 
certain  time,  and  great  care  should  be  exercised  in  going  into 
such  waters.  An  experienced  lookout  at  the  masthead  (an 
ofl5cer)  is  often  desirable  when  entering  transparent  water  as 
in  the  tropics.  Rocks  and  shoals  can  often  be  seen  from  aloft 
and  reported  in  time. 

An  international  system  of  uniform  buoyage  has  been  pro- 
posed but  that  desirable  condition  is  still  to  be  achieved.  The 
buoys  of  the  United  States  are  given  here  and  other  buoys  sys- 
tems should  be  studied  from  the  latest  information  when  going 
foreign.    See  page  504. 

Undoubtedly  the  greatest  proportion  of  accidents  to  vessels 
under  way  happen  in  pilot  waters.  The  end  of  the  voyage  is  a 
danger  point  and  this  fact  should  be  constantly  before  the  seaman 
who  will  find  new  conditions  confronting  him  almost  every  time 
he  makes  port,  no  matter  how  often  he  may  have  entered  any 
particular  place.  He  should  always  know  when  he  has  left  the 
high  seas  and  is  in  inland  waters.  Here  the  Rules  of  the  Road 
are  modified  in  certain  important  ways  (refer  to  Rules  for  U.  S. 
Inland  Waters)  and  the  shipmaster  should  be  certain  that  these 
modifications  are  understood. 

The  chart.  In  approaching  a  harbor  be  careful  to  have  a 
chart  that  is  corrected  as  near  to  date  as  possible.  Study  the 
chart  with  the  greatest  care.  It  is  well  to  consider  a  harbor 
by  means  of  a  small  scale  chart  in  order  to  get  an  idea  of  its 
general  surroundings,  then  concentrate  on  the  large  scale  chart. 
Study  channels,  bars,  shoals,  tides,  currents,  buoys,  lights, 
anchorage,  wharves,  harbor  regulations,  wind  conditions,  etc. 
Work  out  all  bearings  and  courses  to  be  steered.  Read  all  notes 
and  directions  even  if  a  pilot  is  expected, 

XI 

Data  on  Charts 

The  following  information  in  regard  to  charts  is  adapted  from 
the  U.  S.  Hydrographic  Bulletin  No.  10.  It  is  of  the  utmost 
importance  to  the  seaman  and  should  be  thoroughly  studied. 


"  The  charts  in  general  use  by  navigators  are  constructed  on 
the  Mercator  projection.    All  the  meridians  are  parallel  straight 
lines,  and  the  degrees  of  longitude  are  all  equal,    y^^  Mercator 
The  parallels  of  latitude  are  at  right  angles  to  the    ^^^^^ 
meridians,  and  the  degrees  of  latitude  increase 
in  length  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest  parallel  in  the  same 
proportion  as  the  degrees  of  longitude  decrease  on  the  globe. 
The  property  which  makes  it  so  useful  for  purposes  of  navigation 
is  that  the  track  of  a  ship,  as  long  as  she  steers  the  same  true 
course,  appears  upon  the  chart  as  a  straight  line. 

"  The  course  is  the  direction  in  which  the  ship  passes  from 
one  place  to  another,  referred  to  the  meridian  which  lies  truly 
North  and  South,  or  to  the  position  of  the  needle    Q^^^ses  true 
of  the  compass  by  which  the  ship  is  steered;  the    ^^  comtass 
former  is  called  the  true  course  and  the  latter  the 
compass  course. 

"To  find  the  course  draw  a  straight  line  connecting  the  point 
of  departure  and  the  point  of  destination;  transfer  the  direction 
of  this  line  to  the  center  of  the  nearest  compass  rose  by  means 
of  a  parallel  ruler,  and  read  the  angle  that  this  line  makes  with 
the  true  meridian  upon  the  divisions  of  the  compass  rose.  The 
course  to  be  steered  by  compass  is  found  by  applying  to  the  true 
course  the  value  of  the  variation  of  the  compass,  as  found  from 
the  lines  of  equal  variation  given  on  the  chart,  and  then  the 
value  of  the  deviation  of  the  compass  which  is  due  to  the  iron 
in  the  ship's  hull,  and  is  different  for  different  directions  of  the 
ship's  head.  Thus,  the  true  course  between  Chicago  Light- 
house and  Big  Point  Sable  is  N.  20°  30'  E.  or  20°  30',  the  mag- 
netic course  is  N.  18°  10'  E.  or  18°  10';  the  mean  variation 
being  2°  20'  E.,  and  the  course  to  be  steered  by  compass,  assum- 
ing Sie  deviation  on  the  magnetic  course  N.  18°  10'  E.,  to  be 
5°  W.  is  N.  23°  10'  E.,  or  23°  10'. 

"  The  latitude  scales,  which  bound  the  charts  on  the  east  and 
west,  are  to  be  used  for  measuring  distances  between  places. 
If  the  places  are  on  the  same  meridian,  their    Measurirw 
distance  apart  is  most  readily  estimated  by  find-    fjHstances 
ing  the  difference  of  latitude  in  minutes.    Dis- 
tances between  points  situated  on  lines  that  make  an  angle 
with  the  meridians  may  be  measured  by  taking  between  the 
points  of  the  dividers  a  small  number  of  subdivisions  near  the 
middle  latitude  of  the  line  to  be  measured,  and  stepping  them 
off  on  that  line.    All  distances  measured  by  means  of  the  lati- 
tude scale  are  in  nautical  miles  which  can  be  readily  converted 
into  statute  miles  by  multiplying  by  1.15. 

"  The  value  of  a  chart  must  manifestly  depend  upon  the  char- 
acter and  accuracy  of  the  survey  on  which  it  is     .  . 
based,  and  the  larger  the  scale  of  the  chart  the    ^^^^^  ^ 
more  important  these  become. 

i8 


496 


•1  ^1. 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


"  To  judge  of  a  survey,  its  source  and  date,  which  are  gener- 
ally given  in  the  title,  are  a  good  guide.  Besides  the  changes 
that  may  have  taken  place  since  the  date  of  the  survey  in  waters 
where  sand  or  mud  prevails,  the  earlier  surveys  were  mostly 
made  under  circumstances  that  precluded  great  accuracy  of 
detail;  until  a  plan  founded  on  such  a  survey  is  tested  it  should 
be  regarded  with  caution.  It  may  indeed  be  said  that,  except 
in  well-frequented  harbors  and  their  approaches,  no  surveys 
yet  made  have  been  so  minute  in  their  examination  of  the 
bottom  as  to  make  it  certain  that  all  dangers  have  been  found. 
The  fullness  or  scantiness  of  the  soundings  is  another  method 
of  estimating  the  completeness  of  the  survey,  remembering, 
however,  that  the  chart  is  not  expected  to  show  all  soundings 
that  were  obtained.  When  the  soimdings  are  sparse  or  un- 
evenly distributed  it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  the  survey 
was  not  in  great  detail. 

"  Large  or  irregular  blank  spaces  among  soundings  mean  that 
no  soimdings  were  obtained  in  these  spots.  When  the  sur- 
rounding soundings  are  deep  it  may  fairly  be  „ 
assumed  that  in  the  blanks  the  water  is  also  -^^""^'"^^ 
deep;  but  when  they  are  shallow,  or  it  can  be  seen  from  the 
rest  of  the  chart  that  reefs  or  banks  are  present,  such  blanks 
should  be  regarded  with  suspicion.  This  is  especially  the  case 
in  coral  regions  and  off  roc^  coasts,  and  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  in  waters  where  rocks  abound  it  is  always  possible 
that  a  survey,  however  complete  and  detailed,  may  have  failed 
to  find  every  small  patch  or  pinnacle  rock. 

"  A  wide  berth  should  therefore  be  given  to  every  rocky  shore 
or  patch,  and  instead  of  considering  a  coast  to  be  clear,  the 
contrary  should  be  assumed. 

"  Chart  reading  aims  to  give  such  explanation  concerning  the 
various  symbols  and  standards  as  will  establish  easily  remem- 
bered relations  between  these  graphic  repre-    j,    .. 
sentations  and  the  physical  features  which  they    ^^^^^^^  « 
represent.    Briefly  stated,  the  standards  govern- 
ing  charts  are  the  following: 

"  The  *  shore  line  '  is  the  boundary  between  water  and  land 
at  high  water.  This  boundary  is  shown  by  a  continuous  line 
wherever  data  is  sufficient  to  plot  the  same  with  any  degree  of 
accuracy;  otherwise  a  dashed  line  is  used,  indicating  *  approx- 
imate '  delineation. 

"  Vertical  lettering  is  used  for  any  feature  dry  at  high  water 
and  not  affected  by  the  movement  of  the  waters. 

"  Leaning  lettering  is  used  to  describe  such  features  as  are 
parts  of  the  hydrography. 
"  Very  often,  on  smaller  scale  charts,  a  small  reef  can  not  be 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


497 


1 

'^^^M 

^ 

9 

^^^^^^^ 

i" 

^^^^^^^==^^ 

—miO^-^ 

mSm 


■•v>-">'.-i?itt 


:•:•::  •..:''7cv:-.;>. 


Contours 


Sand  Dunes 


Bluffs 


Rocky  Ledges 


Fresh  Marsh 

V 

»•• 

V 

M 

•w 

•2^. 

<^ 

© 

0 

t 

<& 

e 

^ 

^ 

O 

^ 

^ 

e 

<s^ 

Eel  Grass 


Salt  Marsh 


Orchard 


Tide  Rips 


Current,  not  tidal,  velocity       2tin 
2  knots .;»»))        > 


Hock  awash  (at  any  stage        m       iSb 
of  the  tide) *       ^"^ 


Rock    whose    position    is    -Ul-     7~>  r% 
doubtful ■^-    r^U 


Tidal 
Currents 


Flood,  u  knots  ji^  >    ^*;ilbTh3::.  «;«*f."-  " 


*  ED 


Ebb,  1  knot 


Flood.  2d  nour 


Ebb,  3d  hour 


/(in 


•I//W/ 


++> 


«  ^Of   any   kind    (or   for. 
<A  I     large  vessels)  , 

o 

A 
o 

a 

■**!  *•  For  small  vessels. 


^ 
t 


I  I  I  > 


Bock  under  water. . . .. ,  k* 


♦  # 


01 

e 
o 
o 

«s 


f  Lighted. 


Not   " 
lightedbn 


^lliXXl 


Cheat  symbols. 


•  '71 


■I  !••.*'• 


I 

i 


498 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


distinguished  from  a  small  islet;   the  proper  name  for  either 

might   be    * Rock.'    Following   the    „    ,        ,,    ^ 

standard  of  lettering  the  feature  in  doubt  is  an  ^^^^'  ''''  ^^^""""^^ 
islet  if  its  name  is  in  vertical  letters,  but  is  a  reef  if  lettered  in 
leaning  characters. 

"  The  general  topography  is  indicated  by  hachures,  contours, 
or  sketch-contours.  Hachures  and  sketch-contours  indicate 
approximately  the  relative  position  of  summits  and  valleys  and 
degree  of  connecting  slopes.  Whenever  the  contours  are  based 
upon  an  accurate  survey  of  altitudes,  a  note  stating  their  value — 
contour  interval — ^is  found  under  the  title  of  the  chart. 

"  Symbols  denoting  vegetation  have  been  designed  to  present 
pictorially  the  characteristics  of  the  various  kmds  of  growth. 
For  example:  The  mangrove  sjrmbol  consists  of  irregular  ribs 
connected  with  each  other  and  studded  with  leaves,  because  the 
mangrove  branches  take  root  upon  touching  the  ground  and 
thus  form  a  chain  of  growth. 

"  The  nature  of  the  shore  is  indicated  by  various  s3nnbols,  rows 
of  fine  dots  denoting  sandy  beach ;  small  circles  denote  gravel ; 
irregular  shapes  denote  bowlders.         ^ 

"  Cliffs  are  indicated  by  bands  of  irregular  hachures.  The 
symbol  is  not  a.  ^  plan  view,*  but  rather  a  *  side  elevation,*  and 
its  extent  is  in  proportion  to  the  height  of  the  ^..^ 
cliff,  not  to  the  plan.  For  example :  A  perpen-  *^* 
dicular  cliff  of  100  feet  will  be  shown  by  a  hachured  band  much 
wider  than  one  representing  a  cliff  of  15  feet  with  slope.  Ac- 
cording to  principles  of  *  plan '  drawing  the  perpendicular  cliff 
could  be  shown  by  one  line  only  and  could  not  be  distinguished 
from  the  ordinary  shore  line. 

"  HouseSf  roads,  railroads,  trails,  etc.,  are  shown  by  S3rmbols 
well  known,  and  are  frequently  lettered  by  descriptive  text  or 
proper  names. 

"  Numbers  upon  the  land  express  the  height,  above  high 
water,  in  feet. 

"  Lights  are  shown  by  heavy  solid  dots  and  their  characters. 
I.e.,  distinctive  features,  are  stated  in  full  or  abbreviated  form; 
ifl  the  latter  case  an  explanation  of  the  abbrevi-    j.,. 
ations  is  given  imder  the  title  of  the  chart.  i-ignts 

*^  Soundings  or  depths  are  not  under  the  rule  of  lettering; 
they  might  be  found  vertical,  leaning,  or  both  upon  one  chart 
so  as  to  distinguish  the  data  fmrnished  by  differ-  „  ,  ., 
ent  authorities.  The  U.  S.  Hydrographic  Office  ^^^^'^^''Pf'y . . 
shows  the  soundings  by  means  of  vertical  block  figures,  con- 
sidered the  clearest  tj^e.  These  figures  denote  fathoms  or  feet, 
always  stated  in  the  title  of  the  chart. 

"  The  extent  of  fairway  and  water  areas  restricting  navigation 
to  limited  draft,  is  indicated  by  a  system  of  lines,  called  *  fathom 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


499 


"Wm 


Gravel  and  Rocks 


Woods 


Cut+iva+ed 


Bluffs 


^x^*i*«»  ...11*1,  .,u.  ••  *•»•*  'V 

..uj„      '      ■•»"•  •"'"      -"•.    J» 

^,      -II..  "•         ^,„  *"*-^„ 

••"'"    «...   '•""V.L"     •'"-. 


Gra&sUnd 


Buoy  of  any  kind  (or  Red  Buoy)  . 


•;*^  *:  *'  **  i  >* 

•    • 

Pine 


Coral  Reefs 


0 


Black • 


Striped  horizontally 
Striped  vertically. . . 


Whistling. 


BeU. 


•    •    •    • 

&    &    <&    & 


Mooring  Buoy . 


Checkered 


Perch  and  Square. 


Peroh  and  Bell % 


ml 

•    •    •    • 


Spindle . 


O 


i 


Wreck  Submerged  .....    1 1 1, 


•     • 


Wreck  not  submerged 


.^^ 


Chart  symbols. 


500 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


hi 


Imes.  They  are  lines  connecting  equal  depths,  generally 
showing  the  limits  of  areas  of  depth  of  1  fathom,  2,  3,  5,  10,  and 
multiples  of  10  fathoms.  The  areas  of  1,  2,  and  3  fathoms  are 
stippled  so  that  they  are  covered  by  a  tint  which  readily  dis- 
tmgmshes  them  from  the  deeper  waters.  The  nature  of  the 
bottom  is  indicated  by  abbreviations,  explained  under  the  title 
of  the  chart. 

"  The  depths  are  given  for  the  time  of.  low  water,  and  the 
least  depths  of  all  obtained  during  the  survey  are  selected,  so 
that  the  hydrography  is  represented  in  its  most  unfavorable 
condition.  Increases  of  depth  at  the  various  stages  of  tide  can 
be  ascertained  and  added  to  the  figures  upon  the  chart. 

"  Reefs,  ledges,  sunken  rocks,  rocks  awash,  and  foul  ground 
are  marked  by  symbols.  Discolored  water,  ripples,  currents, 
and  weeds  are  noted,  by  symbol  or  lettering. 

"  Aids  to  navigation  are  shown  by  symbols  and  by  abbrevi- 
ations, or  by  as  much  descriptive  text  as  the  scale  of  the  chart 
may  admit. 

"  To  render  these  symbols  distinct  it  is  necessary  to  greatly 
exaggerate  these  aids  in  size,  as  compared  with  the  scale  of  the 
chart;  therefore  certain  parts  of  the  symbols  have  been  agreed 
upon  to  indicate  the  exact  position  of  such  aids,  as  follows: 

"The  center  of  the  base  line  of  any  symbol  presenting  a 
horizontal  line,  namely,  mooring  buoys,  beacons. 

"  The  solid  black  dot  (light  dot)  at  the  mast  of  a  lightvessel. 
When  the  lightvessel  shows  two  masts  and  dots,  the  exact  posi- 
tion lies  halfway  between  the  two  light  dots. 

"All  buoysj  excepting  mooring  buoys,  are  shown  by  com- 
pressed diamond-shapes  and  a  small  open  circle,  denoting  the 
anchor  ring.    This  ring  indicates  the  proper  position.    To  avoid 
mterference  with  other  features  upon  the  chart  it  is  often  found 
necessary  to  show  the  diamond-shape  at  various  bearings  to 
the  anchor  ring,  so  that  at  times  the  symbol  might  be  upside 
down.    Since  the  buoys  are  also  shown  with  such  superposed 
marks,  as  drums,  cones,  and  balls,  attention  should  be  given  to 
rthe  fact  that  the  anchor  ring  does  not  touch  the  diamond-shape, 
while  the  distinguishing  marks  aie  joined  to  the  top  of  the  buoy- 
symbol.    For  example:    Numerous  soundings  close  together 
might  compel  the  buoy  to  be  shown  so  that  the  top  of  the  symbol 
bears  in  the  opposite  direction  from  the  actual  position;   the 
isolated  ring  is  the  *  position '  part  of  the  symbol,  the  opposite 
rmg  (connected  with  the  buoy  by  a  staff)  is  the  distinctive  mark. 
"  The  buoy  symbol  is  shown  *  open  '—in  outline— for  buoys 
of  any  color  other  than  black;  black  buoys  are  shown  by  *  solid  » 
shape.    If  the  buoy  system  shown  upon  the  chart  consists  of  the 
black  and  one  other  color  only,  the  explanation  under  the  title 
will  ascribe  such  color  to  the  *  open  '  symbol.    Thus  upon  one 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


501 


chart  it  may  be  found  to  denote  *  red  buoy '  while  upon  another 
chart  it  may  be  stated  as  *  white  '  or  *  green;  *  the  meaning  of 
the  *  open '  sjrmbol  varies^  the  meaning  of  the  *  solid  *  symbol 
is  always  the  same — *  black.' 

"  Upon  any  chart  containing  buoys  of  various  colors  besides 
black  the  color  will  be  found  stated  by  abbreviation  or  in  full 
alongside  each  s3anbol. 

"  The  buoy  symbol,  surmounted  by  a  small  dot  surrounded 
by  rays,  denotes  a  *  lighted  *  buoy;  surmounted  by  a  crescent 
(points  downward)  denotes  a  *  whistling '  buoy;  surmounted 
by  a  half  disk  with  dot  above  the  same  denotes  a  *  bell '  buoy. 

"  A  line  drawn  between  the  upper  and  lower  points  of  the 
diamond-shape  (longer  axis)  denotes  *  vertical  stripes;'  a  line 
drawn  between  the  side  points  (shorter  axis)  denotes  *  hori- 
zontal stripes; '  both  lines  drawn  denote  *  checkered  '  buoy. 

"  Ranges  are  shown  by  lines  of  dashes  and  by  continuous 
lines,  the  latter  are  only  shown  as  far  as  a  ship  may  follow  the 
range  in  safety.    The  bearings  are  given  as    f^^^,  j^ethods 

*  true  '  and  are  expressed,  upon  later  charts,  in 

degrees  of  a  protractor  divided  into  360,  starting  at  North  and 
following  the  hands  of  a  clock.  Older  charts,  still  giving  bear- 
ings by  easterly  or  westerly  deviations  from  North  or  South,  are 
being  corrected  in  this  respect  as  rapidly  as  the  facilities  of  the 
Hydrographic  Office  permit.  For  example:  *  N.  15°  E.'  be- 
comes simply  *  15°,'  *  S.  15°  E.'  becomes  *  165°,'  *  S.  15°  W.' 
becomes  *  195°,'  etc. 

"  The  compasses  upon  the  charts  are  divided  in  accord  with 
this  new  system.    The  outer  rose,  divided  into  degrees,  is  the 

*  true '  compass,  the  inner  rose,  divided  into  quarter  points  is, 
the  '  magnetic,'  and  set  upon  the  variation  for  the  epoch  stated 
in  the  central  legend. 

"  Upon  charts  of  small  scale  and  greater  territory,  coast 
charts,  and  ocean  charts,  *  variation  lines '  are 
given  because  the  magnetic  conditions  differ    Magnetic 
greatly  in  the  various  localities  represented  upon    variation 
one  chart. 

"  The  *  variation  lines '  are  lines  connecting  such  localities 
as  show  the  same  amount  of  variation  of  a  magnetic  needle  from 
the  true  meridian.  The  amount  of  this  variation  is  stated  on 
each,  or  on  every  fifth  line. 

"  The  Variation  Chart  of  the  World,  No.  2406,  shows  these 
lines  for  every  full  degree  of  variation;  W.  denotes  westerly 
variation — f.e.,  the  magnetic  needle  points  westward  of  the 
true  meridian.  E.  denotes  easterly  variation.  .  All  W.  lines 
are  continuous  lines;  all  E.  lines  are  composed  of  dashes.  In 
the  absence  of  any  other  source  for  obtaining  the  *  variations,' 
the  ship's  position  can  be  plotted  upon  this  Chart  of  the  World 


502 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


and  the  amount  of  variation  can  be  ascertained  to  sufficiently 
accurate  degree  from  the  nearest  variation  line. 

"  The  magnetic  variation  of  the  compass  from  the  true  meri- 
dian does  not  remain  the  same,  but  changes  slightly  or  con- 
siderably in  any  locality.  The  movement  of  the  north  end  of 
the  magnetic  needle  is  to  eastward  or  to  westward  and  the 
amount  of  this  movement  is  expressed  as  *  annual  change.' 
An  eastward  change  decreases  westerly  variation  and  increases 
easterly  variation;  a  westward  change  increases  westerly  and 
decreases  easterly  variation.  Figures  in  parentheses  on  the 
chart  represent  the  *  rate  '  or  annual  change  in  the  variation  of 
the  compass,  the  plus  sign  indicating  a  yearly  increase  and  the 
minus  sign  a  yearly  decrease  in  the  value  of  the  variation  for  the 
locaHty  so  designated.  When  using  the  chart  at  a  time  not 
within  the  epoch  1915  (for  which  year  the  Variation  Chart 
was  compiled)  it  will  be  necessary  to  apply  the  annual  rate  of 
change. 

"For  example^  a  mariner  uses  this  chart  in  1917;  his  posi- 
tion IS  spotted  halfway  between  5°  W.  and  6°  W.  variation  lines, 
givmg  5°  30'  W.  variation  for  1915.  He  then  finds  that  the  posi- 
tion falls  near  (plus  2'),  showing  an  annual  westward  movement 
of  the  needle.  Thus  the  needle  will  point  4'  farther  to  the  left 
in  1917  than  shown  for  1915,  increasing  the  variation  from  5°  30' 
W.  to  5°  34'  W. 

"  To  avoid  confusion  and  obviate  the  errors  often  made  in 
connection  with  the  use  of  variation  lines  the  following  sum- 
mary  should   be   firmly   impressed   upon   the    ^      . 
mind:  Caution 

"The  lines  or  curves  simply  connect  equal  values;  they  do 
not  represent  by  their  direction  the  direction  or  pointing  of  the 
needle.  Along  a  line  which  runs  northwestward  upon  the 
chart  the  variation  might  be  easterly.  By  coincidence  only  may 
the  direction  of  the  line  and  the  bearing  of  the  magnetic  north 
be  the  same. 

"  The  value  of  *  variation '  is  the  amount  of  arc  separating 
«^he  true  north  and  the  magnetic  north. 

"  The  value  of  *rate '  is  the  amount  of  arc  covered  by  the 
change  in  the  pointing  of  a  magnetic  needle  m  one  year's  time ; 
thus,  along  a  *  rate  '  curve  running  in  a  northeasterly  direction 
upon  the  chart  the  compass  needle  may  steadily  have  a  west- 
ward movement. 

"  Fathom  curves  a  caution.— Except  in  plans  of  harbors  that 
have  been  surveyed  in  detail,  the  5-fathom  curve  on  most  charts 
may  be  considered  as  a  danger  line,  or  caution  against  unneces- 
sarily approaching  the  shore  or  bank  within  that  line  on  account 
of  the  possible  existence  of  undiscovered  inequalities  of  the 
bottom,  which  only  an  elaborate  detailed  survey  could  reveal. 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


503 


In  general  surveys  of  coasts  or  of  little-frequented  anchorages 
the  necessities  of  navigation  do  not  demand  the  great  expenditure 
of  time  required  for  so  detailed  a  survey.  It  is  not  contem- 
plated that  ships  will  approach  the  shores  m  such  localities  with- 
out taking  special  precautions. 

"  The  10-fathom  curves  on  rocky  shores  is  another  warning, 
especially  for  ships  of  heavy  draft. 

"  A  useful  danger  line  will  be  obtained  by  tracing  out  with  a 
colored  pencil  or  ink  the  line  of  depth  next  greater  than  the  draft 
of  the  ship  using  the  chart.  For  vessels  drawing  less  than  18  feet 
the  edge  of  the  sanding  serves  as  a  well-marked  danger  line. 

"  Charts  on  which  no  fathom  curves  are  marked  must  espe- 
cially be  regarded  with  caution,  as  indicating  that  soundings 
were  too  scanty  and  the  bottom  too  uneven  to  enable  the  lines  ot 
be  drawn  with  accuracy. 

"  Isolated  soundings,  shoaler  than  surrounding  depths,  should 
always  be  avoided,  especially  if  ringed  around,  as  it  is  doubtful 
how  closely  the  spot  may  have  been  examined  and  whether  the 
least  depth  has  been  found. 

**  The  chart  on  largest  scale  should  always  be  used  on  account 
of  its  greater  detail  and  the  greater  accuracy  with  which  positions 
may  be  plotted  on  it. 

"  Caution  in  using  small-scale  charts,— In  approaching  the 
land  or  dangerous  banks  regard  must  always  be  had  to  the  scale 
of  the  chart  used.  A  small  error  in  laying  down  a  position  means 
only  yards  on  a  large-scale  chart,  whereas  on  one  of  small  scale 
the  same  amount  of  displacement  means  a  large  fraction  of  a 
mile. 

"  Distortion  of  printed  charts,—The  paper  on  which  charts 
are  printed  has  to  be  damped.  On  drying  distortion  takes  place 
from  the  mequalities  of  the  paper,  which  greatly  varies  with 
different  paper  and  the  amount  of  original  damping,  but  it  does 
not  affect  navigation.  It  must  not,  however,  be  expected  that 
accurate  series  of  angles  taken  to  different  points  will  always 
exactly  agree  when  carefully  plotted  on  the  chart,  especially  if 
the  Imes  to  objects  be  long. 

"  Notes  on  charts,~The  source  of  a  chart  and  the  authority 
upon  which  it  is  based  should  be  considered.  The  marmer  will 
naturally  feel  the  greatest  confidence  in  a  chart  issued  by  the 
Government  of  one  of  the  more  important  martime  nations  which 
mamtam  a  well  equipped  office  for  the  especial  purpose  of  ac- 
quurmg  and  treating  hydrographic  information.  He  should  be 
especially  careful  that  the  chart  is  of  recent  issue  and  bears 
corrections  of  a  recent  date— facts  that  should  be  clearly  shown 
on  the  face  of  the  chart.  Notes  on  charts  should  always  be  read 
with  care,  as  they  may  give  important  information  that  can  not 
be  graphically  represented." 


504 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


505 


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03 


I 


XII 
Buoys 

While  buoys  are  valuable  aids,  the  mariner  should  always 
employ  a  certain  amount  of  caution  in  being  guided  by  them. 
It  is  manifestly  impossible  to  rely  on  buoys  always  maintaining 
their  exact  position,  or,  indeed,  of  finding  them  at  all!    Heavy 
seas,  strong  currents,  ice,  or  collisions  with  passing  vessels  may 
drag  them  from  their  positions  or  cause  them  to  disappear 
entirely,  and  they  are  especially  uncertain  in  unfrequented  waters, 
or  those  of  nations  who  do  not  keep  a  good  lookout  on  their  aids 
to  navigation.    Buoys  should  therefore  be  regarded  as  warnings 
and  not  as  infallible  navigation  marks,  especially  when  in  ex- 
posed places ;  and  a  ship's  position  should  always,  when  possible, 
be  checked  by  bearings  or  angles  of  fixed  objects  on  shore. 
The  lights  shown  by  gas  buoys  can  not  be  implicitly  relied  upon; 
the  light  may  be  altogether  extinguished,  or,  if  intermittent,  the 
apparatus  may  get  out  of  order. 

Whistling  and  bell  buoys  are  sounded  only  by  the  action  of 
the  sea;  therefore,  in  cahn  weather  they  are  less  effective  or 
may  not  sound. 

The  U.  S.  System  of  Buoyage 
In  conformity  with  section  4678  of  the  Revised  Statutes  of  the 
United  States,  the  foUowing  order  is  observed  in  coloring  and 
numbering  the  buoys  along  the  coasts,  or  in  bays,  harbors, 
sounds,  or  channels,viz. : 

1.  In  approaching  the  channel,  etc.,  from  seaward,  red  buoys 
with  even  numbers,  wiU  be  found  on  the  starboard  or  right  side 
of  the  channel. 

2.  In  approaching  the  channel  from  seaward,  black  buoys  with 
odd  numbers,  will  be  found  on  the  port  or  left  side  of  thechannel. 

3.  Buoys  painted  with  red  and  black  horizontal  stripes  wiU  be 
found  on  obstructions,  with  channel  ways  on  either  side  of  them. 

4.  Buoys  painted  white  and  black  perpendicular  stripes  will 
be  found  in  mid-channel,  and  must  be  passed  close-to. 

All  other  distinguishing  marks  to  buoys  will  be  in  addition  to 
the  foregoing,  and  may  be  employed  to  mark  particular  spots, 
a  description  of  which  will  be  given  in  the  printed  list  of  buoys. 

Perches  with  balls,  cages,  etc.,  will,  when  placed  on  buoys,  be 


1    I  ft 


■ 


!» 


ii 


506 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


at  turning  points,  the  color  and  number  indicating  on  which  side 
they  shall  be  passed. 

Nun  buoys,  properly  colored  and  numbered,  are  usually 
placed  on  the  starboard  side,  and  can  buoys  on  the  port  side  of 

channels. 

Day  beacons,  stakes  and  spindles  (except  such  as  are  on  the 
sides  of  channels,  which  will  be  colored  like  buoys)  are  con- 
structed and  distinguished  with  special  reference  to  each  locality, 
and  particularly  in  regard  to  the  backgroimd  upon  which  they 
are  projected. 

Mooring  a  boat,  raft,  or  vessel  of  any  kind  to  any  buoy,  beacon, 
or  floating  guide  in  the  waters  of  the  States  of  New  York  and 
Connecticut  is  punishable  by  heavy  fines,  and  in  waters  of  the 
State  of  New  Jersey  by  fines  or  imprisonment;  excepting  when 
necessary  to  save  lives.  The  removal,  damage  or  destruction 
of  any  buoy  or  beacon  is  punishable  by  still  heavier  penalties. 

"  Lighthouse  tenders  when  working  on  buoys  in  channels  or 
other  frequented  waters  may  display  a  red  flag  (international 
signal-code  letter  *  B  ')  and  a  black  ball  at  the  fore,  as  a  warning 
to  other  vessels  to  slow  down  in  passing." 

The  foregomg  regulation  has  been  approved  by  the  War 
Department  and  the  Steamboat-inspection  Service;  passing 
vessels  will  facilitate  the  work  of  the  Lighthouse  Service  by  a 
proper  observance  of  the  signals. 

Lights. — Before  coming  within  range  of  a  light  the  navi- 
gator should  acquaint  himself  with  its  characteristics,  so  that 
when  the  light  is  sighted  it  will  be  recognized.  The  charts, 
sailing  directions,  and  light  lists  give  information  as  to  the  color, 
character,  and  range  of  visibility  of  the  various  lights.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  note  all  of  these  and  compare  them  When  the 
light  is  seen.  If  the  light  is  of  the  flashing,  revolving,  or  inter- 
mittent variety,  the  duration  of  its  period  should  be  noted  to 
identify  it.  If  a  fixed  light,  a  method  that  may  be  employed  to 
make  sure  that  it  is  not  a  vessel's  light  is  to  descend  several 
feet  immediately  after  sighting  it  and  observe  if  it  disappears 
from  view.  A  navigation  light  will  usually  do  so  while  a  vessel's 
light  will  not.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  navigation  lights  are, 
as  a  rule,  sufficiently  powerful  to  be  seen  at  the  farthest  point 
to  which  the  ray  can  reach  without  being  interrupted  by  the 
earth's  curvature ;  they  are  therefore  seen  the  moment  the  ray 
reaches  the  observer's  eye  on  deck,  but  are  cut  off  if  the  light  is 
lowered.  A  vessel's  light,  on  the  other  hand,  is  of  limited  in- 
tensity and  does  not  carry  beyond  a  point  within  which  it  is 
visible  at  all  heights. 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


507 


Care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  being  deceived  on  first  sighting 
a  light.  The  glare  of  a  powerful  light  is  often  seen  beyond  the 
distance  of  visibility  of  its  direct  rays  by  the 
reflection  downward  from  particles  of  mist  in  the  ^^'^^^'^ 
air.  The  same  mist  may  cause  a  white  Hght  to  have  a  reddish 
Ap'?\'^i^^l  obscure  a  light  except  within  short  distances. 
A  fixed  light  when  first  picked  up  may  appear  flashing,  as  it  is 
seen  on  the  crest  of  a  wave  and  lost  in  the  hollow. 

Some  lights  are  made  to  show  different  colors  in  different 
sectors  within  their  range.  In  such  lights  one  color  is  generaUy 
used  on  bearmgs  whence  the  approach  is  clear  and  another 
covers  areas  where  dangers  are  to  be  found.  By  consulting  the 
chart  or  books  the  explanation  of  the  color  of  the  ray  in  which 
you  find  yourself  is  found. 

When  looking  for  a  light,  the  fact  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  aloft  the  range  of  vision  is  increased.  By  noting  a  star 
immediately  over  the  light  a  good  bearing  may  be  obtdned  by 
pelorus  or  compass.  All  the  distances  given  in  the  light  Hsts 
and  on  the  charts  for  visibility  of  lights  are  calculated  for  a 
height  of  15  feet  for  the  observer's  eye.  For  a  greater  or  less 
height  of  eye  the  table  of  distances  of  visibility  due  to  the 
height  pubhshed  in  the  light  list  should  be  consulted.  To 
obtain  the  distance  of  visibility  take  the  square  root  of  the 
height  m  feet  of  the  light  and  multiply  by  1.15,  which  wiU  give 
the  distance  m  miles  the  light  can  be  seen  at  the  sea  level;  add 
to  this  the  square  root  of  the  height  in  feet  of  your  own  eye  above 

Inl,1f^  fu^V"^^^'^^^^  ^^  ?;^^  ^^  y^^  ^"  ^ave  the  distance 
m  miles  the  hght  will  be  visible  to  you. 

The  intrinsic  power  of  a  light  should  always  be  considered 
when  e^ectmg  to  make  it  in  thick  weather.  A  weak  light  is 
easily  obscured  by  haze  and  no  dependence  can  be  placed  on 
its  bemg  seen." 

xm 

Data  on  Lighthouses 

Lighthouses,  since  the  time  of  the  Egyptian  Pharos,*  have 
been  a  symbol  of  civiUzation.  No  land  is  whoUy  bad  where  sea- 
coast  lights  are  religiously  maintained— the  altar  lights  of 
inte^ity  burning  before  the  sacrament  of  commerce. 

It  is  astonishing  how  little  most  seamen  know  about  the  great 
lighthouses  of  our  coasts.  The  following  data  on  lighthouses 
IS  taken  from  Government  reports. 

*  The  first  Ughthouse  of  which  we  have  authentic  record  is  the  great 
Pharos  of  Alexandria.  This  famous  Ught  of  the  ancients,  bmlt  about  258 
Ji.  C,  was  a  huge  tower  of  soUd  masonry  on  which  a  large  bonfire  was  main- 
tained nightly. 


•-ff'l 


508 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Illuminating  apparatus  consists  of  a  source  of  light  placed 
in  an  optical  apparatus.  Usually,  for  the  purpose  of  concen- 
trating the  Hght  and  directing  it  toward  the  horizon  or  in  hori- 
zontal beams  to  sweep  the  horizon,  there  is  an  arrangement  of 
lenses,  prisms,  and  reflectors  in  various  combinations.  The 
lenses  act  as  refractors  of  the  Ught,  and.  the  prisms  may  act  as 
refractors  or  reflectors,  or  both.  The  system  of  reflectors  is 
named  catoptric^  of  refractors  dioptric^  and  the  combmation  of 

the  two  catadioptric,  y,    t..  j 

To  vary  the  characteristics  of  lights  there  are  flashmg  and 
occulting  mechanisms  by  which  lens  panels  or  screens  are 
revolved,  or  the  light  is  periodically  obscured  by  shutters,  or 
in  the  case  of  gas  or  electric  lights  the  supply  of  gas  or  current 
is  cut  off.  Lights  are  also  distinguished  by  the  number  of  hghts 
or  by  showing  either  a  fixed  color  over  definite  areas,  or  a  colored 
flash,  this  being  effected  by  the  use  of  colored  glass.  The 
source  of  light  for  the  greater  number  of  Hghts  is  a  special  form 
of  kerosene  oil  wick  lamp,  but  in  recent  years  other  more  power- 
ful lamps  and  illuminants  have  been  introduced ;  the  oil-vapor 
lamp  burning  vaporized  kerosene  oil  under  an  incandescent 
mantle  gives  a  much  more  powerful  light;  oil  gas  is  extensively 
used,  particularly  for  Ughted  buoys;  acetylene  gas  is  used  for 
Hghted  buoys  and  unattended  Hghted  beacons;  electric  arc 
Ughts,  electric  incandescent  lights,  and  coal-gas  lights  are  used 
in  special  instances. 

Lights  are  classed  and  names  printed  as  follows: 

"PRIMARY  SEACOAST  LIGHTS. 
"  Secondary  Lights. 
"  River,  Harbor,  and  Other  Lights. 
''LIGHT   VESSELS. 

*'  Other  Floating  Lights. 

Unmatched  lights.—'  U'  after  the  name  of  a  Ught  on  the 
Light  List  or  chart  indicates  that  the  light  is  unwatched.  In 
addition,  all  gas  buoys  are  unwatched.  Gas  buoys  can  not  be 
imfhicitly  relied  upon,  as  they  may  become  extinguished  or,  if 
intermittent,  the  apparatus  may  get  out  of  order  and  some  tune 
may  elapse  before  they  can  be  reached  to  repair  or  relight. 
The  same  is  true  in  a  less  degree  of  unwatched  lights  on  fixed 

structures.  ,,.,... 

Too  much  reUance  must  not  be  placed  on  hghted  buoys 
maintaming  their  exact  positions;  it  is  safer,  when  possible, 
to  navigate  by  bearings  or  angles  to  fixed  objects  on  shore,  and 

by  the  use  of  soundings.  ^   .     ^i.    i-  u* 

The  characteristics  of  the  lights  are  indicated  m  the  light 

list  by  abbreviations,  as  follows: 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


509 


Lights  Which  Do  Not 
Change  Color 


F.  =  Fixed.... 
Fl.  =  Flashing. 


Characteristic  Phases 


F.Fl.  =  Fixed  and  flash- 
ing. 


Gp.  Fl.  =  Group  flashing 
Occ.  =  Occulting 


Gp.  Occ.  =  Group  oc- 
culting. 


A  continuous  steady  light. . . 

(fl)  Showing  a  single  flash  at 
regular  intervals. 

(&)  A  steady  light  with  total 
eclipses. 

A  fixed  light  varied  at  regu- 
lar intervals  by  one  or 
more  flashes,  usually  of 
greater  brilliance.  A  flash 
is  preceded  and  followed 
by  a  diminution  of  light  or 
an  eclipse. 

Showing  at  regular  intervals 
groups  of  flashes. 

A  steady  light  suddenly  and 
totally  eclipsed  at  regular 
intervals. 

A  steady  light  suddenly  and 
totally  eclipsed  by  a  group 
of  two  or  more  edipses. 


Lights  Which  Do  Change 
Color.     (Showing  Alter- 
.  nately  White  and  Red 
in  Various  Combinations) 


Alt.  =  Alternating. 
Alt.  Fl.  =  Alternating 
flashing.' 


Alt.  F.  Fl.  =  Alternat- 
ing fixed  and  flash- 
ing. 


Alt.  Gp.  Fl.  =  Alter- 
nating group  flash- 
ing. 

Alt.  Occ.  =  Alternat- 
ing occulting. 


W.  =  White;  R.  =  Red;  G.  =  Green. 

A  flash  is  always  shorter  than  the  duration  of  an  ecUpse 
An  occultation  is  shorter  than,  or  equal  to,  the  duration  of 
lignt. 

Lights  are  characterized  as  flashing  or  occulting  solelv 
accordmg  to  the  relative  durations  of  light  and  darkness,  and 
without  reference  to  the  type  of  iUuminating  apparatus  em- 
ployed  or  relative  brilliancy. 

In  approaching  a  light  of  varying  intensity,  such  as  fixed 
varied  by  flashes,  or  alternating  white  and  redy  due  allowance 
must  be  made  for  the  inferior  brightness  of  the  less  powerful 
part  of  the  light.  The  first-named  light  may,  on  account  of 
distance  or  haze,  show  flashes  only  and  the  true  characteristic 
will  not  be  observed  until  the  observer  comes  within  the  range 
of  the  fixed  light;  similarly  the  second  named  may  show  as 
occulting  white  until  the  observer  comes  within  the  range  of 
the  red  hght.  Also,  where  there  are  two  fixed  lights,  one  white 
and  one  retf,  the  latter  may  be  obscured,  and  the  station  mav 
appear  to  show  only  a  fixed  white  light. 

At  short  distances  and  in  clear  weather  flashing  lights  may 
show  a  faint  continuous  light.  s     s    c>  "lay 

Perfocf  of  a  flashing  or  occulting  light  is  the  time  required  to 
go  through  the  full  set  of  changes  in  the  light.    This  total  time 

^  f ""iff ,""  ^i'fJ'^?*  ^'^*  ^^^^'"^  '  ^^®-    Character  and  period 
Of  light,'  and  the  details  are  stated  in  the  column  *  Remarks  ' 


i 


N 


K  ■,    »•.■ 


510 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


The  durations  of  light  and  darkness  given  are  those  for  which 
the  apparatus  is  designed,  and  may  vary  slightly  with  irregular- 
ities in  the  working  of  the  apparatus  or  because  theapparent  du- 
ration of  a  flash  may  be  reduced  by  great  distance  or  haze. 

A  light  in  which  the  flash  or  occupation  is  caused  by  re- 
volving lenses  or  screens  may  apparently  differ  from  the  given 
period  when  observed  at  short  distances  from  a  rapidly  moving 
vessel  nearly  abeam,  the  period  and  duration  being  increased  or 
diminished  according  as  the  vessel  is  moving  with  or  against  the 
direction  of  revolution  of  the  apparatus. 

Visibility  of  lights,— The  distances  given  in  the  Light  List 
at  which  lights  may  be  seen  in  clear  weather  are  computed  in 
nautical  miles  for  a  height  of  the  observer's  eye  of  15  feet  above 
the  water  level.  These  distances  may  at  times  be  increased 
by  abnormal  atmospheric  refraction,  and  of  course  may  be  greatly 
lessened  by  unfavorable  weather  conditions,  due  to  fog,  rain, 
haze,  or  smoke.  Weak  lights  and  colored  lights  are  easily 
obscured  by  such  conditions. 

Under  certain  atmospheric  conditions,  especially  with  the 
more  powerful  lights,  the  glare  of  the  light  may  be  visible  beyond 
the  computed  geographic  range  of  the  light.  When  approaching  a 
light  it  evidently  may  be  seen  earlier  from  aloft. 

The  table  below  gives  the  approximate  geographic  range  of 
visibility  for  an  object  which  may  be  seen  by  an  observer  whose 
eye  is  at  sea  level;  in  practice,  therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  add 
to  these  a  distance  of  visibility  corresponding  to  the  height  of  the 
observer's  eye  above  sea  level.  In  some  instances  the  actual 
or  luminous  range  given  in  the  Light  List  may  be  less  than  the 
geographic  range  because  the  light  is  not  of  sufficient  power  to 
be  seen  to  the  limit  of  the  geographic  range. 

Distances  of  Visibility  for  Objects  of  Various  Elevations 

above  Sea  Level 


Height,  in 

Distance,  in 

Height,  in 

Distance,  in 

Height,  in 

Distance,  in 

Feet 

4 

Nautical  Miles 

Feet 

Nautical  Miles 

Feet 

Nautical  Miles 

4 

5 

2.55 

70 

9.56 

250 

18.07 

10 

3.61 

75    • 

9.90 

300 

19.80 

15 

4.43 

80 

10.22 

350 

21.38 

20 

5.11 

85 

10.54 

400 

22.86 

25 

5.71 

90 

10.84 

450 

24.24 

30 

6.26 

95 

11.14 

500 

25.56 

35 

6.76 

100 

11.43 

550 

26.80 

40 

7.23 

110 

11.99 

600 

27.99 

45 

7.67 

120 

12.52 

650 

29.14 

50 

8.08 

130 

13.03 

700 

30.24 

55 

8.48 

140 

13.52 

800 

32.32 

60 

8.85 

150 

14.00 

900 

34.29 

65 

9.21 

200 

16.16 

1,000 

36.14 

I 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING  511 

Example.— Miaots  Ledge  Light,  seen  just  at  the  horizon, 
what,  under  ordinary  conditions  of  the  atmosphere,  is  its  dis- 
tance from  the  observer? 

Height  (according  to  Light  List) , 

85  feet,  distance  visible  (ac- 

cordmg  to  table) 10.54  nautical  miles. 

Add  distance  corresponding  to 

height  of  observer's  eye  above 

sea  level,  15  feet =  4.43       " 

Distance  of  Ught 14.97       "  " 

Distances  corresponding  to  heights  not  included  m  the 
above  table  may  be  found  approximately  by  the  formula 
D  =  8/7  a/S,  in  which  H  =  the  elevation,  or  height,  in  feet, 
of  the  object  above  sea  level,  and  D  =  the  corresponding  dis- 
tance of  visibility,  in  nautical  miles.  The  formula  is  based  on 
the  mean  curvature  of  the  earth  and  is  corrected  for  ordmary 
atmospheric  refraction,  and  should  be  used  only  for  moderate 

distances  and  elevations.  ,      .,.«,.!. 

Candlepowers  of  lights  are  stated  approximately  m  EngUsh 
candles,  but  the  intensity  of  a  light  as  seen  from  a  vessel  may  be 
greatly  lessened  or  the  light  may  be  made  invisible  by  unfavor- 
able conditions  due  to  fog,  haze,  rain,  or  smoke. 

Light  sectors.— In  some  conditions  of  the  atmosphere  white 
lights  may  have  a  reddish  hue;  the  mariner  therefore  should 
not  trust  solely  to  color  where  there  are  sectors,  but  should  verify 
the  position  by  taking  a  bearmg  of  the  light.  On  either  side  of 
the  Ime  of  demarcation  between  white  and  red  there  is  always  a 
small  sector  of  uncertain  color;  m  flashing  lights  with  reyolvmg 
illuminating  apparatus  this  sector  increases  with  the  width  of 
the  flash  panels  and  is  therefore  usuaUy  greatest  in  the  case  of 
the  more  brilliant  flashing  lights.  It  should  also  be  remembered 
that  the  edges  of  a  sector  of  visibility  can  not  be  cut  off  sharply. 

When  a  light  is  cut  off  by  adjoining  land,  and  the  arc  of 
visibility  is  given  in  the  Light  List  or  Chart,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  bearing  on  which  the  light  disappears  will,  in 
many  cases,  vary  with  the  distance  of  the  vessel  from  which 
observed.  When  the  light  is  cut  off  by  a  sloping  point  of  land 
or  hill,  the  light  may  be  seen  over  a  wider  arc  by  a  ship  far  off 

than  by  one  close-to.  ^  ^    j.  .-  .« 

Lightuessels  en  route  to  or  from  station,  or  off  station,  will 

fly  the  International  Code  signal  letters  *  QE  '  (signifying  *  light 

ship  is  not  at  anchor  on  her  station ').  , 

"  Relief  lightvessels  may  be  placed  at  any  lightvessel  station. 

Relief  lightvessels  will  in  all  cases,  when  practicable,  exhibit 


512 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


1 1t!^  ' 

LLJ 


i       J 


i 


t 


#■ 


i 


^tJ^^  **"?"*  ^'.^"^f  ^^"^^  ^^  characteristics  of  the  regular 
station   vessel  relieved.    Relief  lightvessels   have   all  visible 

ffill'T.l''*  ''"^  '"  *"  '^'^^^^  ''^'^^  foremasHnd  from  Si 
^«n  ♦S   f"  '""'omast  aft,  painted  red;  all  visible  parts  be- 

^rh  .«^f»  °"  ""i*  '^  "*'*'•  iocliding  the  middle  third  of 
each  lantern  mast,  white  except  stack,  which  is  black     The 

&  fiv«  illf^  ^"'.^«  °'  '^*^'''  8^«"«^)  «t  the  mas  heads 
wmL  Z^'^'fu^  ^*"P^^'  »*  «*'l"^  '^dth,  three  red  and  two 
tter.'if-«  ""^  ?**  springstay,  midway  between  the  tw^VZ 
tj^t^A  ^-  ^""^  ^^^^  daymark,  with  one  white  and  two  red 
vertical  stripes.  The  word  '  RELIEF  '  is  in  large  black  letters 
on  the  bulwarks  on  the  middle  of  each  side. 

The  Navesink  Light 
At  the  entrance  to  New  York  harbor  the  most  briUiant  light- 
house m  America  shines  every  night.    The  Navesink  Light  at 
bandy  Hook  holds  this  foremost  position,  swinging  a  beam  of 
11,000,000  candle-power  out  across  the  sea  once  every  ten 
seconds.    It  is  well  worth  a  trip  to  this  famous  lighthouse  to  see 
the  remarkable  Fresnel  prism  head.    Two  tons  of  optical  glass 
buUt  m  the  form  of  a  cylinder  about  six  feet  high  are  mounted  so 
beautifully  that  one  can  rotate  the  system  with  the  sUght  pressure 
of  a  finger.    This  heavy  head  floats  in  a  container  of  mercury  and 
thus  rotates  with  practically  no  friction.    The  two-ton  head  is 
revolved  slowly  all  night  long  by  the  gradual  dropping  of  a  small 
weight  through  the  height  of  the  tower. 

XIV 

Tides 

Tides.  Where  tide  tables  are  avaUable  all  information  can 
usually  be  obtained.  When  these  tables  are  not  at  hand  the 
chart  TwU  show  the  establishment  of  the  port  That  is,  the 
interval  between  the  moon's  meridian  passage,  and  the  time  of 
high  water  Appendix  IV  Bowditch  also  gives  many  geographical 
posi  ions  throughout  the  world,  the  range  of  the  tide  and,  the 
lumtidal  interval  for  high  and  low  water.  The  foUowing  is 
taken  from  Bowditch's  Navigator  and  explains  the  use  of  these 
ngures. 

JL^^!l^^'!!!'^f1^'~-^^^^  ^°^  low  water  occur,  on  the  average 
of  the  twenty-eight  days  comprising  a  lunar  monti?  afXut  ?f | 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


513 


same  intervals  after  the  transit  of  the  moon  over  the  meridian. 
These  nearly  constant  intervals,  expressed  in  hours  and  mmutes, 
are  known  respectively  as  the  high  water  lunitidal  interval  and 
low  water  lunitidal  interval, 

"  The  interval  between  the  moon's  meridian  passage  at  any 
place  and  the  tune  of  the  next  succeeding  high  water,  as  observed 
on  the  days  when  the  moon  is  at  full  or  change,  is  called  the 
vulgar  (or  common)  establishment  of  that  place,  or,  sometunes, 
sunply  the  establishment.  This  interval  is  frequently  spoken 
of  as  the  time  of  high  water  on  full  and  change  days  (abbreviated 
*  H  W  F.  &  C) ;  for  since,  on  such  days,  the  moon  s  two 
transits  (upper  and  lower)  over  the  meridian  occur  about  noon 
and  midnight,  the  vulgar  establishment  then  corresponds  closely 
with  the  local  times  of  high  water.  When  more  extended  ob- 
servations have  been  made,  the  average  of  aU  the  high  water 
lunitidal  intervals  for  at  least  a  lunar  month  is  taken  to  obtain 
what  is  termed,  m  distinction  to  the  vulgar  estabUshment,  the 
corrected  establishment  of  the  port,  or  mean  high  water  lunitidal 
interval.  In  defining  the  tidal  characteristics  of  a  place  some 
authorities  give  the  corrected  establishment,  and  others  the 
vulgar  estabUshment,  or  *high  water,  full  and  change;  cal- 
culations based  upon  the  former  will  more  accurately  represent 
average  conditions,  though  the  two  intervals  seldom  differ  by  a 

large  amount.  ,  ,  .      xu 

"  Having  determmed  the  time  of  high  water  by  applymg  the 
estabUshment  to  the  time  of  moon's  transit,  the  navigator  may 
obtam  the  time  of  low  water  with  a  fair  degree  of  approximation 
by  adding  or  subtracting  6^  13-  (one-fourth  of  a  mean  lunar 
day) ;  but  a  closer  result  wiU  be  given  by  applying  to  the  tune  of 
transit  the  mean  low  water  lunitidal  interval,  which  occupies  the 
same  relation  to  the  time  of  low  water  as  the  mean  high  water 
lunitidal  interval,  or  corrected  estabUshment,  does  to  the  tune 
of  high  water." 

Knowledge  of  the  times  of  high  and  low  water  and  of  the 
amount  of  vertical  rise  and  f aU  of  the  tide  is  of  great  importance 
in  the  case  of  vessels  entering  or  leaving  port,  especiaUy  when 
the  channel  depths  are  less  than  or  near  their  draft.  Such 
knowledge  is  also  useful  at  times  to  vessels  running  close  along  a 
coast  in  enabling  them  to  anticipate  the  effect  of  the  tidal  cur- 
rents in  setting  them  on  or  off  shore.  This  is  especiaUy  im- 
portant in  fog  or  thick  weather. 

In  navigatmg  coasts  where  the  tidal  range  is  considerable, 
caution  is  always  necessary.  It  should  be  remembered  that 
there  are  generally  indraughts  to  aU  bays  and  bights,  although 


514 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


515 


'|i| 


the  general  run  of  the  stream  may  be  paraUel  to  the  shore.  On 
coasts  where  there  is  much  diurnal  inequality  in  the  tides,  the 
amount  of  rise  and  fall  can  never  be  depended  upon,  and  addi- 
tional caution  IS  therefore  necessary. 

It  should  also  be  remembered  that  at  times  the  tide  falls 
below  the  level  of  low-water  ordinary  springs.  This  alwavs 
occurs  on  the  coasts  of  Europe  at  the  equinoxes,  but  in  other 
^llf  "^^  ^""^  especiaUy  in  the  tropics,  such  periodic 

low  tides  may  comcide  more  frequently  with  the  solstices.  Wind 
or  high  barometer  may  produce  it  at  any  time,  and  the  amount 
varies  with  locality.  When  the  moon's  perigee  coincides  with 
the  full  or  new  moon  the  same  effect  is  often  produced. 

with  J"^.^  ""^  ^^V^"^  '*'^^  ^^'^^'^  '^  ^^^^0^  coincident 
mth  the  tune  of  high  and  low  water  on  the  shore.    In  some 

channels  the  tidal  stream  may  overrun  the  turn  of  the  vertical 

movement  of  the  tide  by  three  hours,  forming  what  is  usually 

known  as  tide  and  half  tide,  the  effect  of  which  is  that  at  high 

Jelodty  ^^^^'  ^^  ^^  '^"""^  ^^  '*''^ ''  ""^^^^  **  '^^  greatest 

fro?H  K^!'*  ""^^^^  *'^^  ^^""^  ^  "^"^^^S  ^""«^ts  may  be  illus- 
trated by  two  simple  cases : 

(1)  Where  there  is  a  smaU  tidal  basin  connected  with  the  sea 
by  a  large  opening. 

(2)  Where  there  is  a  large  tidal  basin  connected  with  the  sea 
by  a  small  opening. 

In  the  first  case  the  velocity  of  the  current  in  the  opening  wiU 
have  Its  maxmium  value  when  the  height  of  the  tide  within  is 
changmg  most  rapidly,  i.e.,  at  a  time  about  midway  between 
high  and  low  water.  The  water  in  the  basin  keeps  at  approx- 
imately  the  same  level  as  the  water  outside.  The  flood  stream 
cwresponds  with  the  rising  and  the  ebb  with  the  falling  of  the 

In  the  second  case  the  velocity  of  the  current  in  the  opening 
wiU  have  Its  maximum  value  when  it  is  high  water  or  low  water 
without,  for  then  there  is  the  greatest  head  of  water  for  pro-  ' 
ducmg  motion.  The  flood  stream  begms  about  three  hours 
after  low  water,  and  the  ebb  stream  about  three  hours  after 
^gh  water,  slack  water  thus  occurring  about  midway  between 


Along  most  shores  not  much  affected  by  bays,  tidal  rivers,  etc., 
the  current  usually  turns  soon  after  high  water  and  low  water. 

The  swiftest  current  in  straight  portions  of  tidal  rivers  is 
usually  in  the  middle  of  the  stream,  but  in  curved  portions  the 
most  rapid  current  is  toward  the  outer  edge  of  the  curve,  and 
here  the  water  wiU  be  deepest.  The  pilot  rule  for  best  water 
is  to  follow  the  ebb-tide  reaches. 

Counter  currents  and  eddies  may  occur  near  the  shores  of 
straits,  especially  in  bights  and  near  points.  A  knowledge  of 
them  is  useful  in  order  that  they  may  be  taken  advantage  of  or 

avoided. 

A  swift  current  often  occurs  in  the  narrow  passage  connectmg 
two  large  bodies  of  water,  owing  to  their  considerable  differ- 
ence of  level  at  the  same  instant.  The  several  passages  between 
Vineyard  Sound  and  Buzzards  Bay  are  cases  in  point.  In  the 
Woods  Hole  passage  the  maximum  strength  of  the  tidal  streams 
occur  near  high  and  low  water. 

Tide  rips  are  generally  made  by  a  rapid  current  setting  over  an 
irregular  bottom,  as  at  the  edges  of  banks  where  the  change  of 
depth  is  considerable. 

Current  arrows  on  charts  show  only  the  most  usual  or  the  mean 
direction  of  a  tidal  stream  or  current;  it  must  not  be  assumed 
that  the  direction  of  a  stream  will  not  vary  from  that  indicated 
by  the  arrow.  The  rate,  also,  of  a  stream  constantly  varies  with 
circumstances,  and  the  rate  given  on  the  chart  is  merely  the 
mean  of  those  found  during  the  survey,  possibly  from  very  few 

observations. 

No  seaman  should  content  himself  with  anything  but  a  com- 
plete knowledge  of  the  practical  effects  of  the  tide.  Only  a 
summary  can  be  given  here,  but  further  study  of  actual  effects 
is  of  the  utmost  importance. 

The  word  tide  is  often  used  in  a  confusing  sense  referrmg 
to  the  vertical  movement  and  also  the  horizontal  movement  of 
waters.  The  best  practice  is  to  refer  to  the  latter  effect  of  the 
tidal  wave  as  tidal  currents. 

The  tide  rises  until  it  attains  a  maximum  elevation  for  any 
particular  day.  This  is  high  water,  or  high  tide.  It  then  faUs 
to  a  minimum  level  called  low  water  or  low  tide.  The  period  at 
both  extremes,  when  for  a  short  time  no  change  in  level  takes 
place  is  referred  to  as  the  stand. 


I 


■ 


516 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


The  tidal  current  generally  flowing  in  from  the  sea  during 
the  period  preceeding  high  water  is  caUed  the  flood,  and  the 
opposite  movement  following  high  water  is  called  the  ehh.  The 
period  between  flood  and  ebb,  or  ebb  and  flood,  is  known  as 
slack  water,  when  there  is  no  current.  This  approximately 
comcides  with  the  period  of  stand,  referred  to  above.  It  is  the 
best  time  to  handle  vessels  around  docks,  except  in  cases  where 
the  current  can  be  utilized  to  advantage. 

Set  and  drift  are  terms  appUcable  to  tidal  currents,  in  de- 
scribing their  direction  and  velocity. 

The  range  of  the  tide  is  the  difference  in  level  between  high 
and  low  water,  and  is  generaUy  tabulated  as  the  mean  range 
or  mean  rise  and  faU.    The  terms  spring  range  and  neap  ranqe 
are  defined  below.* 

At  the  times  of  new  and  full  moon,  the  relative  positions  of 
the  sun  and  moon  are  such  that  they  exert  a  maximum  effect 
on  the  tide  in  the  same  direct.  These  ttdes  are  spring  tides; 
they  have  a  greater  range  than  any  other  tides  of  the  lunar  month'. 
At  the  first  and  third  quarters  of  the  moon,  the  positions  are 
such  that  the  high  tide  due  to  one  body  occurs  at  the  time  of  the 
low  tide  due  to  the  other;  the  two  actions  are  opposite  and  we 
have  neap  tides  or  the  tides  of  smallest  range.  Tidal  currents 
depending  upon  the  range  of  the  tide,  are  greatest  at  the  spring 
tides  and  least  at  the  neap  tides. 

The  effect  of  the  moon's  bemg  at  full  and  change  (full  moon 
and  new  moon)  is  not  felt  at  once  in  aU  parts  of  the  worid,  the 
greatest  range  of  tide  does  not  generally  occur  until  one  or  two 
days  thereafter;  thus,  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  North  America 
the  highest  tides  are  experienced  one  day,  and  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  Europe,  two  days,  afterwards,  while  on  the  Pacific  coast 
of  North  America  they  occur  nearly  at  fuU  and  change. 

The  nearer  the  moon  is  to  the  earth  the  stronger  is  its  attrac- 
tion, and  as  it  is  nearest  in  perigee,  the  tides  will  be  larger  then 
on  that  account,  and  consequently  less  in  apogee.  For  a  like 
reason  the  tides  will  be  increased  by  the  sun's  action  when  the 

*  The  distinction  between  "  rise  "  and  "  range  »  of  tiie  tide  should  be 
understood.  The  former  expression  refers  to  tiie  height  attained  above  tiie 
datum  plane  for  soundings,  differing  witii  the  different  planes  of  reference: 
the  latter,  to  the  difference  between  successive  high  and  low  waters. 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


517 


earth  is  near  its  periheHon,  about  the  1st  of  January,  and  de- 
creased when  near  its  aphelion,  about  the  1st  of  July. 

Strong  prevailing  winds,  abnormal  barometric  conditions,  and 
the  state  of  the  sea,  may  cause  changes  in  the  height  of  tides. 
The  effect  of  atmospheric  pressure  is  to  create  a  difference  of 
about  two  inches  in  the  height  of  tide  for  every  tenth  of  an  inch  of 
difference  in  the  barometer. 

The  tidal  day  is  the  variable  interval  between  two  alternate 
high  waters.  It  averages  24  hours  50  minutes.  The  amount  by 
which  the  tidal  day  exceeds  twenty-four  hours  is  called  the 
daily  retardation.  When  the  sun's  influence  is  such  as  to  cause 
a  reduction  in  the  lunitidal  intervals,  reducing  the  length  of  the 
tidal  day,  thus  causing  the  tides  to  occur  earlier  than  usual, 
there  is  said  to  be  a  priming  of  the  tide.  When  the  same  influ- 
ence of  the  sun  causes  a  lengthenmg  or  delay  there  is  said  to  be  a 

lagging  of  the  tide. 

The  theory  of  tides  fills  volumes.  Every  now  and  then  some 
new  and  startling  proposition  is  put  forth.  The  subject  is  one 
of  great  interest  to  seamen  as  well  as  to  scientists.  A  sailor 
may  well  use  up  some  of  his  eight  hours  below  in  reading  along 
these  Imes.  In  Washington  they  have  tide  predicting  machines 
that  foretell  the  tides,  but  in  spite  of  this  seeming  perfection 
there  is  still  a  great  deal  to  be  found  out  about  the  mysterious 
rise  and  fall  of  the  waters  of  the  world,  the  effect  of  the  tides 
upon  the  rotation  of  the  earih  and  many  other  thmgs  relating 
to  the  past  and  future  of  the  spheroid  upon  which  we  live. 

XV 
Bearings 

Bearings  are  among  the  oldest  and  simplest  methods  of  locat- 
ing the  position  of  a  vessel  when  within  sight  of  land.  Books 
on  navigation  treat  of  this  subject  fully  and  only  the  briefest 
mention  will  be  made  of  it  here. 

Cross  hearings  of  two  or  more  objects,  so  situated  that  the 
lines  of  bearing  will  cut  at  a  good  angle  (a  right  angle  is  best) 
are  taken  by  compass  and  plotted,  being  certain  to  allow  for  the 

proper  error. 

The  hearing  and  distance  of  a  known  object.    Distance  found 


"♦  u^T^v 


518 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


in  a  number  of  ways  such  as  measurement  of  horizontal  angle 
of  the  lantern  of  a  light,  height  known.  Distance  found  by 
inspection  of  Table  33  Bowditch.  Distance  found  by  noting  the 
time  and  interval  between  the  flash  and  report  of  a  gun,  at  some 
known  station,  taking  the  bearmg  at  the  same  tune.  (Sound 
travels  at  the  rate  of  1090  feet  per  sec.  at  freezmg  temperature 
(approx.).)  At  sea  the  use  of  sound  measurements  may  often 
be  employed,  estimating  the  distance  a  wreck  lies  off  shore,  etc. 
The  following  table  from  Trautwine^s  Engineers  Pocket  Book 
is  of  interest  to  the  seaman : 

The  velocity  of  sound  in  quiet  open  air,  has  been  experimentally  deter- 
mined to  be  very  approximately  1,090  feet  per  second,  when  the  temperature 
is  at  freezing  point,  or  32°  Fahrenheit.  For  every  degree  Fahrenheit  of 
increase  of  temperature,  the  velocity  increases  by  from  1/2  foot  to  1V4  feet  per 
second,  according  to  different  authorities.  Taking  the  increase  at  1  foot  per 
second  for  each  degree  (which  agrees  closely  with  theoretical  calculations) 
we  have  ^ 


at 

-  30° 

FahT 

.  1,030  feet 

per  sec. 

='0.1951  mile 

per  sec. 

=  1  mile 

in  5.13 

sec 

i( 

-  20° 

(i 

1,040 

u 

=  0.1970 

ti 

it 

=  I 

it 

5.08 

It 

(t 

-  10° 

(( 

1,050 

tt 

=  0.1989 

it 

ii 

=    1 

It 

5.03 

It 

It 

0° 

({ 

1,060 

It 

=  0.2008 

u 

It 

=    1 

It 

4.98 

It 

M 

10° 

(( 

1,070 

u 

=  0.2027 

u 

it 

=  1 

It 

4.93 

It 

M 

20° 

(( 

1,080 

li 

=  0.2045 

li 

It 

=s    1 

It 

4.88 

It 

M 

32° 

li 

1,092 

u 

=  0.2068 

11 

a 

=5     1 

It 

4.83 

It 

M 

40° 

(( 

1,100 

it 

=  0.2083 

11 

it 

=  1 

tt 

4.80 

tt 

M 

50° 

ti 

1,110 

u 

=  0.2102 

it 

it 

ss    1 

ti 

4.78 

it 

M 

60° 

(i 

1,120 

u 

=  0.2121 

11 

a 

^    1 

it 

4.73 

it 

U 

70° 

(( 

1,130 

u 

=  0.2140 

it 

a 

=    1 

It 

4.68 

it 

(« 

80° 

"  ^  1,140 

tt 

=  0.2159 

11 

a 

^    1 

It 

.4.63 

it 

M 

90° 

« 

1,150 

it 

=  0.2178 

u 

li 

r=    1 

tt 

4.59 

it 

l< 

100° 

({ 

1,160 

it 

=  0.2197 

it 

a 

=    ^ 

ii 

4.55 

tt 

(( 

110° 

it 

1,170 

tt 

=  0.2216 

(f 

if 

=  \ 

it 

4.51 

it 

l( 

120° 

(( 

1,180 

if 

=  0.2235     * 

It 

tt 

=  1 

It 

4.47 

it 

If  the  air  is  calm,  fog  or  rain  does  not  appreciably  affect  the  result;  bu. 
winds  do.  Very  loud  sounds  appear  to  travel  somewhat  faster  than  low  ones. 
The  watchword  of  sentinels  has  been  heard  across  still  water,  on  a  calm 
night,  101/2  miles;  and  a  cannon  20  miles.  Separate  sounds,  at  intervals 
of  1/16  of  a  second,  cannot  be  distinguished,  but  appear  to  be  connected. 
The  distances  at  which  a  speaker  can  be  understood,  in  front,  on  one  side, 
and  behind  him  are  about  as  4,  3,  and  1. 

The  bearing  of  a  known  object  and  the  angle  between  the 
known  objects.    This  case  needs  no  explanation. 


11 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


519 


Two  bearings  of  a  known  object  with  the  course  and  distance 
run  between  bearings.    Simply  a  matter  of  plotting. 

Sextant  angles  between  three  known  objects.  These  are 
set  on  a  three  armed  protractor  or  are  plotted  on  tracing  cloth 
or  transparent  paper  and  afford  an  ideal  method  of  locating  a 
vessel  in  pilot  waters.    See  Bowditch  Art.  152. 

Vertical  and  horizontal  danger  angles,  are  treated  fully  in 
Art.  155  Bowditch. 

The  bow  and  beam  bearing.  Sometimes  called  the  four  point 
bearing.  Note  when  an  object  is  broad  on  the  bow.  Note  log. 
When  broad  abeam  note  log.  Interval  run  is  distance  off  when 
abeam.  Knowing  the  bearing  this  gives  an  excellent  fix.  Be 
certain  that  you  will  clear  all  dangers  for  if  you  find  you  are  in  to 
close  by  this  simple  method  you  will  also  learn  this  fact  too  late. 

Doubling  the  angle  on  the  bow.  When  the  angle  on  the  bow 
at  the  second  bearing  is  double  what  it  was  at  the  first  bearing, 
the  distance  run  in  the  interval  is  the  distance  off  at  the  time  of 
taking  the  second  bearing.  Plot  this  and  continue  the  line  of  the 
course  to  get  the  distance  off  when  abeam  before  getting  there. 
This  of  course,  refers  to  cases  where  the  first  bearing  is  less  than 
four  points  on  the  bow.  A  good  method  is  to  take  the  object  at 
two  points  on  the  bow  and  four  points  on  the  bow. 

When  the  first  bearings  is  26i/^  degrees  on  the  bow,  (2% 
points — nearly)  and  the  second  bearing  is  four  points,  the 
distance  run  will  show  the  distance  off  when  abeam. 

These  bow  and  beam  bearings  all  depend  upon  accuracy  in 
steering  and  correctly  measuring  the  distance  traveled  over  the 
ground.    Currents  along  a  coast  may  seriously  falsify  the  results. 

Never  hug  a  coast  line  too  close. 

Let  the  other  fellow  take  chances. 

If  you  are  expecting  to  pick  up  a  light  and  do  not  see  it  when 
expected,  slow  down,  take  a  cast  of  the  lead,  watch  weather 
carefully  and  stand  to  seaward  again  if  need  be  until  conditions 
improve. 

If  about  to  make  a  coast  on  the  starboard  hand  and  you  sight  a 
light  to  port,  starboard  helm  at  once  unless  you  are  certain  it 
is  a  steamer.  If  you  do  not  sight  the  side  lights,  find  out  what 
the  light  is  while  your  own  stem  is  pointing  to  seaward.  If 
making  land  to  port  do  the  opposite. 


520 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Don't  be  reckless  with  the  lives  of  others.  Be  wide  awake 
to  the  possibility  of  disaster  and  you  will  avoid  it. 

The  above  notes  on  piloting  are  made  brief  for  the  simple 
reason  that  no  person  in  charge  of  a  vessel  should  have  such 
responsibility  without  actual  practice  in  taking  all  of  the  bearmgs 
enumerated.    Bowditch  treats  of  this  subject  fully. 

Ranges  are  specially  important  to  the  seaman.  By  selecting 
suitable  ranges  on  the  shore,  fore  and  back  range  marks  far 
enough  apart  to  be  sensitive,  he  can  keep  informed  of  the  holding 
of  his  ground  tackle  in  heavy  weather  and  of  his  actual  progress 
up  or  down  stream  when  drifting  with  a  current.  In  places  like 
the  Magellan  Straits  where  strong  tidal  currents  are  met  with 
at  some  stages  of  the  tide,  ranges  are  of  the  utmost  importance. 
Sailors  entering  or  leaving  port  can  often  make  good  use  of  a 
range  in  casting  or  coming  to  anchor. 

A  bearing  and  a  range  make  a  fine  fix  when  such  conditions 
are  plainly  marked  on  the  chart.  A  range  and  a  tangent  on  a 
point  will  often  do  when  the  point  is  marked  by  a  sharp  enough 

rise. 

Piloting  through  Fog 

The  danger  of  running  in  fog  has  been  very  much  reduced 
through  special  devices  and  methods  of  transmitting  and  receiv- 
ing signals.  The  seaman  of  today  must  be  familiar  with  many 
tilings  unheard  of  less  than  a  score  of  years  ago.  Submarine 
bells,  more  reliable  than  those  of  the  air,  radio  compasses,  not 
to  mention  radio  itself,  the  radio  telephone,  piloting  cables,  and 
ingenious  applications  of  the  relative  speed  of  sound  through  air 
and  water  or  through  water  alone,  comparing  it  with  the  instan- 
taneous messages  received  by  electric  impulse. 

Still,  with  all  of  these  things  to  guide  him,  many  of  the  most 
dangerous  places  in  the  world  are  as  they  were  since  the  be- 
ginning and  seamen  must  be  more  than  ever  able  to  so  pilot 
their  larger  and  more  important  craft  by  careful  use  of  the  lead, 
the  log,  and  by  careful  steering.  Lookouts  must  be  more  awake 
than  ever,  officers  and  men  more  familiar  with  the  dangers  to  be 
met  with  through  greater  draft  and  speed. 

Speed  in  a  fog  is  not  a  matter  of  guesswork.  It  should  be 
moderate. 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


521 


The  United  States  Supreme  Court,  in  the  case  of  the  Colorado, 
defines  moderate  speed  in  a  fog  as 

"  such  a  rate  of  speed  as  would  enable  her  to  come  to  a  stand- 
still, by  reversing  her  engines  at  full  speed,  before  she  should 
collide  with  a  vessel  which  she  should  see  through  the  fog." 

The  English  courts  agree  upon  this  definition  of  the  term 
"  moderate  speed  "  as  applied  to  steaming  in  a  fog,  and  the 
rest  of  Article  16 — "  having  careful  regard  for  the  existing 
circumstances  and  conditions  "  sounds  well  on  paper. 

Undoubtedly  when  it  is  so  thick  that  the  bridge  lookouts 
cannot  see  the  bow  lookout,  the  rendition  of  the  learned  court 
means  that  moderate  speed  is  to  stop  and  drift. 

Most  fog  collisions  occur  in  pilot  waters  and  the  greatest  care 
must  be  exercised  in  the  use  of  all  fog  signal  apparatus.  Sea- 
manship of  a  high  order  is  necessary  under  such  trying  conditions 
as  often  prevail  in  Long  Island  Sound  where  traffic  is  heavy  and 
the  fog  comes  thick.  The  astonishing  freedom  from  disasters, 
through  collision,  is  due  largely  to  good  seamanship  and  a  sense 
of  feel  developed  by  men  who  "  eat  "  fog  many  days  and  nights 
during  the  year.  The  main  thing  necessary  is  to  keep  your 
reckoning  and  your  head.     (See  Rules  of  the  Road,  Chapt.  16). 

Space  will  not  permit  of  the  exposition  of  the  underlying 
principles  of  the  fog  signaling  devices  now  in  use,  but  a  brief 
description  is  in  order. 

Sound  is  conveyed  in  a  very  capricious  way  through  the 
atmosphere.  Apart  from  wind,  large  areas  of  silence  have  been 
found  in  different  directions  and  at  different  distances  from  the 
fog  signal  station,  in  some  instances  even  when  in  close  proximity 
to  it.  The  apparatus,  moreover,  for  sounding  the  signal  often 
requires  some  time  before  it  is  in  readiness  to  act.  A  fog  some- 
times creeps  imperceptibly  towards  the  land,  and  is  not  observed 
by  the  people  at  a  station  until  it  is  upon  them;  whereas  a  ship 
may  have  been  for  many  hours  in  it,  and  approaching  the  land. 
In  such  a  case  no  signal  may  be  made.  When  sound  has  to 
travel  against  the  wind  it  may  be  thrown  upwards;  in  such  a 
case  a  man  aloft  might  hear  it  when  it  is  inaudible  on  deck. 
Under  certain  conditions  of  the  atmosphere,  when  the  fog  signal 
is  a  combination  of  high  and  low  notes,  one  of  the  notes  may  be 
inaudible. 


520 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


Don't  be  reckless  with  the  lives  of  others.  Be  wide  awake 
to  the  possibility  of  disaster  and  you  will  avoid  it. 

The  above  notes  on  piloting  are  made  brief  for  the  simple 
reason  that  no  person  in  charge  of  a  vessel  should  have  such 
responsibility  without  actual  practice  in  taking  all  of  the  bearings 
enumerated.    Bowditch  treats  of  this  subject  fully. 

Ranges  are  specially  important  to  the  seaman.  By  selecting 
suitable  ranges  on  the  shore,  fore  and  back  range  marks  far 
enough  apart  to  be  sensitive,  he  can  keep  informed  of  the  holding 
of  his  ground  tackle  in  heavy  weather  and  of  his  actual  progress 
up  or  down  stream  when  drifting  with  a  current.  In  places  like 
the  Magellan  Straits  where  strong  tidal  currents  are  met  with 
at  some  stages  of  the  tide,  ranges  are  of  the  utmost  importance. 
Sailors  entering  or  leaving  port  can  often  make  good  use  of  a 
range  in  casting  or  coming  to  anchor. 

A  bearing  and  a  range  make  a  fine  fix  when  such  conditions 
are  plainly  marked  on  the  chart.  A  range  and  a  tangent  on  a 
point  will  often  do  when  the  point  is  marked  by  a  sharp  enough 

rise. 

Piloting  through  Fog 

The  danger  of  running  in  fog  has  been  very  much  reduced 
through  special  devices  and  methods  of  transmitting  and  receiv- 
ing signals.  The  seaman  of  today  must  be  familiar  with  many 
things  unheard  of  less  than  a  score  of  years  ago.  Submarine 
bells,  more  reliable  than  those  of  the  air,  radio  compasses,  not 
to  mention  radio  itself,  the  radio  telephone,  piloting  cables,  and 
ingenious  applications  of  the  relative  speed  of  sound  through  air 
and  water  or  through  water  alone,  comparing  it  with  the  instan- 
taneous messages  received  by  electric  impulse. 

Still,  with  all  of  these  things  to  guide  him,  many  of  the  most 
dangerous  places  in  the  world  are  as  they  were  since  the  be- 
ginning and  seamen  must  be  more  than  ever  able  to  so  pilot 
their  larger  and  more  important  craft  by  careful  use  of  the  lead, 
the  log,  and  by  careful  steering.  Lookouts  must  be  more  awake 
than  ever,  officers  and  men  more  familiar  with  the  dangers  to  be 
met  with  through  greater  draft  and  speed. 

Speed  in  a  fog  is  not  a  matter  of  guesswork.  It  should  be 
moderate. 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


521 


The  United  States  Supreme  Court,  in  the  case  of  the  Colorado, 
defines  moderate  speed  in  a  fog  as 

"  such  a  rate  of  speed  as  would  enable  her  to  come  to  a  stand- 
still, by  reversing  her  engines  at  full  speed,  before  she  should 
collide  with  a  vessel  which  she  should  see  through  the  fog." 

The  English  courts  agree  upon  this  definition  of  the  term 
"  moderate  speed  "  as  applied  to  steaming  in  a  fog,  and  the 
rest  of  Article  16 — "having  careful  regard  for  the  existing 
circumstances  and  conditions  "  sounds  well  on  paper. 

Undoubtedly  when  it  is  so  thick  that  the  bridge  lookouts 
cannot  see  the  bow  lookout,  the  rendition  of  the  learned  court 
means  that  moderate  speed  is  to  stop  and  drift. 

Most  fog  collisions  occur  in  pilot  waters  and  the  greatest  care 
must  be  exercised  in  the  use  of  all  fog  signal  apparatus.  Sea- 
manship of  a  high  order  is  necessary  under  such  trjring  conditions 
as  often  prevail  in  Long  Island  Sound  where  traffic  is  heavy  and 
the  fog  comes  thick.  The  astonishing  freedom  from  disasters, 
through  collision,  is  due  largely  to  good  seamanship  and  a  sense 
of  feel  developed  by  men  who  "  eat "  fog  many  days  and  nights 
during  the  year.  The  main  thing  necessary  is  to  keep  your 
reckoning  and  your  head.     (See  Rules  of  the  Road,  Chapt.  16). 

Space  will  not  permit  of  the  exposition  of  the  underlying 
principles  of  the  fog  signaling  devices  now  in  use,  but  a  brief 
description  is  in  order. 

Soimd  is  conveyed  in  a  very  capricious  way  through  the 
atmosphere.  Apart  from  wind,  large  areas  of  silence  have  been 
found  in  different  directions  and  at  different  distances  from  the 
fog  signal  station,  in  some  instances  even  when  in  close  proximity 
to  it.  The  apparatus,  moreover,  for  sounding  the  signal  often 
requires  some  time  before  it  is  in  readiness  to  act.  A  fog  some- 
times creeps  imperceptibly  towards  the  land,  and  is  not  observed 
by  the  people  at  a  station  until  it  is  upon  them;  whereas  a  ship 
may  have  been  for  many  hours  in  it,  and  approaching  the  land. 
In  such  a  case  no  signal  may  be  made.  When  sotmd  has  to 
travel  against  the  wind  it  may  be  thrown  upwards;  in  such  a 
case  a  man  aloft  might  hear  it  when  it  is  inaudible  on  deck. 
Under  certain  conditions  of  the  atmosphere,  when  the  fog  signal 
is  a  combination  of  high  and  low  notes,  one  of  the  notes  may  be 
inaudible. 


i.' 


522 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


523 


The  mariner  should  not  assume : 

(c)  That,  because  he  fails  to  hear  the  sound  he  is  out  of  hear- 
ing distance. 

(6)  That,  because  he  hears  a  fog  signal  faintly,  he  is  at  a  great 

distance  from  it. 

(c)  That,  because  he  hears  the  sound  plainly,  he  is  near  it. 

{d)  That,  because  he  does  not  hear  it,  even  when  in  close 
proximity,  the  fog  signal  has  ceased  sounding. 

{e)  That  the  distance  from  the  intensity  of  the  sound  on  any 
one  occasion  is  guide  to  him  for  any  future  occasion. 

Taken  together,  these  facts  should  induce  the  utmost  caution 
in  closing  the  land  in  fogs. 

XVI 

Submarine  Bells* 

Although  the  sound-carrying  properties  of  water  have  long 
been  known,  and  experiments  were  made  more  than  a  century 
ago,  it  was  not  until  about  the  year  nineteen  hundred  that  sub- 
marine bell  signalling  became  possible.  Some  patents  were 
obtained  in  this  country  in  1887,  and  the  following  year  two 
Englishmen  named  Neale  and  Smallpage  applied  for  British 
patents  for  a  system  almost  identical  in  many  respects  with  the 
system  eventually  adopted,  but  their  apparatus  was  not  a  suc- 
cess, and  their  financial  resources  were  not  sufficient  to  enable 
them  to  make  additional  experiments.  A  few  years  later,  Mr.  A. 
J.  Moody,  of  Boston,  Mass.,  took  up  the  subject,  but  ill-health 
compelled  him  to  surrender  the  work  to  Mr.  J.  B.  Millet,  of  the 
British  Institution  of  Naval  Architects,  who  went  into  the  matter 
with  great  enthusiasm,  and  conducted  extensive  experiments 
which  resulted  in  placing  the  system  on  a  satisfactory  and  prac- 
tical basis.  The  difficulties  which  he  had  to  overcome  were  the 
designing  of  submarine  bells  of  various  types  to  suit  the  require- 
ments of  different  localities,  the  perfection  of  a  reliable  apparatus 
for  receiving  the  signals,  the  discovery  of  the  best  location  in  the 
ship  for  the  receiving  apparatus  to  be  placed,  the  accurate  loca- 
tion of  the  sounds  and  avoidance  or  stopping  of  the  engines, 
when  signals  were  being  received  or  transmitted.  Sound  trans- 
mitted through  water  will  not  rise  and  be  wasted  in  the  air. 

*  Adopted  by  permission  from  an  article  by  Lawrence  Irwell  in  the  Sep- 
tember, 1920,  National  Marine. 


A  lightship  fitted  with  the  apparatus  maybe  actually  agitated  by 
it,  yet  the  passengers  on  a  passenger  ship  will  see  nothing  of  it, 
although  twenty  to  forty  feet  below  the  surface  the  bell  may  be 
ringing  its  appointed  signals.  This  type  is  usually  pneumatic, 
and  is  operated  by  compressed  air.  Another  type  of  signal  is 
one  that  is  attached  to  the  buoys  which  are  a  familiar  sight  along 
the  coast  of  some  European  countries— little  less  familiar,  how- 
ever, along  the  coast  of  our  country.  These  buoys  must  not  be 
confounded  with  the  well-known  bell  buoy  which,  with  its  in- 
verted bath-shaped  going  and  four  swinging  hammer,  gives  its 
melancholy  warning  with  every  oscillation  caused  by  the  move- 
ment of  the  sea. 

The  automatic  submarine  signalling  bell  is  of  an  entirely  differ- 
ent type.  Suspended  from  the  buoy  is  a  contrivance  like  a  sea- 
anchor,  and  through  this  is  fastened  the  apparatus  which  actu- 
ates the  bell  below.  The  difference  in  flotation  between  the 
buoy  and  the  sea-anchor  causes  a  difference  in  the  vertical 
motion  of  the  two  bodies,  and  it  is  this  difference  which  produces 
the  power  for  striking  the  bell.  The  mechanism  consists  simply 
of  a  combination  of  rachets  and  pawls  by  which  the  motion  of 
the  waves  acting  upon  the  buoy  compresses  a  spring  to  a  certain 
point  when  it  is  automatically  released,  and  causes  the  clapper  to 
strike  the  bell.  The  inventor  has  left  nothing  to  chance,  for 
the  force  of  the  blow  being  dependent  on  the  spring,  and  not 
on  the  wave-motions,  is  always  the  same  whatever  the  weather. 
The  only  difference  the  weather  makes  is  that  the  rougher  the 
sea,  the  more  frequently  the  bell  strikes,  sometimes  as  often  as 
every  five  seconds.  An  absolutely  dead  calm  alone  silences  the 
bell.  Even  eight  waves,  each  six  inches  high,  per  minute  will 
give  six  strokes.  It  is  indeed  seldom  that  the  sea  is  so  deficient 
of  motion,  however  still  it  may  look,  that  this  bell  will  not  sound. 

The  submarine  bell  of  every  lightship  has  its  own  distinctive 
signal  so  that  there  can  be  no  mistake  as  to  what  bell  it  is.  For 
example,  a  lightship  bell  might  strike  three  strokes  at  intervals 
of  two  and  a  half  seconds  between  each  stroke  and  then  an 
interval  of  fifteen  seconds.  An  actual  case  is  that  of  the  Maas 
lightship  off  the  Hook  of  Holland  which  sounds  groups  of  four 
strokes  at  two-second  intervals,  with  an  interval  of  twelve  sec- 
onds between  the  groups.    Other  lightships,  again,  have  groups 


524 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


The  oscillator. 


of  alternating  numbers  so  that  any  ship  captain  on  hearing  the 
bell  can  ascertain  his  position  without  difficulty. 

Another  method  of  communicating  with  vessels  consists  of  a 
heavy  tripod  above  the  apex  of  which  the  bell  projects.    It  is 

sunk  at  the  desired  location  and  is  con- 
nected by  means  of  an  electric  cable  usu- 
ally with  a  lighthouse  ashore,  the  keepers 
of  which  can  sotmd  the  bell  for  as  long  a 
time  as  may  be  desired—  for  hours  or 
days  continuously. 

The   apparatus   carried   by   steamships 
consists  of  an  oscillator  fitted  into  the  ship, 
and  is  useful  for  three  distinct  and  import- 
ant purposes,  viz. :  signalling  approach  in 
time  of  fog  so  as  to  avoid  collision;   sum- 
moning aid  in  case  of  disaster.    The  latter 
use  has  to  a  limited  extent  been  superseded 
by  wireless;  exchanging  commtmications  by  code  between  war 
ships  when  other  means  of  signalling,  either  by  lights  or  by 
wireless,  would  be  inadvisable  for  strategic  reasons. 

Even  a  vessel  which  does  not  carry  bell-signalling  apparatus 
can  take  advantage  of  the  signal  bells,  or  any  one  can  hear  any 
submerged  bell  that  may  be  ringing  within  sound  by  placing  his 
ear  against  the  skin  of  the  ship  below  the  water-line.  Without 
the  receiving  apparatus,  however,  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain 
accurately  the  direction  from  which  the  sound  reaches  him. 
An  unequipped  vessel  in  distress  can  summon  assistance  by 
swinging  the  ship's  bell  overboard  so  that  it  rings  by  striking 
the  ship  some  distance  below  the  surface  of  the  water.  This 
method  of  communication  was  used  considerably  in  pre-wireless 
days,  and  it  is  still  used  to  summon  aid  in  storm  or  fog  by  fisher- 
men who  go  out  in  their  dories  from  the  large  fishing  schooners 
near  the  banks  of  Newfoundland. 

The  receiving  apparatus  consists  of  two  boxes  filled  with 
common  salt  and  water  and  containing  specially  devised  micro- 
phones. These  boxes  are  fixed  one  on  each  side  of  the  skin  of 
the  ship's  hold.  The  exact  spot  at  which  they  are  placed  to 
obtain  the  best  result  varies  according  to  the  size  and  shape  of 
the  hull,  but  as  a  general  rule  their  position  is  somewhat  back 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


525 


from  the  fore-foot  just  before  the  full  width  of  the  ship  is  reached, 
or  near  the  bilge  and  where  the  plates  begin  to  curve  from  the 
bottom  to  the  sides.  A  receiving  box  is  necessary  on  each  side 
because  the  sound,  though  it  may  strike  the  side  of  the  ship, 
cannot  pass  through  it  and  out  at  the  other  side.  Each  micro- 
phone is  electrically  connected  with  an  indicator  on  the  bridge, 
or  charthouse,  and  by  means  of  a  couple  of  telephone  receivers, 
the  officers  can  listen  for  the  bells.  As  these  receivers  are  in 
duplicate,  two  persons  can  listen  at  once.  The  indicator  is 
provided  with  a  switch  which  connects  either  or  both  micro- 
phones, so  that  the  listener  can  ascertain  from  which  side  the 
sound  is  travelling;  when  both  sides  sound  equally  plain,  the 
bell  heard  is  dead  ahead,  whether  it  is  a  ship's  collision  bell  or 
any  other.  The  stronger  the  sound  is  on  either  side,  the  weaker 
it  must  be  on  the  other,  and  by  listening  and  comparing  care- 
fully, any  one  can,  with  a  little  experience,  locate  the  bell  to 
within  a  quarter  of  a  point  of  the  compass. 


Distance  by  Submarine  Signal 

When  two  ships  equipped  with  this  apparatus  are  proceeding 
in  a  fog,  the  apparatus  is  kept  in  constant  operation  and  has  a 
range  from  ten  to  twenty  miles.  Through  the  exchange  of 
submarine  oscillator  signals,  which  are  syncronized  with  the 
radio  signals,  the  distance  and  position  of  one  ship  can  be  deter- 
mined by  the  other  and  if  any  other  ships  equipped  with  similar 
apparatus  are  within  range,  this  ship  will  also  receive  the  same 
signals,  and  upon  determining  their  direction  from  the  trans- 
mitting ship,  can  avoid  collision.  The  direction  and  distance 
determining  feature  also  enables  a  vessel  to  determine  its  dis- 
tance and  bearings  from  lighthouses  or  vessels  similarly 
equipped. 

In  operating  the  direction  and  distance  finding  apparatus, 
signals  are  sent  out  simultaneously  by  the  oscillator  and  by  the 
radio  apparatus  from  the  transmitting  ship,  and  the  receiving 
ships  through  measuring  the  difference  between  the  time  the 
submarine  signal  is  received  and  the  radio  signal  is  received 
can  determine  their  distance  from  the  transmitting  ship  very 
accurately.    In  other  words,  sotmd  from  the  submarine  appar- 


H 


526 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


atus  travels  through  water  at  the  rate  of  1,100  feet  per  second 
and  radio  waves  through  the  air  at  the  rate  of  186,000  miles  per 
second,  and  when  signals  are  sent  from  both  simultaneously  the 
difference  in  time  in  the  receipt  of  the  submarine  signal  and  the 
radio  signal  can  be  measured  and  the  distance  of  the  trans- 
mitting ship  computed  from  the  result. 

In  addition  to  its  uses  as  a  navigation  aid,  the  submarine 
oscillating  apparatus  also  lends  itself  quite  readily  to  both  tele- 
graphing and  telephoning  through  the  water.  Telegraphic 
signals  can  be  exchanged  for  distances  from  twenty-five  to 
seventy-five  miles,  depending  upon  the  water  characteristics, 
and  telephone  conversation  can  be  carried  on  from  five  to 
twenty-five  miles,  depending  upon  the  depth  and  characteristics 
of  the  water.  It  is,  therefore,  possible  and  not  improbable  that 
we  will  shortly  be  able  to  telephone  from  one  ship  to  another 
through  the  water  as  well  as  through  the  air. 

XVII 
Radio  Compass  Bearings 

The  Radio  Compass*  is  an  invention  growing  out  of  the  war, 
one  of  the  things  that  were  developed  to  detect  the  direction  of 
enemy  submarines,  aircraft  and  cruisers  through  the  location 
of  their  radio  calls.  It  consists  essentially  of  a  pivoted  vertical 
coil  forming  the  direction  finding  part  of  the  receiving  apparatus. 

Dr.  Kolster  of  the  Bureau  of  Standards,  Department  of  Com- 
merce, discovered  the  principal  of  the  radio  compass;  officials 
of  the  Navy  Department  worked  out  its  practical  application. 

Dr.  Kolster,  while  experimenting  with  the  electromagnetic 
wave,  the  wave  sent  out  by  a  radio  station,  or  by  a  "  wireless 
station  "  as  they  are  still  incorrectly  termed  at  times,  discovered 
that  when  these  waves  struck,  or  cut  as  the  electricians  term  it, 
a  coil  of  wire  at  right  angles  to  them,  an  electric  current  flowed 
through  the  coil,  but  when  the  coil  was  parallel  to  the  wave,  no 
current  flowed  through.    Imagine  a  spiral  spring  lying  on  the 

*  The  two  most  widely  used  systems  of  Radio  Compass  to-day  are  the 
Bellini-Tosiy  which  is  the  system  usually  employed  by  the  British,  and  the 
Kolster  which  is  the  type  used  by  the  United  States  Navy.  In  both  a  pivoted 
vertical  coil,  is  rotated  by  the  operator. 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


527 


beach  parallel  to  the  shore  line  and  the  waves  coming  and 
striking  on  the  side,  or  lying  at  right  angles  to  the  shore  line  and 
the  waves  coming  in  and  striking  it  on  the  end,  and  the  principle 
involved  is  perfectly  clear.  Striking,  or  cutting,  at  right  angles 
as  stated,  the  electric  current  flows  through  the  coil,  but  striking 
the  coil  parallel  currents  of  equal  phase  and  amplitude,  that  is  of 
similar  force  and  character,  start  through  the  coil  from  each  side 
and  neutralize  or  offset  each  other. 

With  this  principle,  or  theory,  of  the  radio  wave  to  work  on 
officials  at  the  Boston  and  Philadelphia  Navy  Yards  were  in- 
structed to  experiment  and  work  out  an  apparatus  to  determine 
the  direction  from  which  a  radio  wave  as  coming  and  the  loca- 
tion of  the  station  sending  the  wave.  These  experiments  began 
in  1916. 

The  radio  compass  as  now  constructed  is  very  simple.  Two 
forms  of  coil  are  used.  In  one  the  wire  is  wound  about  the  face 
of  a  five-foot  frame  in  the  form  of  a  square,  in  the  other  the  wire 
is  wound  around  a  rectangtilar  box-like  frame.  The  coil,  in 
either  form,  is  attached  to  the  top  of  a  steel  shaft.  Two  wires 
lead  from  the  coil  through  the  shaft  and  are  attached  to  a  sound 
receiver  worn  by  the  operator.  Attached  to  the  shaft  in  the 
operating  room  is  a  wheel  which  the  operator  uses  in  turning  the 
coil.  Below  the  shaft  is  a  dial  divided  into  360°  the  0°-l80°  line 
in  the  true  meridian. 

Below  the  hand  wheel  of  the  shaft  is  a  direction  pointer  re- 
volving within  the  compass  dial. 

When  a  ship  desires  to  get  its  bearing  from  the  radio  compass 
station,  or  its  position  in  longitude  and  latitude,  it  sends  a  pre- 
arranged signal  for  one  minute.  As  the  signal  comes  in  the 
operator  slowly  turns  the  coil  of  wire  and  listens  to  the  sound  of 
the  signal.  In  the  flat,  or  pancake  form  of  coil  as  it  is  named  by 
the  Navy,  the  signal  is  loudest  when  the  frame  is  edgewise  to 
the  wave.  In  this  position  the  wave  is  striking,  or  cutting,  the 
wire  and  flowing  through  to  the  sound  receiver.  When  the 
frame  is  facing  the  wave  the  wire  is  struck  simultaneously  on 
both  sides,  the  current  does  not  flow  through  and  there  is  no 
sound  in  the  receiver.  As  the  operator  turns  the  coil  there  is  a 
position  at  which  he  gets  the  loudest  click  and  it  then  begins  to 
weaken  until  he  reaches  the  position  at  which  there  is  an  absence 

19 


_ii. ' 


528 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


of  sound.  As  it  is  easier  to  detennine  the  position  of  ab- 
sence of  sound  than  the  position  of  loudest  sound  the  opera- 
tor notes  the  bearing  of  the  ship  on  his  dial  when  no  sound  can  be 
detected. 

When  the  rectangular  or  box  form  of  coil  is  used  the  position 
of  loudest  sound  is  when  the  coil  is  directly  broadside  to  the  wave, 
and  the  position  of  absence  of  sound  is  when  one  of  the  two 
open  ends  of  the  coil  is  directly  facing  the  wave  and  the  wire  is 
being  cut  by  the  wave  on  both  sides  at  the  same  instant. 


Gloucester       §~£ 


Boston 


Plotting  position  by  radio  compass  bearing.     Vessel  at  A. 

In  May,  1919,  the  U.  S.  S.  Chicago  left  Boston  for  Charleston 
to  test  out  the  radio  compass  stations.  The  following  is  an  ex- 
tract from  her  report. 

"The  results  were  very  satisfactory,  and  the  stations  uni- 
formly efficient.  They  prove,  beyond  doubt,  the  great  value  of 
the  system  both  to  the  Navy  and  to  merchant  shipping.  The 
averaf^e  error  of  radio  bearings  was  less  than  one  mile.    Up  to 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


529 


distances  of  forty  miles  from  the  entrances  to  the  various  ports 
the  navigators  can  generally  rely  on  the  information  furnished 
being  correct  within  a  few  hundred  yards.  From  40  to  75  miles 
away  about  three  miles  error  should  be  allowed  for  and  from  100 
to  150  miles  3  to  6  miles  error  should  be  allowed  for." 

The  board  further  stated  that  it  considered  it  perfectly  feasible 
to  navigate  reliably,  exercising  the  usual  caution,  from  Cape 
Hatteras  to  Boston  in  thick  weather  and  practically  to  make  each 
of  the  port  entrances  without  difficulty,  due  to  the  radio  compass 
stations. 

The  Navy  (1921)  maintains  Radio  Compass  Stations  along  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts  on  the  Great  Lakes.  Radio  Com- 
pass Stations  are  designed  to  aid  navigators,  especially  in  thick 
weather,  and  have  come  to  be  recognized  as  one  of  the  first  aids 
to  navigation. 

Because  of  the  large  amount  of  radio  traffic  handled  on  com- 
mercial wave-length  of  600  meters,  the  workings  of  the  radio 
compass  service  were  greatly  interfered  with  when  operating  on 
that  wave-length.  Accordingly,  the  Radio  Compass  Stations 
issue  radio  compass  bearings  on  800  meters  only.  Vessels  to 
make  use  of  this  service,  must  have  their  transmitters  tuned  to 
800  meters  wave-length. 


Accuracy  of  Radio  Bearings* 

Mr.  Elmer  Collins,  Nautical  Expert,  U.  S.  Hydrographic 
Office,  has  pointed  out  that  long  distance  radio  bearings  must 
be  plotted  on  great  circle  lines  or  considerable  error  will  ensue. 

The  following  information  was  furnished  by  the  Director  of 
the  U.  S.  Naval  Communication  Service  under  date  of  October 
10,  1919: 

"  The  reliance  that  can  be  placed  in  bearings  ftu-nished  by 

*  While  the  Navy  Department  states  that  at  the  present  time  radio  com- 
pass bearings  have  reached  a  high  degree  of  accuracy,  it  must  be  understood 
that  the  Government  incurs  no  liability  for  any  consequences  resulting  from 
any  inaccuracy  in  the  taking  or  transmission  of  radio  compass  bearings. 
These  bearings  are  provided  free  of  charge,  as  aids  to  navigation,  to  be  used 
at  the  discretion  of  the  master  of  the  vessel. 


530 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


shore  radio  compass  stations  will  be  governed  by  the  following 
conditions : 

"  (a)  When  two  sets  of  bearings  are  received  which  do  not 
agree,  a  third  set  should  immediately  be  requested. 

"  (b)  In  thick  weather  bearings  should  be  requested  at  least 
every  half  hour. 

"  (c)  Bearings  that  pass  over  intervening  land  or  that  are 
tangent  to  the  shore  line  are  not  as  reliable  as  those 
that  have  a  clear  sweep  over  the  sea. 

"  (d)  Navigators  receiving  a  set  of  bearings  should  immedi- 
ately investigate  the  approximate  fix  indicated  and 
determine  whether  or  not  they  are  being  furnished 
with  bearings  from  the  stations  that  should  be  most 
reliable. 

"  (e)  When  the  position  of  the  ship  as  indicated  by  the  radio 
bearings  differs  materially  from  the  position  by  dead- 
reckoning,  a  second  set  of  radio  bearings  should  be 
requested  in  order  to  check  the  first  radio  position." 

Radio  compass  instructions  are  issued  by  the  Hydrographic 
Office. 

XVIII 

The  Direction  Cable 

"  The  Audio  Piloting  Cable  System  " 

The  system  is  operated  as  follows:  an  insulated  electric 
conductor  or  cable  is  laid  along  the  line  of  the  fairway  in  river 
mouths,  harbor  entrances,  etc.  A  source  of  audio  frequency 
alternating  current  is  impressed  upon  the  cable.  One  terminal 
of  the  generator  producing  the  alternating  current  to  energize 
the  cable  is  connected  at  the  shore  end  to  a  ground  connection. 
The  other  terminal  of  the  generator  is  connected  to  the  insulated 
conductor  or  cable.  The  extreme  end  of  the  cable  for  example 
at  a  point  at  the  entrance  of  a  harbor  is  grounded  to  a  metallic 
plate  or  is  electrically  connected  to  the  steel  armor,  which  serves 
as  a  protective  sheath  to  the  cable.  It  is  a  fundamental  law  of 
electricity  that  any  conductor  carrying  an  electric  current  pro- 
duces a  magnetic  field  around  the  conductor.  The  current  pro- 
ducing the  magnetic  field  can  be  direct,  ptdsating  or  alternating. 
Michael  Faraday,  the  eminent  English  scientist,  in  the  year 
1831,  pointed  out  to  the  scientific  world  that  if  a  coil  of  wire 


COMPASS— LEAD— LOG— PILOTING 


531 


connected  to  an  electrical  indicating  instrument  was  brought 
in  the  proximity  of  another  loop  or  conductor  carrying  an  electric 
current,  that  the  signals  produced  in  the  transmitting  loop  or 
conductor  would  actuate  an  instrument  connected  to  the  receiving 
loop.    Upon  this  discovery  is  based  the  invention  of  the  Direction 

Cable. 

A  cable  is  laid  in  the  center  of  the  ship  channel.  Through  the 
listening  devices  on  board,  the  ship  gives  off  a  sound  of  certain 
pitch  that  cannot  be  mistaken  for  any  other  sound.  The  ship 
hugs  the  cable  from  harbor  line  to  the  dock.  On  the  bridge  and 
in  the  captain's  cabin  listening  devices  like  telephone  receivers 
are  placed  and  attached  by  wires  to  the  hull  of  the  ship.  The 
ship  follows  the  course  of  the  cable.  Any  variation  away  from 
the  cable  is  indicated  by  visible  indicators  which  show  in  feet 
the  distance  away  from  the  cable  and  the  ship  is  then  put  back 
over  the  cable  by  the  steering  rudder  in  the  usual  manner. 

By  the  ear  receivers  the  indicators  may  be  confirmed  at  all 
times.  Vessels  going  into  port  will  use  one  cable ;  those  coming 
out  another.  The  sound  on  each  is  different  and  there  can  be 
no  confusion  and  therefore  no  collision. 

Along  the  cable  at  mile  intervals  a  section  is  insulated  with 
lead.  Through  this  no  soimd  can  come  and  therefore  the  man 
on  listening  duty  can  tell  instantly  how  far  the  ship  has  pro- 
gressed, and  by  the  cable  chart  in  front  of  him  can  tell  where  the 
cable  turns  and  where  the  ship  must  be  steered  to  follow  the 
curve  of  the  cable  and  the  center  of  the  channel.  The  new 
device,  according  to  those  who  have  tested  it  and  recommended 
its  use,  is  as  reliable  as  the  telephone.  It  will  work  in  all  con- 
ditions of  water  and  weather,  it  is  said,  and  no  amoimt  of  elec- 
tricity in  the  air  or  powerful  wireless  currents  about  the  ship 
can  effect  it  in  any  way. 


XIX 
Pilots 

In  concluding  this  chapter  on  piloting  it  may  be  well  to  say  a 
word  or  two  about  pilots  themselves.  No  seaman  will  question 
the  sterling  worth  of  his  fellow  workers,  the  pilots,  in  such 
services  as  those  off  Sandy  Hook,  and  up  and  down  the  Atlantic 


532 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


seaboard,  the  San  Francisco  Bar  Pilots,  those  of  the  River 
Hoogly,  and  many  others  in  the  great  ports  of  the  world.  But 
men  are  to  be  foimd  in  many  places  who  have  set  themselves  up 
as  pilots.  The  late  Captain  Ned  Clements  of  Seattle,  in  speaking 
of  Alaskan  waters,  used  to  warn  the  youngster  who  inclined  that 
way—-"  Don't  go  to  Alaska  as  a  pilot  on  your  first  voyage. 
I  did,"  the  Captain  was  wont  to  say,  and  then  he  would  spin 
a  yarn  out  of  place  in  the  pages  of  a  book  on  seamanship. 

But  the  master  mariner  going  into  strange  ports  should  look 
upon  all  pilots  with  suspicion,  at  least  he  should  stick  to  the 
bridge  himself,  see  to  it  that  leadsmen  are  in  the  chains,  and 
know  where  the  vessel  is  at  all  times. 

Shipping  and  Engineering^  a  Shanghai  publication  in  an  issue 
of  recent  date,  has  the  following  to  say  about  the  Celestial  pilots 
of  the  Yangtze  River: 

"The  Chinese  plying  pilot  is  generally  a  native  who  has  been 
discharged  from  one  of  the  river-boats  or  a  quartermaster  who 
has  been  employed  as  such  on  the  river,  or  as  a  leadsman,  per- 
haps, to  a  foreign  pilot.  He  has  a  smattering  of  the  river  and 
by  means  of  oiling  the  pahn  of  some  Chinese  compradore  or 
shipping  clerk,  gets  thrust  forward  as  a  competent  pilot  who 
will  do  a  job  cheaply  and  if  asked  for  references  can  always 
produce  somebody's  papers  which  have  been  loaned  for  the 
occasion  for  a  consideration.  Should  an  accident  happen  to  the 
vessel  whilst  in  charge  of  these  incompetent  natives,  the  pilot 
goes  free;  not  so  the  master,  who  usually  loses  his  job,  although 
the  vessel  was  in  charge  of  a  Chinese  pilot  appointed  by  the 
owners,  or  agents." 

W.  H.  LaBoyteaux  in  his  Handbook  for  Masters  (a  very 
excellent  work  of  100  pages)  defines  the  responsibiUty  of  the 
Pilot  and  Master. 

"  The  American  and  English  laws  differ  somewhat  in  respect 
to  compulsory  pilotage,  but  in  neither  country  is  the  pilot  deemed 
to  be  in  complete  command,  nor  is  the  master  relieved  from  all 
responsibility. 

"The  duties  of  the  pilot  are  never  completely  those  of  a  master, 
nor  under  the  American  law  is  the  authority  of  the  master  ever 
superseded  by  that  of  the  pilot.  The  master  remains  at  all 
times  m  full  charge  of  his  vessel,  and  upon  him  always  rests  the 
responsibility  for  her  safety." 


1 


I 


CHAPTER   15 

THE  BRIDGE 
I 

Design 
Undoubtedly  the  bridge  of  a  modern  vessel  is  the  most  im- 
portant part  of  her  superstructure.  With  the  vast  increase  in 
size  and  a  general  doubling  of  ocean  speed,  the  station  of  the 
officer  of  the  watch  becomes,  more  than  ever,  the  brain  of  the 
vessel.  A  twenty  thousand  tonner  with  a  poorly  designed 
"  brain,"  a  place  where  the  officer  in  charge  is  not  at  his  best,  is 
like  any  big  fellow  with  a  foggy  headpiece. 

In  the  first  place  the  bridge  should  be  an  ideal  lookout  situ- 
ation, with  unobstructed  vision,  all  around  the  horizon.  It 
should  be  up  high  enough  to  give  a  clear  view  of  both  stem  and 
stern.  Where  this  is  impossible  docking  bridges,  fore  and  aft, 
or  perhaps  aft  alone,  should  be  provided,  these  to  be  within  sight 
of  the  navigating  or  maneuvering  bridge. 

The  bridge  should  be  well  sheltered.  But  the  question  of 
shelter  is  one  that  very  few  officers  agree  upon.  Some  like  to  be 
housed  in  entirely,  steam  heated  and  foot  warmed.  This  is  very 
comfortable  but  many  believe  it  carries  with  it  a  false  sense  of 
security — a  lack  of  actual  knowledge  of  wind  and  weather  with- 
out. With  a  few  million  tons  of  large  sailing  craft  on  the  sea, 
this  question  of  what  the  wind  is  doing  (free  of  charge)  is  of  high 
importance.  Many  coast  vessels  keep  their  watch  in  the  wheel- 
house  entirely,  the  bridge  being  practically  eliminated.  With 
large  wheelhouses  this  is  not  a  bad  plan,  but  to  the  mind  of  the 
writer  it  involves  too  much  standing  and  sitting  around.  An 
officer  should  be  actively  on  his  feet,  keeping  awake  by  walking 
back  and  forth  in  the  fresh  air,  his  eyes  sweeping  the  horizon, 
the  surface  of  the  water,*  noting  the  direction  of  the  wind  and 
sea,  and  a  number  of  other  things  about  the  ship.    The  watch 

*  Hundreds  of  derelicts  and  other  dangerous  obstructions  are  reported  in 
the  hydrographic  bulletins  each  month. 

533 


534 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


!  t, 


officer  outside  on  the  bridge  is  liable  to  be  more  active  and  able 
than  the  chap  inside.  If  the  reader  should  fall  overboard  (it  is 
bemg  done  every  day)  undoubtedly  he  would  prefer  to  have  a 
watch  officer  out  in  the  open  to  stop  the  vessel,  toss  over  a  buoy 
and  caU  away  the  lifeboat,  rather  than  to  have  some  one  first 
run  into  the  wheelhouse  and  call  the  officer. 

A  great  many  designs  have  been  developed  with  regard  to 
bridges  but  the  following  points  should  be  kept  in  mind. 

An  officer  generally  stands  at  the  weather  wing  of  the  bridge. 
This  is  the  most  sheltered  part,  gives  the  best  idea  of  what  is 
going  on  ahead,  and  on  the  weather  how  and  beam.  From  the 
weather  wing  he  can  look  anywhere  from  dead  aft  around  the 
weather  side  to  well  abeam  to  leeward. 

This  ideal  condition  is  only  pos- 
sible with  a  bridge  running  straight 
across  the  breadth  of  the  vessel. 

The  helmsman  should  always  be 
on  the  same  deck  with  the  watch 

Not  a  bad  idea  for  the  helms-  ^^^'^  ^!  ^^"""^u  ^^^^'^  ^""'^^^ 
man  during  the  North  Atlantic  !^  *^^  ^^'^  ^^^*^^^»  ^«  ^^^^^^^^^ 
winter,  ^^  ^    wheelhouse    and    made    as 

comfortable  as  possible.  He  should 
be  within  sight  and  hearing  of  the  watch  officer  no  matter  where 
the  latter  may  be  while  on  the  bridge.  The  wheel  should  be 
so  placed  that  the  officer  in  charge  can  see  that  his  commands 
are  being  correctly  understood  and  carried  out. 

The  wheelhouse  should  stand  back  from  the  path  across  the 
bridge,  should  have  a  circular  front,  glassed  in  with  sUding 
shutters,  and  from  the  wings,  quarters  and  middle  of  the  bridge, 
dictaphone  connection  should  be  made  with  a  loud  speaking 
telephone  opening  into  the  top  of  the  wheelhouse  over  the  head 
of  the  hehnsman.  The  officer  will  then  get  his  command  into 
the  wheelhouse  correctly  and  at  once.  The  system  should  pro- 
vide for  a  reply  audible  at  these  points  on  the  bridge. 

So  much  for  the  wheelhouse.  This  should  be  large,  kept 
warm,  and  communicate  with  the  chart  room  aft  of  it  and  with 
the  master's  quarters  below.  The  master  should  have  a  bunk  in 
the  chart  room,  and  should  always  sleep  there,  all  standing,  when 
making  the  coast. 


THE  BRIDGE 


535 


As  to  the  bridge  itself,  it  should  be  fairly  wide,  but  not  too 
wide.  Six  or  eight  feet  is  ample,  as  a  bridge  that  is  too  wide  will 
fill  with  wind  eddies  and 
keep  things  uncomfortable 
by  back  drafts. 

The  old  plan  of  fitting  can- 
vas dodgers  is  good  and  these 
should  be  strongly  made  and 
triced  to  a  stout  wire  jack- 
stay.  Newer  vessels  some- 
times carry  glass  shutters  in 
place  of  canvas.  At  any  rate 
it  is  very  necessary  that  the 
officer  in  charge  have  a  clear 
view  ahead  over  the  dodger 
or  shutter.  Where  a  vessel 
is  plunging  into  heavy  rain  of 
sleet,  the  problem  becomes 
more  difficult.  The  Kent- 
Chadburn  Clear  View  Screen 
is  being  placed  on  many  ves- 
sels. It  consists  of  a  circular 
disc  of  plate  glass,  mounted 
on  a  horizontal  pivot  in  the 
fore  and  aft  line.  A  small 
motor  gives  the  disc  a  rapid 
circular  motion  and  all  water 
and  sleet  is  thrown  off  by 
centrifugal  action,  giving  the 

observer  a  clear  view  through  the  revolving  disc.  The  balance 
of  the  glass  disc  must  be  perfect  and  the  glass  of  high  quality. 
The  observer  cannot  tell  that  the  disc  is  revolving  and  can  look 
into  the  dirtiest  kind  of  weather  with  his  eyes  wide  open. 

During  the  war  the  vast  importance  of  good  lookouts  at  sea 
developed  an  excellent  tjrpe  of  wind  shield.  Here  the  wind 
impinging  on  the  bridge,  or  other  lookout,  is  split  in  a  horizontal 
line,  part  of  it  shoots  under  the  bridge  and  the  upper  portion 
curving  on  a  convex  plow  turns  back  upon  itself  carrjring  the 
main  wind  current  slightly  forward  and  up  over  the  head  of  the 


Kent'Chadburn  Clear  View  Screen. 


y 


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536 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


The  convex  wind  shield  on  a  poorly  designed  bridge. 

observer  leaving  him  in  the  calm  center  of  this  minature  tornado. 
Where  the  curves  are  well  designed  a  match  will  bum  held  over 
the  edge  of  the  shield.    It  is  a  very  excellent  method  of  sheltering 

a  watch  officer  or  a  lookout  and 
still  keep  him  in  the  open  where 
he  can  move  about  and  see  things. 
When  the  vast  importance  of 
bridge  design  is  realized,  not  only 
as  a  matter  of  comfort,  but  as  an 
important  factor  in  the  safety  of 
life  and  property,  these  points, 
grown  out  of  experience  on 
bridges,  good,  bad  and  indifferent, 
will  be  taken  into  account  by  gen- 
tlemen who  design  bridges  while 
bending  over  the  exposed  position 
of  a  drafting  board.  The  writer 
recalls  one  bridge  in  particular 
where  he  would  have  given  a  great 
deal  to  have  caught  the  designer  in  the  above  position,  especially 
after  a  cold  watch  off  Cape  Pillar  in  the  month  of  June. 


The  correct  curve  on  the  wind 
shield — not  onjhe  officer. 


THE  BRIDGE 


537 


The  bridge  with  a  semicircular  front  looks  nice  but  has  many 
practical  disadvantages  for  the  watch  officer  who  likes  to  do  his 
four  hours  duty  walking  back  and  forth,  or  to  do  his  main  peering 
into  the  night  from  the  weather  wing. 


McNab  Engine  Direction  Indicator.  The  appropriate  spindle  moves  with, 
each  stroke  of  the  engine.  The  action  is  caused  by  an  air  pump  attached  to 
the  engine. 

The  bridge  either  straight,  or  circtdar,  with  a  wheelhouse 
cutting  across  the  center  of  the  bridge  (a  favorite  design  with 
the  Germans)  is  just  as  bad.  Close  the  weather  door  of  the 
wheelhouse  and  the  weather  wing  of  the  bridge  becomes  useless. 

The  opinion  of  the  writer  is  that  the  weather  wing  of  the  bridge 
is  the  most  advantageous  lookout  on  a  vessel. 

The  best  position  of  engine  indicators,  revolution  indicators 
and  the  like  is  at  the  center  of  the  bridge  and  possibly  in  the 
wheelhouse.  On  a  wide  bridge  it  is  a  fine  thing  to  have  the 
engine  indicators  led  to  the  wings  of  the  bridge.  When  docking 
most  masters  are  either  on  one  wing  or  the  other  of  the  bridge. 

The  ideal  position  for  engine  room  telegraphs  is  at  both  quarter 
points  of  the  bridge.  They  are  then  within  jumping  distance 
at  all  times,  do  not  interfere  with  the  weather  or  lee  stations  at 
the  bridge  wings,  but  of  course  this  means  a  double  set  of  tele- 
graphs— not  much  of  an  item  on  a  five-million-dollar  liner.  - 


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STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


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Docking  telegraphs  should  be  at  or  near  the  wings  of  the 
bridge.  A  good  position  for  docking  telegraphs  is  on  the  after 
side  of  the  bridge. 

The  bridge  should  be  provided  with  run- 
ning light  indicators.  The  simplest  way, 
where  the  side  lights  are  carried  in  light 
boxes  at  the  ends  of  the  bridge  is  to  have 
a  pinhole  through  the  bridge  to  the  light 
box.  A  fine  point  of  red  or  green  light 
then  shows  that  the  lights  are  working. 
Some  sort  of  audible  alarm  is  also  good. 
This  should  lead  into  the  wheelhouse 
^^      ^^^^  where  the  quar- 

xl^l^^pfe^  ter-master  stand- 

ing by,  or  the 
junior  officer,  can 
at  once  see  to  the 
lights  if  they  go 
out.     Of  course       ^^    ^    .     „ 

,,  ..  .        A  handy  rig.  Revolu- 

the   masthead    tion counter,    r.p.m:s 
lights  are  gener-    and  direction  of  engines 
ally  visible  from   on  telegraph  stand. 
the  bridge  direct. 

Telegraphs  are  generally  of  the  me- 
chanical type  and  are  shown  in  the 
illustrations.  These  should  always  be 
tested  before  leaving  or  entering  port. 
The  electric  telegraph  dial  has  much  to 
recommend  it. 

Telephones  are  becoming  more  gen- 
eral and  have  a  wide  application  on 
board  ship ;  those  of  the  loud  speaking 
variety  are  best.  Docking  orders,  etc., 
are  less  liable  to  be  misunderstood, 

however,  if  given  by  telegraph.    En- 
Telegrath    on    a    turbine     •  j  x  t.  • 

^   ^  r  J-  1  gine  room  orders  must  be  so  given, 

steamer.     Lower   dial   ma-  ^  ^         ' 

neuvering  turbines.  except,  of  course  when  control  is  from 

upper  dial  ahead  only.       the  bridge  direct. 


THE  BRIDGE 


n 


539 


Keeping  Watch 

The  Officer  of  the  Watch,  the  Master  not  being  on  the  bridge, 
is  in  direct  command  of  the  vessel.  If  a  derelict  suddenly 
shows  underfoot,  he  must  act,  must  handle  the  situation.  At 
night,  under  many  different  combinations  of  wind  and  weather, 
he  has  great  responsibility  resting  upon  him.  For  many  weeks 
and  even  months  nothing  may  happen,  then,  all  of  a  sudden,  he 
is  confronted  with  situations  that  require  the  clearest  judgment, 
the  quickest  action.  Throughout  this  book,  such  situations  are 
stressed,  but  the  best  advice  the  watch  officer  can  assimilate, 
is  this — Keep  wide  awake  at  all  timesy  day  and  night.  Realize 
your  responsibilities.  Enow  the  Rules  of  the  Road  with  abso- 
lute certainty.  Impress  upon  yourself  the  tremendous  moral 
responsibility  that  rests  with  you  every  moment  you  are  on  the 
bridge.  Your  charge  is  a  direct  personal  responsibility;  never 
forget  this. 

When  a  watch  officer  comes  down  from  "  mount  misery  "  as 
they  call  it  in  the  bally  trans-Atlantic  trade,  he  has  earned  his 
pay  for  half  a  day  at  least.  His  duty  then  consists  of  taking 
excellent  care  of  himself.  He  must  rest  and  recuperate  for  the 
coming  four  hours  of  duty  that  lie  ahead  after  his  eight  below. 
Taking  such  good  care  of  oneself  is  a  rather  pleasant  duty  and 
this  is  one  of  the  many  reasons  why  going  to  sea  in  these  days  is 
such  a  fine  thing  to  do.  Many  of  us  ashore,  between  the  tyranny 
of  office  work,  the  suffering  in  subways,  and  the  necessity  for 
"  relaxation  "  never  find  time  to  read  any  of  the  great  books  by 
which  a  man,  while  still  alive,  may  gain  some  vision  of  the  heaven 
and  hell  through  which  we  all  pass  upon  our  strange  voyage. 
Now,  thanks  to  better  conditions,  every  man  jack  on  board  has 
the  marvelous  gift  of  time  at  his  disposal,  in  this  respect  being 
far  better  endowed  than  many  of  the  most  fortunate  men  ashore. 

What  this  has  to  do  with  seamanship  is  somewhat  vague,  but 
not  to  those  who  have  drilled  "  watch  and  watch  "  around  the 
world.  The  writer,  when  second  mate  of  a  big  eighteen- 
thousand-ton  freighter,  spent  two  nights  juggling  this  ship  under 
the  coal  chutes  at  a  Puget  Sound  port;  she  was  so  long  we  had 
to  do  a  lot  of  warping  back  and  forth.    The  reserve  bunker  and 


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STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


THE  BRIDGE 


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part  of  the  upper  'tween  decks  were  filled  with  coal,  and  as  soon 
as  filled,  we  cast  off  lines.  The  skipper,  a  real  old  timer,  and  a 
gentleman,  hated  coal  dust;  he  was  a  square-rigged  wind  jam- 
mer, and  away  we  went.  For  over  fifty  days  we  slanmied 
down  through  the  Pacific,  through  Magellan  Straits  without  a 
stop,  up  in  the  Atlantic  to  the  Delaware  and  on  to  Philadelphia, 
the  writer  and  one  other  unfortunate  standing  "  watch  and 
watch  "  on  the  bridge.  The  writer  is  willing  to  certify  to  the 
fact  that  for  many  hours  during  that  memorable  passage  he 
stood  on  his  feet  sleeping  like  a  horse  in  the  middle  watch; 
30%  efficient  would  be  a  good  estimate.  The  company  saved 
$80  dollars  in  pay  and  about  $15  worth  of  food  on  that  passage. 
The  vessel  and  cargo  were  worth  at  least  two  millions,  even  in 
those  ancient  days.  Our  British  cousins  still  do  these  things, 
if  we  can  judge  by  the  letters  of  protest  that  appear  from  time  to 
time  in  their  very  fine  merchant  service  journal,  The  Nautical 
Magazine, 

m  , 

Relieving  Watch 

The  watch  on  the  bridge  is  not  relieved  until  the  course  has 
been  passed. 

This  is  a  rule  that  should  be  strictly  observed  on  all  vessels. 
If  an  emergency  arises,  when  the  two  officers  are  on  the  bridge, 
some  confusion  may  exist  as  to  who  is  in  charge.  It  is  well  to 
insist  upon  a  rapid  and  business-like  turning  over  of  the  watch. 
The  following  procedure  is  recommended. 

Call  relief  at  least  twenty  minutes  before  eight  bells.  This 
gives  him  some  time  to  get  awake.  Some  officers,  under  the 
three- watch  system,  prefer  to  be  called  at  seven  bells.  (In  the 
old  days  a  chap  "  caulked  off  "  to  the  last  minute  and  did  his 
waking  up — ^if  he  ever  woke  up — ^while  on  the  bridge.) 

Quartermaster  in  calling  the  watch  should  always  state  the 
weather  and  temperature. 

Come  to  bridge  at  least  five  minutes  before  eight  bells.  Read 
the  Captain's  orders,  and  sign  them.  Look  over  log,  note  state 
of  barometer,  etc.     Get  in  tune  with  things,  speed,  etc. 

The  officer  of  the  watch  should  stand  to  windward,  and  as 
soon  as  his  relief  comes  he  should  give  the  following  information. 


Vessels  in  sights — ^point  them  out.  Vessels  met  with  during 
watch,  if  any — ^just  a  general  statement.  Weather  changes, 
and  any  other  orders  or  instructions  with  regard  to  the  vessel, 
her  speed,  behavior  if  weather  is  heavy,  steering,  lookouts,  etc. 

The  officer  in  charge  then  "  passes  the  course." 

"  North  30  east,"  or  simply,  "  Course  is  30." 

"  Thirty,  sir!  "  the  relief  replies  and  steps  to  the  weather  side 
in  front  of  the  officer  being  relieved. 

The  instant  that  takes  place  the  relief  is  in  charge  and  if  in 
crowded  waters,  fog,  snow,  rain,  etc.,  and  a  sudden  emergency 
comes  up,  there  is  no  question  as  to  who  is  in  charge. 

If  close  to  vessels  or  in  the  midst  of  a  difficult  maneuver,  the 
officer  of  the  watch  should  stay  in  charge  until  the  maneuver  is 
completed  before  turning  over  the  watch. 

After  the  watch  is  relieved,  the  lookouts  should  make  their 
reports  to  the  new  officer  of  the  watch,  and  all  routine  duties 
should  then  go  forward. 

As  soon  as  relieved  the  officer  who  has  just  left  the  bridge 
should  write  up  the  log  book  before  going  below.  If  a  junior 
watch  officer  is  carried  the  senior  reads  and  initials  the  log. 

IV 

Bridge  Routine 

The  discipline  and  life  of  the  ship  above  decks  centers  on  the 
bridge.  A  sloppy  bridge  is  usually  an  indication  of  a  sloppy 
vessel.  Lax  conduct,  slovenly  manners  and  dirt  are  a  certain 
sign  of  a  lubberly  outfit.  The  master  is  directly  responsible  for 
the  tone  of  his  vessel. 

Officers  and  men  should  come  to  the  bridge  properly  dressed. 
If  uniform  is  worn  this  should  be  strictly  according  to  regtilation. 
Where  civilian  clothes  are  worn  officers  and  men  should  be  as 
neat  in  appearance  as  if  ashore.  Absolute  cleanliness  should 
be  insisted  upon.  All  fittings  about  the  bridge  should  be  kept  in 
order,  bridge  washed  down  and  paintwork  wiped  in  the  morning 
watch. 

All  instruments,  glasses,  telescopes,  lead  and  log  lines,  should 
be  cared  for  by  the  quartermasters. 

Red  and  blue  lights,  rockets,  bombs,  and  line  carrying  gun  are 
usually  under  charge  of  the  quartermasters.    The  buoys  with 


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STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


waterlights  should  also  be  in  their  charge.  The  officer  specially 
charged  with  the  upkeep  of  the  lifeboat  equipment,  generally 
has  one  or  two  quartermasters  to  assist  him. 

The  navigator  has  charge  of  the  chart  room.  No  unauthorized 
persons  should  be  permitted  in  this  room.  The  bridge,  as 
required  by  law,  must  be  kept  free  from  access  by  persons  not 
directly  connected  with  the  navigation  of  the  vessel.  Customs 
officers  and  <:ertain  other  government  officials  are  permitted  on 
the  bridge.  These  rules  are  posted  in  all  ships  and  should  be 
strictly  observed. 

On  liners  the  master  should  insist  that  all  officers  and  men 
coming  on  the  bridge  "  salute  the  bridge."  A  little  ceremony, 
but  a  big  thing.  Insist  upon  no  skylarking  by  the  youngsters. 
All  conduct  centers  upon  the  dignity  and  seriousness  of  the 
watch  officer,  who  takes  his  cue  from  the  master. 

In  passing  orders  by  messenger  do  so  as  follows : 

"  Give  my  compliments  to  Mr.  Smith,  and  tell  him  to  prepare 
to  come  to  anchor  in  half  an  hour." 

Quartermaster,  salutes,  "  Aye,  aye,  sir,"  and  approaching  the 
Chief  Mate,  salutes,  and  delivers  message  as  follows: 

"  Captain  Black's  compliments,  sir,  and  prepare  to  come  to 
anchor  in  half  an  hour." 

On  a  liner  great  care  should  be  taken  in  these  little  cere- 
monies.   Salutes  always  returned  and  insisted  upon. 

The  great  thing  is  to  know  just  how  far  to  carry  this  feature 
and  at  the  same  time  maintain  a  just  balance  between  common 
sense  and  ceremony. 

On  many  large  freighters  the  same  sort  of  consideration  and 
discipline  is  carried  out.  It  is  a  necessary  part  of  sea  routine 
where  men  are  thrown  together  for  months  at  a  time  and  some 
sort  of  organized  courtesy  is  a  great  help. 

The  master  who  is  not  too  familiar  gets  on  best.  It  is  a  fine 
art  to  be  friendly  and  severe  at  the  same  time.  Never  reprimand 
an  officer  in  public.  Do  it  in  the  privacy  of  your  quarters — and 
do  the  job  up  brown.  After  that  treat  him  with  the  greatest 
courtesy  in  public. 

The  master  who  interferes  with  the  routine  work  of  the  ship 
is  usually  a  fool.  If  things  don't  go  right,  get  the  Chief  Mate  and 
lay  him  out.    Many  of  the  wisest  ship  commanders  do  it  all 


THE  BRIDGE 


543 


through  this  unfortunate  individual,  giving  him  "  the  work " 
for  things  that  happen,  even  when  he  is  ashore,  and  "  should  have 
left  proper  orders,  etc." 

This  sort  of  thing  adds  to  the  quality  of  the  respect  shown  the 
"  old  man." 

But — and  this  is  important — ^back  up  the  Chief  Mate,  and 
through  him  all  officers,  in  the  proper  performance  of  their  duty. 

The  Master  who  comes  on  board  and  kicks  about  a  dirty  gang- 
way to  the  poor  dub  stationed  there,  simply  makes  a  grouch  out 
of  himself.  But  the  Skipper  who  comes  over  the  side,  says 
nothing,  and  ten  minutes  later  the  wrath  of  ages  descends  in  the 
person  of  the  Chief  Mate,  that  skipper  is  a  genius,  and  when  he 
does  bawl  out  orders,  should  the  ship  and  all  hands,  perhaps, 
be  in  danger,  every  word  he  says  is  listened  to  with  respect  and 
rapid  action  follows. 

One  of  the  best  master  mariners  the  writer  was  ever  ship- 
mates with,  never  set  foot  on  the  bridge  except  to  enter  or  leave 
port,  or  in  fog,  or  other  danger.  If  ice  was  reported  he  was  on 
the  bridge  in  an  instant.  The  result  was  that  whenever  the  old 
man  was  up,  everyone  was  on  edge.  He  came  aboard  a  half 
hour  before  sailing  and  left  when  the  lines  were  fast.  Every 
man  jack  on  board  was  proud  of  the  skipper. 

Too  many  Masters,  through  a  mistaken  sense  of  their  duty, 
or  because  of  pressure  from  behind,  try  to  show  how  active  they 
are  by  meddling  in  the  work  of  the  mates: 

The  Master  has  so  much  to  do  by  reason  of  his  responsibility 
that  the  wise  ones  see  ever3^hing  out  of  the  corner  of  their  eyes, 
do  all  their  kicking  through  the  Mate,  training  him  in  turn,  to 
become  a  good  skipper.  This  gives  the  master  time  to  attend  to 
the  larger  issues  which  make  for  the  prosperity  of  shipping. 

V 

Steering 

A  very  interesting  paper  appeared  in  International  Marine 
Engineering  of  March,  1919,  on  the  steering  of  ships  and  this  is 
printed,  below,  as  it  sums  up  much  of  the  data  with  which  sea- 
men should  be  familiar.  The  article  is  unsigned,  but  whoever 
wrote  it  has  said  much  in  very  few  words. 


\i 


f 


■* 


1 


544 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


"  All  ships  must  possess  the  power  to  maneuver,  but  exactly 
to  what  extent  will  depend  on  the  t3rpe  of  the  vessel  and  the  use 
for  which  it  is  intended.  Although  aJl  vessels  possess  the  power 
to  maneuver,  it  can  hardly  be  said  that  the  majority  of  ships  are 
really  easy  to  handle.  It  is  true  they  are  handled,  and  handled 
effectively,  but  nevertheless  captains  often  wish  that  they  had 
more  control  over  their  vessels  than  is  given  them,  even  by  twin 
screws  and  the  ordinary  rudder. 

"  It  will  not  be  without  interest  to  examine  what  takes  place 
when  helm  is  given  to  a  ship.  As  the  rudder  at  first  goes  over,  the 
ship  for  the  moment  continues  on  her  course  and  there  is  a  sud- 
den concentration  of  water  between  the  rudder  and  the  dead- 
wood  aft.  This  sets  up  an  increase  of  pressure  on  both  the 
rudder  and  the  deadwood,  which  pushes  away  the  stern  of  the 
ship  in  the  opposite  direction  to  which  the  rudder  is  turning. 
The  ship  also  moves  bodily  outwards.  The  instantaneous 
effect,  therefore,  is  to  move  the  ship  along  a  course,  which  is 
curved  in  the  opposite  way  to  that  in  which  the  ship  is  required 
to  turn  finally.  In  a  short  time  the  ship  takes  up  a  definite  but 
not  really  steady  swing.    This  swing  is  helped  by  the  pressure 

on  the  bow,  the  excess  pressure  on  the 
deadwood  aft  being  reduced.  Shortly 
after  this,  the  vessel  settles  down  to  a 
steady  swing,  the  pressures  on  the  bow 
and  the  rudder  turning  her,  but  the 
pressure  on  the  deadwood  aft  is  now 
on  the  opposite  side  to  what  it  was 
oiginally,  with  the  result  that  it  retards 
the  turning  of  the  vessel.  Equilibrium 
must  eventually  be  established  when 
the  center  line  of  the  ship  takes  up  a 
definite  angle  to  the  direction  in  which 
the  center  of  gravity  of  the  ship  is  trav- 
eling. This  angle  is  called  the  drift  an- 
gle. The  distance  between  the  original 
course  of  the  vessel  and  the  position  of 
the  ship  when  she  is  moving  in  exactly 
the  opposite  direction  to  her  original 
one  is  called  the  tactical  diameter  of 
the  vessel.  If  this  is  to  be  small,  the 
deadwood  aft  should  be  well  cut  away. 
"  When  the  ship  settles  down  on  her 
turning  circle,  about  the  center  of  which 
she  rotates,  there  is  some  point — ^usually  well  forward  of  amid- 
ships— on  the  vessel  which  only  has  a  motion  along  the  center 
line,  every  other  point  on  the  vessel  really  moving  in  some  other 
direction.    This  point  is  called  the  pivoting  point,  and  the  resist- 


/  Rudder/' 
I  Stock-' 


m. 


Blade 


c-^-jrrjfflJl,- 


r 


/Arms 


Rudder 
Head 


'yPintles 


^•Gudgeon 


'Pintle 

ySudqeons 

'  Rudder 
]f^'  Post 

''/Pintles 


]^udqeons 


Pintla 


Parts  of  an  ordinary  rudder. 


THE  BRIDGE 


545 


ance  of  the  various  parts  under  water  to  turning  depends  on 
their  distances  from  this  pivoting  point.  Since  the  pivoting 
point  is  forward  of  amidships,  it  follows  that  the  aft  deadwood 
is  more  effective  in  reducing  turning  than  the  forward  deadwood. 

"  When  the  rudder  is  first  put  over,  the  center  of  pressure  on 
it  is  below  the  center  of  pressure  of  the  force  opposing  the  lateral 
motion  of  the  ship  and  in  consequence  the  vessel  at  first  heels 
towards  the  center  of  the  turning  circle.  When  steady  motion  is 
established,  centrifugal  force  acts  on  the  vessel  through  a  point 
generally  above  the  waterline  and  certainly  above  the  center 
of  lateral  resistance.  This  force  is  more  powerful  than  the 
pressure  on  the  rudder,  with  the  result  that  the  vessel  heels 
outwards.  Although  this  is  very  generally  true,  it  would  be 
possible  to  conceive  of  a  case  where  the  pressure  on  the  rudder 
was  so  great  and  relatively  high,  and  the  center  of  gravity  of  the 
ship,  through  which  the  centrifugal  force  acts,  so  low,  that  the 
ship  might  heel  inwards  on  the  turning  circle  instead  of  outwards. 

"  It  is,  of  course,  well  known  that  wind  will  affect  the  steering 
of  a  ship.  If  she  is  moving  with  the  wind  on  the  beam,  the 
center  of  pressure  of  the  wind  force  on  the  above-water  portion 
may  be  forward  or  abaft  the  center  of  lateral  resistance  of  the 
under- water  portion.  In  any  case,  helm  will  have  to  be  carried 
one  way  or  another  to  correct  the  tendency  of  the  wind  to  turn 
the  ship.  This  will  always  decrease  the  speed  of  the  vessel. 
In  one  particular  case,  it  so  happened  that  the  center  of  pressure 
of  wind  was  abaft  the  center  of  lateral  resistance,  the  deadwood 
aft  was  cut  away,  bringing  the  latter  point  further  forward, 
making  matters  worse,  so  that  a  good  deal  of  helm  had  to  be 
carried  with  a  beam  wind. 

"  It  is  generally  understood  that  wind  can  affect  the  speed  of  a 
ship  a  good  deal.  If  the  wind  is  directly  ahead,  it  will  retard 
the  motion  of  a  ship  considerably  by  direct  pressure,  although 
it  will  not  affect  the  helm.  If  it  is  on  either  bow,  it  will  not  only 
retard  the  speed  on  account  of  its  direct  pressure,  but  also  by  the 
fact  that  helm  will  have  to  be  carried  to  keep  the  vessel  straight. 
With  wind  directly  on  the  beam,  helm  will  always  practically  be 
carried,  and  the  speed  of  the  ship  will  be  retarded  on  this  account, 
although  the  wind  pressure  has  no  direct  effect. 

"  Rudders  are  divided  into  several  classes.  The  most  com- 
mon form  is  the  ordinary  merchant  ship  rudder,  in  which  the 
whole  area  of  the  rudder  is  abaft  the  axis  of  rotation.  For  many 
years  the  most  common  type  of  rudder  in  war  vessels  has  been 
the  balanced  rudder.  This  takes  several  different  forms.  It 
may  be  completely  balanced  and  supported  by  the  rudder  head 
and  a  bottom  pintle,  or  it  may  be  completely  balanced  and  also 
completely  underhung  and  supported  from  two  points  on  the 
rudder  stock.    There  is  another  form  of  rudder,  described  as 


Mt 


i 


546 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


i 


I 


semi-balanced,  in  which  a  small  portion  only  of  the  rudder  area 
is  forward  of  the  axis,  the  rudder  being  pivoted  on  the  rudder- 
head  and  one  or  more  pintles,  the  portion  of  the  rudder  below 
the  bottom  pintle  being  completely  underhung. 


A  B  C  D  B 

A,  ordinary  rudder.    B,  C,  semi-balanced  rudders.    D,  E,  balanced  rudders. 

"  The  ordinary  merchant  ship  form  of  rudder  remains  in 
general  use  because  it  is  easily  handled,  although  it  is  not  so 
economical  in  form  as  some  of  the  other  tjrpes;  speeds  of 
merchant  vessels  being  generally  small,  does  not  make  the 
rudder  immanageable  in  size.  The  steering  gear  for  it  has  to 
be  larger  and  heavier  than  the  more  effective  rudder  of  the 
balanced  or  semi-balanced  type ;  all  of  its  area  being  abaft  the 
axis,  the  twisting  forces  acting  on  it  are  much  greater  than  with 
the  latter  types.  For  vessels  with  cruiser  stems — which  in- 
cludes practically  all  war  vessels — ^the  balanced  tjrpe  of  rudder 
becomes  almost  a  necessity,  although  in  the  last  few  years 
certain  merchant  vessels  fitted  with  cruiser  sterns  have  still  been 
given  the  ordinary  merchant  type  of  rudder,  and  it  is  doubtful 
if  there  is  any  reason  to  depart  from  this  form  in  general  practice. 
K  particularly  rapid  maneuvering  is  required,  there  may  be  some 
reason  for  it. 

"  There  is  no  very  accurate  way  of  working  up  the  strength 
of  rudders  from  first  principles,  as  the  forces  acting  on  them  have 
never  been  very  accxirately  determined.  Formulae  are  used  for 
this  purpose  in  certain  cases  which  are  admittedly  comparative. 
For  the  majority  of  merchant  vessels  the  necessary  rudder  sizes 
are  all  given  in  the  rules  of  the  classification  societies.  It  can 
hardly  be  said  that  a  rudder  is  particularly  effective  in  con- 
trolling a  ship;  in  fact,  if  specially  delicate  maneuvering  is 
required  in  a  vessel,  twin  screws  must  always  be  fitted  to  assist 
the  rudder.  Whether  more  effective  methods  will  be  devised 
for  controlling  the  motion  of  a  ship  must  be  left  for  the  future 
to  decide,  but  any  improvement  on  the  present  system  would 
certainly  be  sure  of  a  warm  welcome.'' 


THE  BRIDGE 


547 


The  turning  circle  of  a  vessel  should  be  known  to  the  master 
and  all  officers  who  are  in  charge  of  the  bridge,  and  it  is  well  to 
measure  this  when  the  exact  data  is  not  available  from  correct 
records  made  during  the  steaming  trial. 

A  sighting  object,  a  mark  buoy  or  barrel,  is  weighted  and 
fitted  with  a  pole  painted  white  and  carrjring  a  small  brightly 
colored  flag.  This  mark  is  thrown  overboard  and  the  vessel 
steams  off  a  mile  or  so,  turns  and  approaches  the  mark,  keeping 
it  about  a  quarter  mile  inside  of  the  proposed  circle.    At  a  given 


Advance  =  North. 


A  turning  circle. 


signal  the  helm  is  put  over  hard,  the  mark  being  about  two 
points  forward  of  the  beam,  turning,  let  us  say,  on  port  helm 
with  the  mark  buoy  to  starboard.  The  course,  the  time,  and 
the  bearing  of  the  mark  buoy  are  simultaneously  recorded  and 
two  observers,  forward  and  aft,  angle  on  the  buoy.  After  the 
vessel's  head  has  turned  four  points,  blow  a  whistle  and  record 
course,  time  and  bearing  of  buoy.  Do  this  every  four  points 
until  the  vessel  is  back  again  on  her  original  course. 


i| 


ki 


i 


i{^.- 


I 


548 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


; 


n 


With  these  bearings  (from  the  bridge)  and  the  horizontal 
angles  between  the  buoy  and  the  forward  and  after  observers, 
their  distance  apart  being  carefully  measured,  the  turning  circle 
can  easily  be  plotted  to  scale  and  measured. 


t  t 


B-jrV                    J 

1      u 

J^l^ — !^    ll 

|t!i| 

^^  1 

](•; 

B 


E  F  G  H 

The  Kitchin  Reversing  Rudder.    A,  control  for  opening  and  closing  blades. 

B,  Rudder  head  for  steering. 

A  recent  development  that  promises  well  is  the  Kitchen 
Reversing  Rudder,  This  rudder  performs  incredible  things  in 
the  way  of  maneuvering  a  single  screw  vessel.  The  rudder 
consists  of  two  semi-circular  blades,  and  is  best  shown  by  the 
illustrations.  The  usual  helm  action  is  used  for  ordinary  steering 
with  the  added  advantage  that  the  form  of  the  rudder  causes 
the  entire  propeller  stream  to  be  directed  either  to  one  side 
or  the  other,  F»  When  going  ahead  the  rudder  stream  passes 
through  the  opening  in  the  steering  semicircles,  these  are  some- 
what contracted  causing  a  slight  nozzle  action  in  the  propeller 
stream  tending  to  increase  the  speed,  A  and  B, 

But  the  most  astonishing  effect  is  found  when  the  two  parts  of 
the  rudder  are  brought  together,  and  the  propeller  stream,  react- 
ing on  the  rudder,  turns  forward,  E\  the  vessel  then  goes  astern. 
While  going  astern  the  rudder  action  is  available  for  steering,  H. 

Many  combinations  of  steering  and  reversing,  /f ,  or  partly  re- 
versing the  propeller  current  C  and  G,  can  be  made,  giving  the  ves- 
sel a  wide  range  in  maneuvering.    The  sponsors  for  this  system 


THE  BRIDGE 


549 


claim  that  a  ship  so  fitted  can  be  stopped  within  her  length  going 
from  full  speed  to  dead  stop.  By  placing  the  rudders  in  the 
position  C  the  vessel  will  remain  stationary.  In  the  position  D— 
slow  astern. 

In  the  figure,  the  vessel  is  stationary  and  is  also  turning  to 
starboard. 

The  system  is  applicable  to  twin  screw  vessels,  or,  where 
triple  screws  are  fitted  the  rudder  operates  as  in  a  single  screw 
vessel,  abaft  of  the  midship  screw. 

The  opening  and  closing  of  the  rudder  blades  is  effected  by  a 
separate  mechanism  adding  somewhat  to  the  complication  of 
the  steering  gear. 

But  for  tugboats,  torpedo  boats  and  other  war  craft,  its  mar- 
velous steering  qualities  may  overcome  this  apparent  drawback. 

Steering  gear  is  generally  considered  to  consist  of  the  wheel, 
on  the  bridge,  the  means  of  communicating  the  motion  of  the 
wheel  to  the  valves  of  the  steering  engine,  the  steering  engine 
or  motor,  and  the  machine  upon  which  this  operates  to  effect  the 
turning  of  the  rudder,  in  other  words  the  tiller  or  helm. 

So  we  have- 
Wheel  1 
Communicating  device  to  engine 
Steering  engine 
Helm 
Rudder 

The  wheel  located  in  the  wheelhouse  on  or  near  the  bridge 
generally  consists  of  a  small  brass  or  mahogany  wheel,  or  a 
combination  of  both.  It  acts  the  same  on  all  ocean  vessels. 
To  Starboard  the  helm^  turn  the  wheel  to  port — and  ship's  head 
goes  to  port.  To  port  the  helm,  turn  wheel  to  starboard.  That 
is  the  wheel  is  turned  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  helm  com- 
mand. This  has  caused  endless  confusion,  but  like  many  things, 
including  original  sin,  it  seems  here  to  stay.  The  Navy  has 
cleaned  out  the  whole  situation,  for  themselves  at  least,  by  an 
official  fiat  that  the  commands  for  steering  shall  be 

Right  rudder    in  place  of  Port 
Left  rudder      in  place  of  Starboard 

When  the  order  "  Right  rudder  "  is  given  the  steersman  turns 
the  wheel  to  right,  and  the  ship's  head  goes  the  same  way. 


h 


!  1 

I  I 


n  I 


> 


!    I 


550 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Captain  W.  A.  Sprague,  master  of  the  Planter  E.  P,  Nones  in  a 
letter  to  the  author  makes  the  following  common  sense  sugges- 
tion. 

"  Any  man  who  has  been  going  to  sea  long  enough  to  qualify 
as  a  helmsman  has  learned  instinctively  the  port  and  starboard 
hand  of  a  vessel.  Then  what  simpler  method  of  conning  the 
wheel  than  to  give  the  command,  *  Starboard  the  wheel! '  indi- 
cating that  the  wheel  is  to  be  turned  to  starboard,  and  likewise 
the  vessePs  head  goes  to  starboard." 

K  this  were  carried  out,  the  terms  Starboard  and  Porty  so 
necessary  in  many  ways  at  sea,  would  be  retained  and  the 
burden  of  thinking  of  the  new  system  would  be  on  the  officer  and 

not  the  man.  Also,  the  officer  would 
only  have  to  call  out  his  direction 
having  in  mind  his  desire  to  turn  the 
vessel  the  same  way. 

After  a  while  the  word  wheel  could 
be  dropped  and  we  would  again  have 
the  simple  sea  terms  port  and  star- 
board. 

But  seagoing  began  before  the 
modern  day  of  wheels,  and  when  the 
wheel  came  in  the  shellbacks  of  that 
ancient  period  looked  upon  it  with 
little  favor  and  still  insisted  upon  their 
helm. 

Boat  practice  is  a  great  educator  for 
the  helm  method  of  conning  the 
wheel,  and  so  far  as  we  now  know, 
this  relic  of  the  past  will  stick  with  us 
in  the  merchant  service  for  a  few 
hundred  years  more,  or  at  least  until 
such  time  when  steering  is  done  by  radio  from  the  home  office 
and  the  skipper  and  mate  are  simply  called  the  first  and  second 
lookouts. 

The  disadvantage  of  having  two  kinds  of  helm  orders  under 
the  same  flag  is  a  serious  one,  especially  in  war  when  so  many 
merchant  seamen  must  enter  naval  service.  Only  one  mistake 
would  be  a  dear  price  for  the  new  idea. 


Section    through   wheel 
telemotor  stand. 


and 


THE  BRIDGE 


551 


Sher'ing  Tefemofor} 


^Sfeer'ing Engine  Valve  Confrol Rods 


Oauqe  Glass 


Make-upTarrU 


Communication  between  wheel  and  steering  engine  may  be  by 
some  direct  method,  such  as  rods  or  wires,  or  by  an  hydraulic 
device  called  a  telemotor.  This  is  used  very  extensively  and 
works  with  ease.  The  Brown  hydraulic  telemotor  consists  of 
two  hydraulic  cylinders,  one  located  in  the  wheelhouse  and  one 
aft  near  the  steering  engine,  connected  by  copper  tubing. 

The  piston  in  forward  cylinder  is  displaced  by  the  wheel 
working  through  the  gearing  as  shown.  This  displacement  is 
communicated  to  the  piston  in  after  cylinder  and  the  move- 
ment communicated  by  suit- 
able levers  to  steam  valve  on 
the  steering  engine.  As  soon 
as  the  wheel  is  released  the 
springs  will  return  after  piston 
to  neutral  position  and  this 
displacement  will  in  turn  be 
communicated  to  the  forward 
piston  returning  it  also  to 
neutral  position. 

Should  the  zero  position  of 
the  steering  wheel  not  corre- 
spond with  the  zero  position 
of  the  helm,  the  wheel  should 
be  put  to  the  zero  position 
this  is  all  that  is  required  in 
some  makes  of  telemotor,  in 
others  it  is  necessary  to  open 
a  by-pass  valve  which  is  kept 
open  until  the  helm  reaches 
the  neutral  position. 

The  pump  for  charging  the 
system  with  liquid  is  shown  in  diagram. 

Troubles.  The  most  frequent  source  of  trouble  in  the  hy- 
draulic telemotor  has  been  due  to  air  in  the  system.  Instructions 
issued  with  the  various  makes  of  telemotor  for  getting  rid  of  air 
should  be  consulted. 

Leaks  in  the  piping  connections  are  another  source  of  trouble. 

The  fluid  pressure  in  a  telemotor  need  never  exceed  250  lbs. 
per  square  inch. 


Motor 
Telemotor 


'^Jihargmg 
Pump 


Diagram  of  telemotor  gear.     {Wheel 
not  shown.) 


>i 


m 


'i 


\ 


552 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


THE  BRIDGE 


553 


Piping  should  not  be  run  where  there  are  great  variations  in 
temperature.  Sharp  bends,  or  pockets  which  are  likely  to  form 
air  traps  should  be  avoided. 

Mixture,  In  tropical  climates  the  system  should  be  filled  with 
clean  fresh  water  but  in  colder  climates  a  mixture  of  water 
with  glycerine  or  telemotor  oil  should  be  used.  The  best  mix- 
tures follow — 


Per  cent  glycerine  in  mixture 

25              33 

50 

60 

Safe  working  temp.,  deg.  F 

+13           +10 

-20 

-30 

Any  mixture  over  60  per  cent  glycerine  is  too  thick  to  operate 
properly.    Telemotor  oil  starts  to  congeal  at  about  15  deg.  F. 

The  electric  telemotor  consists  of  an  electrical  control  between 
the  "wheel"  and  the  steering  engine.  The  term  wheel  is 
used  advisedly  for  in  this  gear,  the  Benson  Electric  Telemotor y 
steering  is  done  by  a  "  controller  handle  "  from  what  looks 
suspiciously  like  the  familiar  pedestal  mounted  on  the  front  end 

of  a  trolley  car. 

There  are  fourteen  contact  points  on  the  contact  disc,  seven 
on  either  side  of  midship  and  correspond  to  the  following  rudder 
angles : 

Contact  Number  Degrees  of  Travel  Total  Rudder  Angle 

1 3  3 

2 3  6 

3 3  9 

4 5  14 

5 10  24 

7 10  44  (hard  over) 

The  controller  handle  may  be  put  hard  over  one  way  and  back 
again  and  then  brought  to  rest  at  say  number  4,  Starboard  (or 
right)  and  the  rudder  will  then  come  to  rest  at  that  pomt,  for 
obviously  the  rudder  can  not  go  over  and  back  as  fast  as  the 
controller,  so  it  finds  its  way  to  the  position  of  the  controller 
direct  without  going  through  the  motions  made  in  getting  there. 

It  is  all  a  matter  of  electric  wiring,  relay  cabinets,  and  motors. 
The  action  is  as  follows : 


When  the  controller  lever  is  placed  on  any  contact  on  the 
controller  disc  an  electrical  circuit  is  completed  through  a  contact 
in  the  follow-up  disc  to  a  controller  ring  in  the  follow-up  casing 
and  from  there  to  one  of  the  remote  control  relays  selected  by 
the  direction  in  which  the  lever  is  resting.  This  immediately 
closes  the  primary  circuit  through  the  motor,  starting  it  running 
in  that  direction.  As  the  motor  runs  it  operates  the  cross  head 
(on  the  rudder  head)  and  also  the  follow-up  disc.  When  the 
follow-up  disc  reaches  the  position  corresponding  to  the  con- 
troller lever  the  circuit  is  open  through  the  relay  causing  the 
motor  and  the  crosshead  block  to  stop  at  that  position.  At  the 
same  time  the  single  pole  relay  closes  and  places  a  dynamic 
brake  on  the  motor  to  insure  its  stopping  instantly  at  the  right 
place.  It  stays  in  this  position  until  the  controller  lever  is 
shifted  by  the  (steersman,  let  us  say),  when  the  operation  is 
repeated. 

"Great  Jupiter!  is  this  seamanship?"  someone  may  say, 
but  every  change  has  brought  with  it  similar  exclamations. 

Steering  engines ^  are  generally  steam  engines,  but  with  the 
increase  in  motor  vessels  electric  steering  motors  will  become^ 
more  numerous.    The  steering  engine  is  most  often  a  stationary 


1 

r^ 

?  ml 

Ik 

7i'^^'     W  --■  ■      -  ^^ 

If-  1.  Hi' 

;f|     ^          f                           J 

I  1 ...,-  *....<.  11 

''  «di^^?t               ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H 

si^HHI 

A  quadrant  steering  engine. 


1 

4 


554 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


THE  BRIDGE 


555 


I 


I 


engine  operating  a  moving  gear,  a  tiller y  a  quadrant^  or  some 
arrangement  of  a  cross  head  with  arms  working  on  a  right-  and 
left-handed  screw,  or  else  it  turns  a  drum. 

The  Brown  steam  tiller  is  a  device  in  which  the  engine  is 
mounted  on  the  tiller  and  swings  from  side  to  side,  a  cog  wheel 
actuated  by  the  engine,  engaging  the  cogs  of  a  stationary  semi- 
circular rack,  or  quadrant,  bolted  to  the  deck.  Steam  is  led  to 
the  tiller  from  a  point  directly  over  the  axis  of  the  rudder  stock. 
This  device  does  away  with  chains,  rods,  ropes,  etc. 

Quadrant  steering  engines  are  the  reverse  of  the  Brown 
engine.  .  The  engine  is  stationary  and  the  quadrant  rack  is 
directly  keyed  to  the  rudder  head.  This  is  a  good  gear  where 
space  is  limited. 

Right  and  left  screw  gear  works  with  two  steering  arms, 
pivoted  to  two  nuts  (right  and  left)  working  at  opposite  ends  of 
the  same  shaft  the  screw  having  opposing  threads.  The  ends  of 
the  steering  arms  are  pivoted  on  a  cross  head  attached  to  the 
rudder  head.  When  the  screw  shaft  revolves  the  nuts  come 
together  or  move  apart,  imparting  a  turning  motion  to  the  cross 
head  by  means  of  the  steering  arms.  It  is  a  simple  system  and 
works  well.    Many  hand  steerers  are  built  on  the  same  plan. 

Drum  steering  engines  simply  work  a  drum  and  this,  by  means 
of  wires  or  chains,  works  a  tiller  or  quadrant.  The  quadrant  is 
preferable  to  the  tiller  as  the  same  leverage  is  maintained 
throughout  the  swing  of  the  rudder. 

Hydraulic  steering  gears  are  coming  into  favor.  The  use  of  a 
cross  head,  two  steering  arms,  pivoted  to  the  plungers  of  the 
hydraulic  engine,  works  out  very  well.  The  pressure  is  supplied 
by  an  electric  driven  pump.  The  direction  and  speed  of  this  pump 
is  controlled  from  the  bridge  by  telemotor.  In  the  Hele-Shaw 
gear,  oil  is  used  instead  of  water. 

In  all  steering  engines  and  gears  provision  should  be  made 
for  ready  uncoupling  and  for  instant  shipping  of  the  hand  gear. 
All  such  gears  of  good  design  are  fitted  with  buffers,  friction 
couplings,  dash  pots,  and  the  like  for  taking  up  severe  rudder 
shocks.    This  saves  the  rudder  as  well  as  the  gear. 

No  definite  rules  can  be  laid  down  at  the  present  time  with 
regard  to  steering  gear.  Use  common  sense.  Study  the  gear 
in  each  new  ship.    Practice  the  crew  in  shifting  from  power  to 


hand  and  back,  and  try  out  the  gear  at  sea  imder  hand  power. 
On  entering  or  leaving  port  always  be  certain  that  the  second 
mate  has  the  hand  gear  clear  and  understands  its  use. 


Drum  steering  engine.  Hand  gear.  Note  that  hand  gear  is  always 
ready  with  this  rig.  Lock  hand  gear  and  work  engine.  Stop  engine,  unlock 
hand  gear  and  steer  by  hand. 

Do  not  allow  the  after  wheelhouse  to  be  used  for  stowing 
deck  gear.  Be  certain  that  everything  in  it  is  secure  against 
shifting  even  with  a  severe  shock,  such  as  a  collision.  Some- 
times heavy  spanners,  spare  tillers,  etc.,  are  held  to  the  bulk- 
head, close  to  the  steering  engine,  in  such  a  way  that  they  may 
be  dislodged  and  fall  into  the  gear,  perhaps  at  a  time  when  the 
working  of  the  gear  would  be  vital  to  the  safety  of  the  vessel. 

Before  winding  up  the  subject  of  steering  it  may  be  well  to 
say  a  word  or  two  about  the  actual  process  of  steering  a  ship. 
Green  helmsmen  are  apt  to  give  the  vessel  too  much  helm,  to 
pay  too  much  attention  to  the  lubber's  line  and  not  enough  to  the 
ship's  head.  Steering  is  of  such  great  importance  and  good 
helmsmen  are  so  valuable  that  great  attention  should  be  given  to 
steering  and  to  the  training  of  men  to  do  this  work.  Like  heaving 
the  lead,  steering  is  one  of  the  few  real  sailor's  jobs  that  are 


'T"^ 


5     , 


§ 


556 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


left.  Tooling  along  a  forty-thousand-ton  liner  is  some  sport 
and  requires  a  good  man,  even  with  the  best  of  gear.  Wind  and 
sea  make  a  great  difference  in  the  steering  quality  of  a  vessel 
and  the  use  of  too  much  helm  not  only  affects  her  steering  but 

pulls  down  the  speed.  Most 
seamen  are  familiar  with  the 
method  of  stopping  a  fast 
yacht  as  she  races  into  an  an- 
chorage by  swinging  the  helm 
hard  over  from  one  side  to  an- 
other, using  it  as  a  brake.  In 
a  lesser  degree  the  same  thing 
happens  when  the  rudder  is 
swung  too  far  over  from  side 
to  side. 

A  helmsman  should  never 
do  more  than  a  two-hour  trick; 
in  lively  weather  one  hour 
would  be  better.  The  writer 
has  stood  many  a  trick  of  four 
hours  at  the  wheel  droughing 
down  the  coast  through  the 
Florida  Straits,  steering  and  keeping  a  lookout  while  the  Mate  on 
deck  did  a  turn  or  two  with  a  paint  brush,  or  a  hose.  Those 
were  great  days  at  sea. 

But  while  times  are  easier  today,  still  new  things  bring  with 
them  a  demand  for  better  work.  Devices  are  now  perfected 
to  keep  a  record  of  the  steering,  to  trace  on  a  cylinder  the  very 
track  of  the  vessel  each  minute  of  the  day.  Other  devices 
record  the  performance  of  the  helmsman.*    Many  a  chap  has 

*  A  recent  series  of  tests  on  a  large  modem  steamship  showed  surprising 
results  in  regard  to  different  helmsmen.  It  was  found  that  the  best  helmsmen 
made  85  movements  of  the  steering  wheel  per  hour,  and  the  worst  565 
A  device,  therefore,  which  records  the  steering  operations,  and  thus  enables 
investigation  of  them,  has  possibilities  of  great  practical  usefulness.  Such  a 
device  is  available  in  the  Russell- Ranken  steering  recorder j  which  records 
graphically,  without  need  of  subsequent  plotting  or  calculation,  every  move- 
ment of  the  helm,  at  the  same  time  registering  the  hour,  the  minute,  half- 
minute  and  quarter-minute.  It  shows  the  amoimt  of  hehn  to  port  or  starboard, 
the  length  of  time  taken  to  operate  the  rudder,  and  the  length  of  time  it  re- 
mained in  a  stationary  condition. 


An  electric  helm  indicator. 


THE  BRIDGE 


557 


cut  snakes  in  the  wake  while  the  old  man  was  napping  and 
the  mate  earning  his  pay  with  a  brush,  and  no  one  was  the 
wiser  although  it  was  an  expensive  process  even  in  the  old  days 
when  coal  was  two  dollars  a  ton. 

VI 

Notes  On  Signals 

The  most  important  signals  at  sea  are  those  of  the  radio 
telegraph  and  the  radio  telephone.  The  first  involves  a  know- 
ledge of  some  code  while  the  latter  merely  requires  a  knowledge 
of  the  language  spoken  by  the  sender. 

The  International  Morse  Code,  or  a  modification  of  it  called 
the  Continental  Code,  is  used  in  submarine  cable  messages  and 
in  radio  messages.  This  latter  code  consists  of  the  Morse 
alphabet  and  numerals  together  with  a  special  set  of  conventional 
signals  particularly  adapted  to  radio  transmission. 


The  Morse  Code 


Alphabet 


A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

J 
K 
L 

M 


N 
O 
P 

Q 

R 

8 

T 

U 

V 

W 

X 

Y 

Z 


1 
2 
3 

4 


Numerals 

_        6 

.  7 ^ 

8 

9 

0 


The  recorder  may  be  connected  to  either  the  controlling  shaft  of  the 
steering  engine  or  to  the  rudder-post,  and,  depending  upon  which  of  the 
plans  is  adopted,  the  position  of  the  instrument  may  be  either  aft  in  some 
suitable  position,  or  on  the  bridge. 

The  instrument  is  a  combination  of  three  main  features,  viz. : 

1.  A  slide  carrying  the  marking  device,  and  attached  either  to  the  rudder- 
post  or  to  the  intermediate  fore  and  aft  shafting  between  the  engine  and 
steering  gear. 

2.  A  clock,  having  combined  with  it  an  automatic  recording  apparatus. 

3.  A  clockwork  mechanism  operating  the  paper. 


^ 


558  STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 

Punctuation 

Period 

ConmiA • — • — •  —— 

Interrogation 

Hyphen  or  dash 

Parentheses  (before  and  after  the  words) 

Quotation  mark  (beginning  and  ending) 

Exclamation • 

Apostrophe 

Semicolon • — 

Colon 

Bar  indicating  fraction 

Underline  (before  and  after  the  word  or  words  it  is  wished  to 

underline) 

Double  dash  (between  preamble  and  address,  between  address 
and  body  of  message,  between  body  of  message  and  signa- 
ture, and  immediately  before  a  fraction) 

Cross . 

The  Morse  Code  (leaving  off  the  "International"),  can  be 
used  for  signalling  in  many  ways.  Flash  lanterns  (blinker), 
whistles,  searchlights  on  the  clouds,  and  in  fact  any  dot  and 
dash  method  may  employ  this  code.  It  is  so  important  that  no 
youngster  going  to  sea  nowadays  should  .neglect  to  thoroughly 
learn  the  alphabet  and  numerals  and  the  few  conventional 
signals  necessary  to  send  and  read  messages.  Often  a  know- 
ledge of  this  code  is  the  means  of  saving  life. 

The  International  Code 

This  refers  to  the  flag  and  distant  signals  and  the  many 
combinations  by  which  seamen  may  commtmicate  with  each 
other  regardless  of  language.  It  is  truly  an  international 
method  of  communication. 

There  is  no  substitute  for  the  Code  Book, 

This  note  is  simply  to  impress  upon  the  mind  of  the  seaman 
the  fact  that  it  is  his  duty  to  study  this  book  and  know  it  thor- 
oughly. 

Know — 
How  to  make  a  hoist. 

How  to  interpret  a  signal  made  by  another  vessel. 
How  to  reply,  and  how  to  take  a  signal  from  the  book. 
How  to  recognize  the  character  of  a  hoist  by  the  number  of 
flags,  one,  two,  three  and  four  flag  hoists. 


THE  BRIDGE 


559 


^ 


**Code  Flag  "  and 
"  Answering 
Pennant" 


International  code  flags. 


k^. 


% 


20 


^♦i 


560 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


THE  BRIDGE 


561 


f?  I H  .  »i 


The  parts  of  the  code  book — what  for. 

The  urgent  signals  by  heart. 

The  distress  signals  by  heart. 

The  distant  signal  shapes,  how  made. 

And,  last  but  not  least,  the  code  Hags, 

In  the  U.  S.  Navy  each  flag  is  given  a  name  to  avoid  error  in 
calling  off,  as,  for  instance,  mistaking  T  for  V,  etc.  These  names 
are  very  handy  and  should  be  adopted  by  merchant  seamen.  An 
officer  picking  a  signal  from  the  code  book  calls  out  the  "  names  " 
to  the  quartermaster  making  up  the  hoist,  instead  of  the  letters. 


A— Able 
B— ^oy 
C— Cast 
D— Dog 
E— Easy 
F— Fox 
G — George 
H— Have 
I — ^Item 


J-Jig 
K— King 

L — Love 

M— Mike 

N— Nan 

O— Oboe 

P— Pup 

Q— Quack 

R— Rush 


S— Sail 
T— Tare 
U— Unit 
V— Vice 
W— Watch 
X— X-Ray 
Y— Yoke 
Z— Zed 


This  system  is  in  use  wherever  signals  have  to  be  called  out 
in  the  Navy.  In  fact  navy  signalling  is  so  superior  that  merchant- 
men should  study  navy  signalling,  signal  racks,  halyards  and 
other  gear  and  adopt  these  speedy  navy  methods  wherever 
possible.    Square  code  flags  generally  run  from  3'  x  3'  to  8'  x  8'. 

The  Semaphore  Flag  Signals 

This  method  of  signalling  is  the  most  rapid  in  use  and  merchant 
seamen  should  learn  it  for  convenience.  Each  vessel  should 
have  at  least  two  signal  men,  usually  youngsters  and  these  men 
should  be  required  to  practice  daily.  Navy  men  going  into  the 
merchant  marine  will  bring  a  lot  of  this  fine  training  with  them. 

The  system  is  also  adapted  for  use  with  th^  machine  sema- 
phore. 

The  flags  used  in  semaphore  signalling,  are  hand  flags  12  or 
15  inches  square.  The  Navy  flags,  "Oboe,"  "Pup"  and 
"  Sail,"  use  the  ones  contrasting  most  strongly  with  the  sur- 
roundings of  the  sender. 

Make  all  motions  sharp  and  distinct  to  avoid  confusion.    A 


INTERVAL 

SEE  NOTC 


CORNET 

ATTENTION 


OOT 

cms 

'-'used 

-at— 

NIGHT 

--if- 

laittems 

are  used. 


SIGNALS 

FOLLOW 


LETTERS 

FOLLOW 


INTERVAL  NOTE 
BY  MACHINE  &  HAND  FLAOS  -  ff  ALLSWHALMETMOOSBUIFUGCOOCiVttJ 

TRIPLE  INTERVALISTHREECH0P4:H0PSS        ENOOFSENTENCC — DOUBLE.  NTERVAL 
WITHDRAWING  FLAGS  OR  CtOSIN©  MACHINE        END  OF  MESSAGE— TRIPLE  INTERVAL 

NO  NUMERALS :  ALL  SIGNALSARE  SPaLEDtOUT  MESSAGES  EXCEPT  NAVY  COOEBOOKSIGMAU 


«l 


562 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


THE  BRIDGE 


563 


slight  pause  should  follow  each  character  or  letter.     The  quick- 
est way  to  learn  semaphore  is  to  practice  with  someone. 

Miscellaneous  Signal  Data 

The  Weather  Bureau  stations  at  Cape  Henry,  Virginia;  and  Sand  Key, 
Florida;  and  the  Philadelphia  Maritime  Exchange  Station  at  Delaware  Break- 
water, are  equipped  for  day  and  night  communication  with  passing  vessels. 
The  International  Code  is  used  by  day  and  the  Morse  Code,  flashlight,  by 
night.    Messages  to  or  from  vessels  will  be  forwarded  to  destination. 

The  stations  at  Point  Reyes  light,  California;  North  Head,  Washington; 
and  Tatoosh  Island,  Washington,  are  equipped  for  signaling  by  the  Inter- 
national Code,  and  are  prepared  to  transmit  by  telegraph  the  messages  of 
passing  vessels. 

All  U.  S.  Coast  Guard  Stations  on  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts  are 
equipped  for  signaling  by  the  International  Code  and  the  International  Morse 
Code  (wig-wag).  On  the  Atlantic  coast  those  stations  north  of  Cape  Hatteras, 
with  few  exceptions,  and  on  the  Pacific  coast  those  stations  near  lines  of 
communication,  are  prepared  to  transmit  messages  of  passing  vessels  either 
by  telegraph  or  by  telephone  and  telegraph  combined. 

Coston  rockets  will  rise  to  a  height  of  over  400  feet  and  throw 
a  shower  of  red  balls  that  burn  with  great  intensity  and  can  be 
seen  at  a  great  distance. 

Coston  night  signals  are  of  two  types,  Percussion  and  Friction. 
Examine  those  on  board  ship  and  read  all  directions  printed  on 
them.  Rockets  and  lights  must  be  kept  dry  in  special  metal 
boxes. 


The  lights  in  use  are : 


Blue 

Green 

Red 

White 

Fog 

Distress 

Pilot 


Lights 


<( 


i( 


(f 


(( 


u 


(blue  Hght) 


Signals  from  Pilot  House  to  Engme  Room 
(if  Telegraph  Breaks  Down) 

When  engine  is  stopped,  One  bell  for  Ahead  Slow. 
When  running  ahead  slow,  Jingle  for  Full  Speed  Ahead. 
When  running  full  speed  ahead,  One  bell  for  Slow  Down. 
When  running  ahead  slow,  One  bell  for  Stop. 


\ 


When  stopped,  Two  bells  for  Astern. 

When  running  astern,  jingle  bell  for  full  speed  Astern. 

When  running  astern.  One  bell  for  Stop. 

When  running  full  spead  ahead.  Four  bells  for  Full  Speed 

Astern, 
When   running   ahead    slow.   Three   bells   for    Full  Speed 

Astern. 

Salutes  are  given  at  sea  by  dipping  the  ensign.  Merchant 
craft  dip  to  men  of  war,  hauling  the  ensign  down  two  thirds,  if 
at  the  gaff,  or  to  the  rail,  if  at  a  flagstaff.  The  ensign  should  be 
hauled  down  in  plenty  of  time  so  that  the  intention  to  dip  may 
be  observed  by  the  vessel  saluted  and  reply  made  while  vessels 
are  still  nearly  abreast. 

Always  haul  down  and  hoist  the  ensign  slowly  and  without 
jerks.     Never  send  it  aloft  to  be  broken  out. 

Vessels  in  foreign  ports  should  dress  ship  on  occasions  of 
ceremony,  on  national  holidays  of  the  country  and  of  course  on 
the  prescribed  American  holidays— the  Fourth  of  July,  Wash- 
ington's Birthday,  etc. 

vn 

Yacht  Routine 

Colors  J  Etc.  Yachts  in  commission  should  hoist  their  colors 
at  8  o'clock  a.  m.,  and  haul  them  down  at  sunset,  taking  time 
from  the  senior  officer  present. 

Before  colors  in  the  morning  and  after  colors  at  sunset,  the 
ensign  and  distinguishing  flags  should  be  shown  when  entering 
port,  and  should  be  hauled  down  immediately  on  coming  to 
anchor. 

At  all  other  times  yachts  should  fly  a  blue  night  pennant  at  the 
main,  from  colors  at  sunset  until  colors  the  next  morning. 

No  guns  should  be  fired  for  colors  except  by  the  yacht  giving 
the  time,  nor  from  colors  at  sunset  until  colors  the  next  morning, 
nor  on  Sunday. 

Absence  flags  and  meal  pennants  are  not  considered  colors. 

On  Decoration  Day  and  occasions  of  national  mourning  the 
ensign  only  should  be  half-masted.  On  the  death  of  the  owner 
of  the  yacht,  both  the  Club  flag  and  his  private  signal  should  be 


564 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


THE  BRIDGE 


565 


half-masted,  but  not  the  ensign.  When  mourning  is  ordered  for 
the  death  of  a  member  of  the  Club,  the  Club  flag  only  should  be 
half-masted.  This  rule  should  apply  to  yachts  both  at  anchor 
and  imder  way. 

Flags  should  always  be  mast-headed  before  half-masting 
them,  and  should  be  mast-headed  before  hauling  them  down. 
Saluting  with  the  ensign  at  half-mast  should  be  done  by  mast- 
heading first. 

Officer  in  Command  of  Anchorage.  The  senior  officer  present 
should  be  in  command  of  the  anchorage,  should  give  the  time  for 
colors,  make  and  return  salutes,  visits,  etc. 

His  yacht  should  remain  the  station  vessel  until  a  senior  to 
him  in  rank  arrives  and  assumes  the  command  of  the  anchorage. 

Pennants,  Private  Signals,  Etc.  Flag  officers  should  always 
fly  their  pennants  while  in  commission. 

Yachts,  when  the  owner  is  not  on  board,  should  fly  at  the 
main  starboard  spreader,  during  daytime,  a  blue  flag,  rectan- 
gular in  shape.  This  flag  should  never  be  flown  when  under 
way. 

Single-masted  vessels  should  fly  the  private  signal  of  the 
owner  when  entering  a  home  port,  or  when  approaching  other 
yachts  at  sea;  at  other  times  the  Club  flag,  except  when  with 
the  squadron. 

Meal  Pennants.  A  white  flag,  rectangular  in  shape,  should  be 
flown  at  the  main  starboard  spreader  on  schooners,  and  at  the 
starboard  spreader  on  single-masted  vessels,  during  the  meal 
hours  of  the  owner. 

A  red  pennant  pointed  in  shape  should  be  flown  at  the  fore- 
port  spreader  on  schooners,  and  at  the  port  spreader  on  single- 
masted  vessels,  during  the  meal  hours  of  the  crew.  A  white 
light  should  be  displayed  on  starboard  spreader  after  sunset  and 
during  owner*s  meal  hours. 

Lights.  Commodore.  From  colors  at  sunset  until  sunrise  the 
Commodore  should  show,  when  on  board,  two  blue  lights,  per- 
pendicularly, at  the  stern;  when  absent,  one  blue  light  should 
be  shown. 

Vice-Commodore.  The  Vice-Commodore  should  show  lights 
as  provided  for  the  Commodore,  substituting  red  lights  instead 
of  blue. 


Captains.  Captains,  when  on  board,  should  show  a  white 
light  under  the  main  boom;  when  absent  this  light  should  be 
extinguished. 

Salutes.    All  salutes  should  be  returned  in  kind. 

The  following  rules  should  not  apply  to  yachts  leaving  for,  or 
returning  from  a  day's  sail. 

Yachts  should  salute  vessels  of  the  United  States  Navy  by 
dipping  the  ensign  once. 

The  Commodore,  on  entering  port  to  join  the  squadron,  should 
be  saluted,  on  coming  to  anchor,  by  the  yachts  present.  On  all 
other  occasions  the  Commodore  should  be  saluted,  on  coming 
to  anchor,  by  the  officer  in  command. 

Junior  flag  officers  should  be  saluted,  on  coming  to  anchor, 
by  the  officer  in  conmiand  unless  the  latter  be  a  senior  in  rank, 
in  which  case  they  should  salute  him. 

Captains  should  on  all  occasions  salute  the  officer  in  command. 

The  salute  from  yachts  entering  port  should  be  made  by 
dipping  the  ensign  once,  or  by  firing  a  gun  or  letting  go  anchor. 

The  senior  officer,  when  leaving  the  anchorage,  excepting 
temporarily,  should  indicate  the  transfer  of  command  to  the 
next  in  rank  by  firing  a  gun  on  getting  under  way.  All  other 
yachts  should  salute  the  officer  in  command. 

All  visits  should  be  made  according  to  rank. 

Yachts,  passing  one  another,  should  always  exchange  salutes 
by  dipping  the  ensign  once,  juniors  saluting  first.  Steam  whistles 
should  never  be  used  to  make  salutes. 

The  salute  to  yachts  entering  port,  entitled  to  a  salute,  should 
be  made  by  dipping  the  ensign  once,  or  by  firing  a  gun,  when  they 
let  go  anchor. 

An  official  salute  to  a  foreign  club  should  be  made  by  firing  a 
gun,  with  the  flag  of  the  foreign  club  at  the  fore  on  schooners 
and  steamers,  and  at  the  main  on  single-masted  vessels ;  or,  in 
the  absence  of  such  flag,  by  half-masting  the  Club  flag  and  firing 
a  gtm.  When  the  salute  has  been  returned,  or  a  reasonable 
time  for  its  return  allowed,  the  flag  should  be  hauled  down,  and 
the  Club  flag  hoisted  again. 

The  salute  from  or  to  yachts  arriving  after  sunset,  or  on 
Sunday,  should  be  made  immediately  after  colors  on  the  fol- 
lowing morning. 


^ 


I* 
I 


I 


I 


566 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


THE  BRIDGE 


567 


When  a  flag  officer  makes  an  official  visit,  a  gun  should  be 
fired,  with  his  pennant  at  the  fore  on  schooners  and  steamers, 
and  at  the  main  on  single-masted  vessels,  while  he  remains  on 
board. 

A  yacht,  acting  as  judges'  boat,  should  not  be  saluted  during  a 

race. 

The  quarter-deck  should  always  be  saluted  by  lifting  the  cap 
on  coming  on  board  or  from  below. 

With  the  Squadron.  Yachts  should  report  to  the  conmianding 
officer  on  joining  the  squadron,  and  should  obtain  his  permission 
before  leaving  it. 

When  under  way  with  the  squadron,  firing  guns  and  signalling 
should  be  avoided,  except  when  joining  or  parting  company,  or 
when  repeating  signals. 

Passing  at  Sea.  When  squadrons  of  different  clubs  meet  at 
sea,  salutes  should  be  exchanged  only  by  the  commanding 
officers. 

Salutes  from  single  yachts  at  sea  should  only  be  answered  by 
the  flag-ship. 

Single-masted  vessels  should  fly  the  private  signal  of  the 
owner  when  imder  way  with  the  squadron;  when  at  anchor,  the 

Club  flag. 

When  a  foreign  yacht  arrives,  the  senior  officer  present  should 
send  on  board,  without  regard  to  rank,  a  tender  of  the  civilities 

of  the  Club. 

Entering  a  Foreign  Port,  Yachts  should  salute  on  entering 
port  in  the  home  waters  of  a  foreign  club,  where  any  of  its  fleet 
are  lying.  After  the  tender  of  civilities  has  been  made,  owners 
of  the  entering  yachts  should  visit  the  officer  in  command  of  the 
anchorage.  All  other  visits  should  be  made  according  to  rank, — 
visits  to  their  equals  in  rank  being  made  by  the  owners  of  the 
entering  yachts. 

The  time  for  colors  in  the  home  waters  olf  a  foreign  club  should 
be  given  with  its  senior  flag  officer  present. 

The  term  "  foreign  "  should  be  understood  as  applying  to  all 
other  clubs  outside  of  the  waters  in  which  a  club  is  stationed. 

Boat  Service.  The  order  of  entering  and  leaving  boats  is, 
juniors  enter  first  and  leave  last. 

Flag  officers  and  the  Fleet-Captain  should  fly  their  pennants, 


and  Captams  their  private  signals,  when  in  their  boats;  mem- 
bers, the  Club  flag.    After  sunset  a  white  light  should  be  shown 

at  the  bow. 
Passing  one  another,  juniors  should  salute  seniors  by  raismg 

the  cap. 

Every  boat  approaching  a  yacht  at  night  should  be  hailed. 

The  answer  of  the  Commodore  when  intending  to  board, 
should  be  "  Commodore; "  for  Junior  flag  officers,  and  fleet- 
captains,  "Flag;"  for  captams  and  members,  "Ay,  ay;" 
for  captains  returning  on  board,  the  name  of  their  yacht;  for 
visitors,  "Visitors;"  for  sailing-masters,  etc.,  "No,  No," 
using  the  port  side;  for  passing  boats,  "  Passing." 

Church  Pennant  (white  triangular,  with  blue  cross)  is  the  only 
flag  ever  displayed  above  the  ensign,  and  only  during  divine 
service,  with  Yacht  at  anchor. 

The  above  section  may  seem  out  of  place  in  Standard  Seaman- 
ship—hut every  sailor  in  the  merchant  marine  would  like  to  be 
a  yacht  owner  some  day,  and  every  yacht  sailor  aims  to  be  a 
deep-water  sailor — so  we  try  to  be  of  use  to  all. 


vra 

The  Log  Book 

The  writing  up  of  the  log  book  is  an  important  part  of  the 
work  of  an  officer.  Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  per- 
formmg  this  duty  as  the  origmal  entries  (without  erasures)  are 
of  great  value  when  points  of  law  are  being  decided  with  respect 
to  the  ship  or  voyage.  Care  should  be  taken  to  enter  every- 
thing having  to  do  with  the  state  of  the  weather  and  the  work  of 
the  vessel,  the  relief  of  lookouts,  the  names  of  men  on  lookout, 
etc.  The  watch  officer  should  practice  the  art  of  concise  writing, 
sticking  to  facts.    The  log  book  entries  should  always  be  signed. 

The  Official  Log  is  generally  another  book  kept  by  the  Master 
in  which  certain  entries  are  made  according  to  law.  Men  are 
"  logged  "  in  this  book.  Deaths  are  recorded,  etc.  Below  are 
the  exact  entries  required  as  stated  in  the  U.  S.  Navigation 
Laws.  These  entries  must  be  made  by  the  Master  himself,  or 
at  his  direction. 


568 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


THE  BRIDGE 


569 


I 


First  Every  legal  conviction  of  any  member  of  his  crew,  and 
the  punishment  inflicted. 

Second.  Every  offense  committed  by  any  member  of  his 
crew  for  which  it  is  intended  to  prosecute,  or  to  enforce  a  for- 
feiture, together  with  such  statement  concerning  the  reading 
over  such  entry,  and  concerning  the  reply,  if  any,  made  to  the 
charge,  as  is  required  by  the  provisions  of  section  forty-five 
hundred  and  ninety-seven. 

Third,  Every  offense  for  which  punishment  is  inflicted  on 
board,  and  the  punishment  inflicted. 

Fourth.  A  statement  of  the  conduct,  character,  and  quali- 
fications of  each  of  his  crew ;  or  a  statement  that  he  declines  to 
give  an  opinion  of  such  particulars. 

Fifth.  Every  case  of  illness  or  injury  happening  to  any 
member  of  the  crew,  with  the  nature  thereof,  and  the  medicd 
treatment. 

Sixth.  Every  case  of  death  happening  on  board,  with  the 
cause  thereof. 

Seventh.  Every  birth  happening  on  board,  with  the  sex  of  the 
infant,  and  the  names  of  the  parents. 

Eighth.  Every  marriage  taking  place  on  board,  with  the 
names  and  ages  of  the  parties. 

Ninth.  The  name  of  every  seaman  or  apprentice  who  ceases 
to  be  a  member  of  the  crew  otherwise  than  by  death,  with  the 
place,  time,  manner,  and  cause  thereof. 

Tenth.  The  wages  due  to  any  seaman  or  apprentice  who  dies 
during  the  voyage,  and  the  gross  amount  of  all  deductions  to  be 
made  therefrom. 

Eleventh.  The  sale  of  the  effects  of  any  seaman  or  apprentice 
who  dies  during  the  voyage,  including  a  statement  of  each  article 
sold,  and  the  sum  received  for  it. 

Twelfth.  In  every  case  of  collision  in  which  it  is  practicable 
so  to  do,  the  master  shall,  immediately  after  the  occurrence, 
cause  a  statement  thereof,  and  of  the  circumstances  under  which 
the  same  occurred,  to  be  entered  in  the  official  log-book.  Such 
entry  shall  be  made  in  the  manner  prescribed  in  section  forty- 
two  hundred  and  ninety-one,  and  failure  to  make  such  entry 
shall  subject  the  offender  to  the  penalties  prescribed  by  section 
forty-two  hundred  and  ninety-two.     (R.  S.,  4290;  Feb.  14, 1900.) 

Miscellaneous  Log  Book  Data 

Bell  Time 

The  twenty-four  hours  are  divided  on  board  ship  into  seven 
parts,  and  the  crew  is  divided  into  two  parts  or  watches,  desig- 
nated Port  and  Starboard  Watches.    Each  watch  are  on  duty 


four  hours,  except  from  4  to  8  p.  m.,  which  time  is  divided  into 
two  watches  of  two  hours  each,  called  Dog  Watches,  by  means 
of  which  the  watches  are  changed  every  day,  and  each  watch 
gets  a  turn  of  eight  hours*  rest  at  night.  First  Watchy  8  p.  m. 
to  midnight;  Middle  Watch,  midnight  to  4  a.  m.;  Morning 
Watch,  4  to  8  a.  m.;  Forenoon  Watch,  8  a.  m.  to  noon;  After- 
noon Watch,  noon  to  4  p.  m.;  First  Dog  Watch,  4  to  6  p.  m.; 
Second  Dog  Watch,  6  to  8  p.  m.  In  the  French  service  there 
are  no  Dog  Watches,  but  there  are  two  watches  of  6  hours  each. 
The  British  custom  is  to  strike  the  bells  1,  2,  3,  in  the  two 
hours  of  the  second  day  watch. 

The  Bell  is  Struck  Every  Half  Hour  to  Indicate  the  Time 


1  Bell, 

12.30  i 

i.  m. 

2  Bells, 

1.00 

u 

3      " 

1.30 

a 

4      " 

2.00 

u 

5      " 

2.30 

tt 

6     « 

3.00 

ii 

7     " 

3.30 

li 

8     " 

4.00 

u 

1  Bell, 

4.30 

u 

2  Bells, 

5.00 

« 

3      " 

5.30 

u 

4      " 

6.00 

(( 

5      « 

6.30 

(i 

6     ** 

7.00 

(( 

7     « 

7.30 

(( 

8     " 

8.00 

(( 

1  Bell, 

8.30 

i( 

2  Bells, 

9.00 

(( 

3      " 

9.30 

(( 

4      " 

10.00 

(( 

5      " 

10.30 

<( 

6      " 

11.00 

(( 

7     " 

11.30 

« 

8     « 

12.00  noon. 

1  Bell, 

12.30 

p.m. 

2  Bells, 

1.00 

a 

3      " 

1.30 

(i 

4      " 

2.00 

(( 

5      " 

2.30 

({ 

6      " 

3.00 

(( 

7     " 

3.30 

(( 

8     " 

4.00 

ii 

1  Bell, 

4.30 

2  Bells, 

3  " 

5.00 
5.30 

u 

First 
'   Dog 
Watch 

4      " 

6.00 

u 

5      " 

6.30 

(i 

6  " 

7  " 

8  " 

7.00 
7.30 
8.00 

ii 
ii 
it 

Second 
.    Dog 
Watch 

1  Bell, 

8.30 

ii 

2  Bells, 

9.00 

ii 

3      " 

9.30 

it 

4     " 

10.00 

it 

5      " 

10.30 

it 

6      " 

11.00 

ii 

7     " 

11.30 

it 

8     « 

12.00  night. 

1 

Formula  for  Recording  State  of  Weather 

B  denotes  Blue  Sky,  i.e.,  clear  or  hazy  atmosphere. 
C       "       Cloudy — detached  opening  clouds. 


!l 


570 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


I 


n 


D  denotes  Drizzling  Rain. 


F 
6 
H 
L 
M 
O 


u 


p 

Q 

R 
S 
T 
U 
V 


11 


C( 


II 


(i 


II 


II 


II 


l( 


II 


II 


(I 


II 


Fog— FF  Thick  Fog. 

Gloomy — dark  weather. 

Hail. 

Lightning. 

Misty  or  Hazy— so  as  to  interrupt  view. 

Overcast — i.e.,  whole  sky  covered  with  an  impervious 
cloud. 

Passing  showers. 

Squally. 

Rain — continuous  rain. 

Snow. 

Thunder. 

Ugly  with  a  heavy  appearance  of  the  weather. 

Visibility  of  distant  objects. 
.  Dot  imder  any  letter,  an  extraordinary  degree. 
By  the  combination  of  these  letters  all  the  ordinary  phe- 
nomena of  the  weather  may  be  recorded  with  certainty  and 
brevity. 

BCM— Blue  sky,  with  detached  opening  clouds,  but  hazy  round 
the  horizon. 

GV— Gloomy  dark  weather,  but  distant  objects   remarkably 
visible. 

Numerals  for  Recording  State  of  Sea 

0  Calm.  5  Rather  Rough. 

1  Very  Smooth.  6  Rough. 

2  Smooth.  7  High. 

3  Slight.  8  Very  High. 

4  Moderate.  9  Tremendous. 

IV 

Preparing  For  Sea 

Under  the  law  the  Master  is  held  responsible  for  the  sea- 
worthy condition  of  a  vessel  about  to  proceed  on  a  voyage.*    He 

*  The  executive  committee  of  the  Board  of  Supervising  Inspectors,  Steam- 
boat-Inspection Service,  at  a  meeting  held  on  October  9,  1915,  amended  the 
general  rules  and  regulations,  ocean  and  coastwise,  and  for  lakes,  bays,  and 
sotmds,  relative  to  the  covering  of  hatches.  The  amendments  were  approved 
by  the  Secretary  of  Commerce  on  October  12,  1915,  and  now  have  the  force 


THE  BRIDGE 


571 


must  satisfy  himself _that  everything  is  in  order,  hatches>attened 
down  and  all  secure.  In  fact  the  whole  business  of  going  to  sea 
hinges  on  this  important  point  of  responsibility.  The  Chief 
Mate  is  charged  with  the  direct  responsibility  and  the  following 
reminders  are  printed  here  as  a  matter  of  importance. 


A  heavy  sea  coming  on  board  off  Cape  Pillar.  Photograph  taken  by 
Captain  H.  C.  Hostler  on  board  the  S.  S.  Santa  Rosalia,  a  U.  S.  Steel  Products 
Company  steamer. 

of  law.    The  rule  for  ocean  and  coastwise  vessels  has  been  amended  so  as 
to  read  as  follows: 

"  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Master  of  any  vessel  imder  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Steamboat-Inspection  Service  to  assure  himself,  before  proceeding  to  sea, 
that  all  the  cargo  hatches  of  his  vessel  are  properly  covered  and  the  covers 
secured.  The  covers  of  all  exposed  hatches  shall  be  made  water-tight  by 
the  use  of  pliable  gaskets  or  by  heavy  canvas  tarpaulins,  thoroughly  covering 
the  hatch  cover  and  firmly  secured  by  iron  or  steel  bars  extending  from  side 
to  side  or  end  to  end  of  the  hatchway,  which  bars  shall  be  securely  fastened 
^y  toggles  or  wedges  made  of  hardwood  or  by  the  use  of  efficient  screw 
fastenings.  Failure  by  the  Master  of  any  vessel  to  observe  this  regulation 
shall  be  sufficient  cause  for  suspension  or  revocation  of  his  license  on  a 
charge  of  inattention  to  his  duty.^^ 

The  rule  for  vessels  navigating  lakes,  bays,  and  soimds  has  been  amended 
so  as  to  read  as  follows : 

"  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Master  of  any  vessel  imder  the  jiu-isdiction  of 
the  Steamboat-Inspection  Service,  and  which  is  carrying  cargo,  to  assure 
himself  before  leaving  port  that  all  the  cargo  hatches  of  his  vessel  are  properly 
covered  and  the  covers  secured."  The  remainder  of  the  rule  being  the  same 
as  above. 


I! 


It 


572 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


THE  BRIDGE 


573 


Before  leaving,  if  alongside,  the  engines  may  have  to  be 
turned  over.  The  Engineer  in  charge  should  notify  the  Chief 
Mate  and  the  necessary  adjustments  must  be  made  to  Unes, 
gangways,  hoses,  or  any  other  connection  between  the  vessel 
and  the  wharf.  Watch  out  for  floating  logs  near  propeller. 
Have  a  hand  standing  by  engine,  telegraph  and  bridge. 

The  order  to  "  single  up  "  is  usually  given  shortly  before 
leaving.  AU  extra  lines  are  taken  on  board.  Rat  guards  may  be 
taken  off  and  only  the  single  parts  of  bow  and  stern  lines  and  a 
few  springs  kept  out.  It  is  a  good  plan,  where  no  men  we 
available  on  the  dock,  to  carry  the  splice  mboard  and  a  bight 
around  the  bollards  on  the  dock.  The  lines  can  then  be  let  go 
and  hauled  in  from  the  vessel's  deck.  Sometimes  a  slip  toggle 
can  be  used,  the  toggle  being  attached  to  a  heaving  line.  Great 
care  must  be  taken  with  the  lines  leading  from  the  quarter  not  to 
get  them  foul  of  the  propellers. 

Hatches  must  be  put  on  and  caulked  if  off  for  a  wet  passage, 
and  treble  tarpaulins  battened  down. 

Booms  should  be  shipped  in  the  cradels  and  lashed  or  clamped 
in  place.  Topping  lifts  should  be  unrove,  or  at  least  unhooked 
and  carried  into  the  eyebolts  on  the  mast  table.  It  is  well  to 
unreeve  all  manila  cargo  gear  and  stow  it  below  on  a  voyage  of 
any  length,  at  least  on  a  voyage  across  the  Atlantic.  Where 
gear  is  left  standing  abaft  the  funnels  it  should  be  covered  with 

smoke  covers. 

All  handling  Imes  should  be  triced  up  to  dry  or  coiled  on  grat- 
ings and  then  stowed  below  when  thoroughly  aired. 

If  tow  boats  are  to  be  used,  fenders  should  be  handy. 

On  the  bridge  it  is  necessary  to  have  all  of  the  navigating  gear 
in  order.  The  whistle  should  be  tried  and  freed  from  water 
before  getting  mto  the  stream.  The  long  blast  on  pulling  out 
usually  does  this.  The  telegraphs  should- be  tried  on  all  pomts, 
the  hand  leads  and  lines  should  be  coiled  in  the  chains  and  men 
ready  to  heave  them  if  necessary.  The  log  should  be  ready  to 
stream,  and  the  signal  number  bent  on  the  halyards  and  ready. 
All  proper  flags  should  be  mastheaded. 

As  soon  as  the  vessel  gets  way  on  her  haul  down  the  blue 
peter,  and  the  jack,  if  these  flags  are  flown. 

Never  fly  torn  flags,  especially  the  ensign.  It  may  be  soiled 
and  old,  but  never  have  it  frayed.    Torn  flags  are  an  abomination 


associated  with  flagstaffs  ashore  where  they  often  stay  up  untU 
they  fall  apart.  It  is  a  good  idea  to  have  the  Quartermasters 
uncover  when  they  haul  down  the  ensign  at  sunset  and  hoist  it 
at  eight  bells  in  the  morning,  it  instills  respect  for  the  flag. 

Always  be  certain  to  have  a  long  boat  line  ready  for  the  pilot 
and  his  ladder  handy  on  the  lee  side. 

Be  sure  the  running  lights  are  working  before  it  gets  dark. 
Have  spare  oil  lights  ready. 

On  approaching  port  a  great  many  things  must  be  attended  to. 
Warn  the  first  assistant  in  time  so  that  all  ashes  can  be  got  out 
before  getting  into  restricted  waters.  Have  the  steward  throw 
overboard  all  galley  waste  and  get  salt  water  tank  filled  while  the 
water  is  clean. 

Have  handling  lines  up  and  coiled  down  clear  fore  and  aft. 

Have  heaving  lines  handy. 

Prepare  lead  lines  and  stands.    Have  leadsmen  in  the  chains. 

Have  signal  letters  bent  on. 

Have  pilot  ladder  and  boat  line  ready,  on  lee  side. 

Have  gangway  ready. 

Have  cargo  gear  rove  off  if  weather  permits. 

Have  anchors  ready  to  let  go. 

Have  steam  on  the  windlass  and  winches  ready  for  lifting 
booms  and  handling  anchor.    Have  steering  gear  clear. 

See  that  the  capstans  are  working. 

Find  out,  if  possible,  which  side  is  to  be  next  the  wharf,  if 
going  alongside.    What  hatches  are  to  work. 

Haul  in  log  when  past  the  last  mark,  lighthouse  lightship, 
buoy,  etc. 

See  precautions  about  hauling  in  log  page  491. 

Know  the  customs  and  quarantine  regulations.  Be  certain 
that  the  vessel  observes  all  local  rules.  Consult  with  Pilot  and 
Harbor  Master  when  in  a  strange  port. 

Set  all  watches  for  the  night  and  have  liberty  arranged  before- 
hand, so  there  will  be  no  misunderstanding  when  the  vessel 
gets  in. 

All  these  things  should  be  looked  after  from  the  bridge.  The 
Officer  of  the  Watch  never  leaves  the  bridge,  unless  relieved 
by  the  Master. 


H 


k 


RULES  OF  THE  ROAD  AT  SEA 


575 


ii 


1.  ^ 


CHAPTER   16 


RULES  OF  THE  ROAD  AT  SEA 


Foreword 

A  great  deal  has  been  written  on  the  rules  of  the  road  at  sea. 
David  Wright  Smith,  in  "  The  Law  Relating  to  the  Rule  of  the 
Road  at  Sea  "  cites  more  than  two  hundred  and  fifty  cases  to 
illustrate  the  many  ways  in  which  vessels  may  come  to  grief 
through  ignorance,  misunderstanding,  or  unavoidable  accident 
when  meeting  on  the  sea.  It  has  become  the  fashion  to  treat 
the  International  Rules  of  the  Road  at  Sea  to  a  sort  of  literary 
vivisection,  interlarding  them  with  notes  and  "  explanations  " 
that,  to  the  mind  of  the  present  writer,  seem  to  do  anything  but 
clarify  them.  The  best  brains  available  were  bent  upon  the 
task  of  producing  the  present  International  Rules,  and  as  they 
stand  today  they  are  remarkable  for  their  clear  language,  un- 
mistakable in  meaning  and  economical  in  words. 

Ninety  per  cent  of  collisions  at  sea  grow  out  of  careless  dis- 
regard for  the  rules,  or  out  of  plain  ignorance  of  them  or  of  their 
meaning.  A  man  who  will  not  study  the  rules  and  know  them, 
and  keep  on  refreshing  his  memory,  will  find  no  short  cut  method 
to  help  him  out. 

The  U.  S.  Inland  Rules  of  the  United  States  have  wisely 
followed  the  exact  wording  of  the  International  Rules  except  in  a 
few  places  where  conditions  necessitate  a  change. 

The  Pilot  RuleSy  promulgated  by  the  Board  of  Supervising 
Inspectors  of  Steam  Vessels,  supplement  the  Inland  Rules, 
Their  most  important  departure  from  the  International  Rules  is 
the  adoption  of  the  danger  or  four  whistle  signal.  This  signal 
should  be  carefully  studied  under  its  proper  place  in  the  Pilot 
Rules.  It  should  really  have  a  place  in  the  International  Rules. 
(See  page.  614) 

To  avoid  confusion  in  the  mind  of  the  reader,  and  to  present 
the  whole  body  of  the  rules  of  the  road,  the  following  plan  is 
followed  in  S  tandard  Seamanship: 

574 


Where  the  International  and  Inland  Rules  are  identical  the 
text  is  leaded  and  is  captioned — ^International  and  Inland  Rules. 

Where  International  Rules  are  different  from  Inland  Rules, 
or  are  not  contained  in  Inland  Rules,  the  text  is  printed  solid  and 
is  captioned — International  Only. 

Where  Inland  Rules  are  different,  or  are  not  contained  in 
International  Rules  the  text  is  in  italics  and  is  captioned — 
Inland  Only. 

The  whole  of  the  two  sets  of  rules  is  printed  in  this  way  and 
in  proper  sequence  so  that  the  student  may  know,  at  a  glance, 
when  he  is  reading  rules  applicable  to  both  high  seas  and  U.  S. 
inland  waters,  or  to  either  one  alone.  At  the  same  time  he  may 
conveniently  note  their  points  of  difference.  Also,  and  this  is 
important,  the  book  is  not  cluttered  up  with  a  lot  of  repetition. 

The  Pilot  Rules  are  printed  separately,  at  the  end,  together 
with  the  situation  diagrams  published  by  the  Government. 

Rules  of  the  road  cannot  be  learned  from  a  book. 

These  vital  rules  are  only  learned  at  sea,  where  the  constant 
passing  of  vessels,  both  sail  and  steam,  drives  home  to  the 
young  sailor  the  meaning  of  the  rules.  He  must  memorize  the 
rules  from  the  book,  and  visualize  them  at  sea.  The  quarter- 
master, cadet,  junior  officer,  in  fact  any  one  on  the  bridge,  should 
carefully  observe  the  manner  in  which  the  Master,  or  officer  of 
the  watch,  acts  in  accordance  with  the  rules.  Then,  when  the 
day,  or  nighty  comes  for  him  to  take  over  his  first  watch,  he  will 
act  with  experience  drawn  from  observation.  On  this  important 
occasion  the  conscientious  man  has  a  feeling  of  great  responsi- 
bility resting  upon  him. 

Innumerable  diagrams  have  been  drawn  to  show  the  many 
situations  that  may  arise  at  sea  and  these,  in  theory  at  least,  are 
correct,  but  the  present  writer  is  of  the  opinion,  and  many 
officers  concur  with  him,  that  such  paper  diagrams,  red,  green 
and  yellow  spots,  and  inch  square  smudges  of  black  (representing 
night  at  sea)  are  utterly  worthless.  If  a  man  has  not  enough 
intelligence  to  understand  the  full  meaning  of  the  Rules  of  the 
Road,  as  printed,  "  having  careful  regard  to  the  existing  circum- 
stances and  conditions,"  he  had  better  remain  off  the  bridge  of  a 
ship. 


21 


Hit 


576 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Therefore  the  young  mariner  is  urged  to  study  these  im- 
portant but  simple  rules  with  a  better  appreciation  of  their 
beautiful  clearness.    He  should  know  them  word  for  word. 

The  writer  was  under  a  skipper  once  who  had  a  habit  of 
bobbing  up  on  the  bridge  and  asking  the  officer  of  the  watch  a 
sharp  embarrassing  question  or  two  on  the  rules.  An  officer  who 
could  not  answer  correctly  a  second  time  was  certain  to  find 
other  employment.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  nine  men  out  of  ten, 
so  this  ancient  skipper  said,  were  stuck  at  the  first  question. 
It  is  a  good  way  for  the  "  old  man  '*  to  be  certain  that  his  watch 
officers  keep  brushed  up  on  the  rules.  It  is  the  duty  of  the 
Master  to  satisfy  himself  that  all  his  watch  officers  are  proficient 
in  the  Rules  of  the  Road. 

Many  excellent  works  have  been  written  in  the  Rules  of  the 
Road,  works  going  into  much  detail  in  setting  forth  the  "  cases  " 
wherein  learned  jurists  have  dissected  some  thrilling  moment 
when  ships  have  crashed  at  sea.  W.  H.  LaBojrteaux  in  an 
exceedingly  important  and  interesting  volume  of  two  hundred 
and  forty  odd  pages  called  "  The  Rule  of  the  Road  At  Sea^* 
cites  some  three  hundred  and  more  cases.  This  is  a  recent 
book,  published  in  1920,  and  is  about  the  best  thing  along  these 
lines.  As  important  supplementary  reading,  for  masters  and 
watch  officers,  it  should  be  very  valuable. 

It  is  mighty  interesting  to  read  of  the  mistakes  and  mishaps 
of  others,  but  it  is  exceedingly  unpleasant  to  sit  in  a  stuffy  court 
room  and  have  your  own  mistakes  raked  over  the  coals  of 
judgment. 

Lawyers  write  these  useful  books  but  it  is  pretty  tough  to 
listen  to  them  talk  for  days  at  a  time.  Every  time  a  vessel  goes 
to  sea  the  captain  and  each  officer  who  stands  a  watch  is  liable 
to  wind  up  in  the  clutches  of  this  legal  inquisition.  His  only 
safety  lies  in  keeping  wide  awake  every  moment  of  the  time, 
with  the  rules  of  the  road,  the  maneuvering  power  of  his  own 
vessel,  and  of  other  vessels  both  sail  and  steam,  constantly  in 
mind. 

The  reader  will  now  be  left  alone  with  the  rules.  Study  them 
thoroughly,  then  read  them  over  at  least  once  a  month  from  end 
to  end ;  make  it  your  monthly  office. 


RULES  OF  THE  ROAD  AT  SEA 


n 


577 


The  Rules 

International  Only 

I. — Enacting  Clause,  Scope,  and  Penalty 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives 
of  the  United  States  of  America  in  Congress  assembled.  That 
the  following  regulations  for  preventing  collisions  at  sea  shall 
be  followed  by  all  public  and  private  vessels  of  the  United  States 
upon  the  high  seas  and  in  all  waters  connected  therewith,  navi- 
gable by  seagoing  vessels. 

Art.  30.  Nothing  in  these  rules  shall  interfere  with  the  opera- 
tion of  a  special  rule,  duly  made  by  local  authority,  relative  to 
the  navigation  of  any  harbor,  river,  or  inland  waters. 

Inland  Only 

/. — Enacting  Clause,  Scope,  and  Penalty 

Whereas  the  provisions  of  chapter  eight  hundred  and  two  of  the 
laws  of  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety,  and  the  amendments 
thereto,  adopting  regulations  for  preventing  collisions  at 
sea  [i.  e.,  international  rules],  apply  to  all  waters  of  the 
United  States  connected  with  the  high  seas  navigable  by 
sea-going  vessels,  except  so  far  as  the  navigation  of  any 
harbor,  river,  or  inland  waters  is  regulated  by  special  rules 
duly  made  by  local  authority;  and 
Whereas  it  is  desirable  that  the  regulations  relating  to  the 
navigation  of  all  harbors,  rivers,  and  inland  waters  of  the 
United  States,  except  the  Great  Lakes  and  their  con- 
necting and  tributary  waters  as  far  east  as  Montreal  and 
the  Red  River  of  the  North  and  rivers  emptying  into  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  and  their  tributaries,  shall  be  stated  in  one 
act:  Therefore, 
Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of 
the  United  States  of  America  in  Congress  assembled,  That  the 
following  regulations  for  preventing  collisions  shall  be  followed 
by  all  vessels  navigating  all  harbors,  rivers,  and  inland  waters 
of  the  United  States,  except  the  Great  Lakes  and  their  con- 
tacting and  tributary  waters  as  far  east  as  Montreal  and  the 
Red  River  of  the  North  and  rivers  emptying  into  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  their  tributaries,  and  are  hereby  declared  special 
rules  duly  made  by  local  authority: 

Sec.  3.  That  every  pilot,  engineer,  mate,  or  master  of  any 
steam  vessel,  and  every  master  or  mate  of  any  barge  or  canal 
boat,  who  neglects  or  refuses  to  observe  the  provisions  of  this 


I  • 


\ 


578 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


act,  or  the  regulations  established  in  pursuance  of  the  preceding 
section  [see  section  2,  page  581],  shall  be  liable  to  a  penalty  of 
fifty  dollars,  and  for  all  damages  sustained  by  any  passenger  in 
his  person  or  baggage  by  such  neglect  or  refusal:  Provided, 
That  nothing  herein  shall  relieve  any  vessel,  owner,  or  corpora- 
tion from  any  liability  incurred  by  reason  of  such  neglect  or 
refusal. 

Sec.  4.  That  every  vessel  that  shall  be  navigated  without 
complying  with  the  provisions  of  this  act  shall  be  liable  to  a 
penalty  of  two  hundred  dollars,  one-half  to  go  to  the  informer, 
for  which  sum  the  vessel  so  navigated  shall  be  liable  and  may 
be  seized  and  proceeded  against  by  action  in  any  district  court 
of  the  United  States  having  Jurisdiction  of  the  offense. 

International  and  Inland  Rules 
Preliminary  Definitions 

In  the  following  rules  every  steam  vessel  which  is  under  sail 
and  not  under  steam  is  to  be  considered  a  sailing  vessel,  and 
every  vessel  under  steam,  whether  under  sail  or  not,  is  to  be 
considered  a  steam  vessel. 

The  words  "  steam  vessel "  shall  include  any  vessel  pro- 
pelled by  machinery. 

A  vessel  is  "  imder  way,"  within  the  meaning  of  these  rules, 
when  she  is  not  at  anchor,  or  made  fast  to  the  shore,  or  agrotmd. 

n. — ^Lights,  and  So  Forth 

The  word  "  visible  "  in  these  rules  when  applied  to  lights 
shall  mean  visible  on  a  dark  night  with  a  clear  atmosphere. 

Article  1,  The  rules  concerning  lights  shall  be  complied  with 
in  all  weathers  from  sunset  to  sunrise,  and  during  such  time 
no  other  lights  which  may  be  mistaken  for  the  prescribed  lights 
shall  be  exhibited. 

Steam  Vessels — Masthead  Light 

Art,  2,  A  steam  vessel  when  under  way  shall  carry — (a)  On 
or  in  front  of  the  foremast,  or  if  a  vessel  without  a  foremast, 
then  in  the  fore  part  of  the  vessel,  at  a  height  above  the  hull  of  not 
less  than  twenty  feet,  and  if  the  breadth  of  the  vessel  exceeds 
twenty  feet,  then  at  a  height  above  the  hull  not  less  than  such 
breadth,  so,  however,  that  the  light  need  not  be  carried  at  a 
greater  height  above  the  hull  than  forty  feet,  a  bright  white  light, 


RULES  OF  THE  ROAD  AT  SEA 


579 


so  constructed  as  to  show  an  unbroken  light  over  an  arc  of  the 
horizon  of  twenty  points  of  the  compass,  so  fixed  as  to  throw  the 
light  ten  points  on  each  side  of  the  vessel,  namely,  from  right 
ahead  to  two  points  abaft  the  beam  on  either  side,  and  of  such  a 
character  as  to  be  visible  at  a  distance  of  at  least  five  miles. 

Steam  Vessels — Side  Lights 

(b)  On  the  starboard  side  a  green  light  so  constructed  as  to 
show  an  unbroken  light  over  an  arc  of  the  horizon  of  ten  points 
of  the  compass,  so  fixed  as  to  throw  the  light  from  right  ahead  to 
two  points  abaft  the  beam  on  the  starboard  side,  and  of  such  a 
character  as  to  be  visible  at  a  distance  of  at  least  two  miles. 

(c)  On  the  port  side  a  red  light  so  constructed  as  to  show  an 
unbroken  light  over  an  arc  of  the  horizon  of  ten  points  of  the 
compass,  so  fixed  as  to  throw  the  light  from  right  ahead  to  two 
points  abaft  the  beam  on  the  port  side,  and  of  such  a  character 
as  to  be  visible  at  a  distance  of  at  least  two  miles. 

(d)  The  said  green  and  red  side  lights  shall  be  fitted  with 

inboard  screens  projecting  at  least  three  feet  forward  from  the 

light,  so  as  to  prevent  these  lights  from  being  seen  across  the 

bow. 

Steam  Vessels — Range  Lights 

(e)  A  steam  vessel  when  tmder  way  may  carry  an  additional 
white  light  similar  in  construction  to  the  light  mentioned  in  sub- 
division (a) .  These  two  lights  shall  be  so  placed  in  line  with  the 
keel  that  one  shall  be  at  least  fifteen  feet  higher  than  the  other, 
and  in  such  a  position  with  reference  to  each  other  that  the 
lower  light  shall  be  forward  of  the  upper  one.  The  vertical 
distance  between  these  lights  shall  be  less  than  the  horizontal 

distance. 

Inland  Only 

(/)  All  steam  vessels  {except  seagoing  vessels  and  ferry- 
boats), shall  carry  in  addition  to  green  and  red  lights  required 
by  article  two  (b),  (c),  and  screens  as  required  by  article  two 
id),  a  central  range  of  two  white  lights;  the  after  light  being 
carried  at  an  elevation  at  least  fifteen  feet  above  the  light  at 
the  head  of  the  vessel.  The  headlight  shall  be  so  constructed 
as  to  show  an  unbroken  light  through  twenty  points  of  the 
compass,  namely,  from  right  ahead  to  two  points  abaft  the 
beam  on  either  side  of  the  vessel,  and  the  after  light  so  as  to 
show  all  around  the  horizon. 


I,  I 


'1 


U- 


580 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


RULES   OF  THE  ROAD  AT  SEA 


581 


International  and  Inland 
Steam  Vessels  when  Towing 
Art  3,  A  steam  vessel  when  towing  another  vessel  shall,  in 
addition  to  her  side  lights,  carry  two  bright  white  lights  in  a 
vertical  line  one  over  the  other,  not  less  than  six  feet  apart^  and 
when  towing  more  than  one  vessel  shall  carry  an  additional 
bright  white  light  six  feet  above  or  below  such  lights,  if  the 
length  of  the  tow  measuring  from  the  stern  of  the  towing  vessel 
to  the  stern  of  the  last  vessel  towed  exceeds  six  hundred  feet. 
Each  of  these  lights  shall  be  of  the  same  construction  and  char- 
acter, and  shall  be  carried  in  the  same  position  as  the  white  light 
mentioned  in  article  two  (a),  excepting  the  additional  light,  which 
may  be  carried  at  a  height  of  not  less  than  fourteen  feet  above 
thehuU. 

Such  steam  vessel  may  carry  a  small  white  light  abaft  the 
funnel  or  aftermast  for  the  vessel  towed  to  steer  by,  but  such 
light  shall  not  be  visible  forward  of  the  beam. 

International  Only 
Special  Lights 

Art  4.  (a)  A  vessel  which  from  any  accident  is  not  under 
command  shall  carry  at  the  same  height  as  a  white  light  men- 
tioned in  article  two  (a),  where  they  can  best  be  seen,  and  if  a 
steam  vessel  in  lieu  of  that  light  two  red  lights,  in  a  vertical  line 
one  over  the  other,  not  less  than  six  feet  apart,  and  of  such  a 
character  as  to  be  visible  all  around  the  horizon  at  a  distance  of 
at  least  two  miles;  and  shall  by  day  carry  in  a  vertical  line  one 
over  the  other,  not  less  than  six  feet  apart,  where  they  can  best 
be  seen,  two  black  balls  or  shapes,  each  two  feet  in  diameter. 

(b)  A  vessel  employed  in  laying  or  in  picking  up  a  telegraph 
cable  shall  carry  in  the  same  position  as  the  white  light  men- 
tioned in  article  two  (a),  and  if  a  steam  vessel  in  lieu  of  that  light 
three  lights  in  a  vertical  line  one  over  the  other  not  less  than  six 
feet  apart.  The  highest  and  lowest  of  these  lights  shall  be  red, 
and^the^middle  light  shall  be  white,  and  they  shall  be  of  such  a 
character  as  to  be  visible  all  around  the  horizon,  at  a  distance 
of  at  least  two  miles.  By  day  she  shall  carry  in  a  vertical  line, 
one  over  the  other,  not  less  than  six  feet  apart,  where  they  can 
best  be  seen,  three  shapes  not  less  than  two  feet  in  diameter, 
of  whichjthe  highest  and  lowest  shall  be  globular  in  shape  and 
red  in  color,  and  the  middle  one  diamond  in  shape  and  white. 

(c)  The  vessels  referred  to  in  this  article,  when  not  making 
way  through  the  water,  shall  not  carry  the  side  lights,  but  when 
making  way  shall  carry  them. 


(d)  The  lights  and  shapes  required  to  be  shown  by  this  article 
are  to  be  taken  by  other  vessels  as  signals  that  the  vessel  showing 
them  is  not  under  command  and  can  not  therefore  get  out  of 
the  way. 

These  signals  are  not  signals  of  vessels  in  distress  and  re- 
quiring assistance.  Such  signals  are  contained  in  article  thirty- 
one. 

International  and  Inland 

Lights  for  Sailing  Vessels  and  Vessels  in  Tow 

Art  5.    A  sailing  vessel  under  way  and  any  vessel  being 

towed  shall  carry  the  same  lights  as  are  prescribed  by  article 
two  for  a  steam  vessel  under  way,  with  the  exception  of  the 

white  lights  mentioned  therein,  which  they  shall  never  carry. 

Inland  Only 
Lights  for  Ferryboats,  Barges,  and  Canal  Boats  in  Tow 

Sec.  2.  That  the  supervising  inspectors  of  steam  vessels 
and  the  Supervising  Ins  pec  tor- General  shall  establish  such  rules 
to  be  observed  by  steam  vessels  in  passing  each  other  and  as 
to  the  lights  to  be  carried  by  ferryboats  and  by  barges  and 
canal  boats  when  in  tow  of  steam  vessels  {and  as  to  the  lights 
and  day  signals  to  be  carried  by  vessels,  dredges  of  all  types, 
and  vessels  working  on  wrecks  by  [or]  other  obstruction  to 
navigation  or  moored  for  submarine  operations,  or  made  fast 
to  a  sunken  object  which  may  drift  with  the  tide  or  be  towed) 
not  inconsistent  with  the  provisions  of  this  act,  as  they  from 
time  to  time  may  deem  necessary  for  safety,  which  rules  when 
approved  by  the  Secretary  of  Commerce  are  hereby  declared 
special  rules  duly  made  by  local  authority,  as  provided  for  in 
article  thirty  of  chapter  eight  hundred  and  two  of  the  laws  of 
eighteen  hundred  and  ninety.  Two  printed  copies  of  such  rules 
shall  be  furnished  to  such  ferryboats  {barges,  dredges,  canal 
boats,  vessels  working  on  wrecks)  and  steam  vessels,  which 
rules  shall  be  kept  posted  up  in  conspicuous  places  in  such 
vessels  {barges,  dredges,  and  boats). 

International  and  Inland 
Lights  for  Small  Vessels 

Art,  6.  Whenever,  as  in  the  case  of  small  vessels  under  way 
during  bad  weather,  the  green  and  red  side  lights  can  not  be 
fixed,  these  lights  shall  be  kept  at  hand,  lighted  and  ready  for 
use;  and  shall,  on  the  approach  of  or  to  other  vessels,  be  ex- 
hibited on  their  respective  sides  in  sufficient  time  to  prevent 


582 


STANDARD    SEAMANSHIP 


RULES  OF  THE  ROAD  AT  SEA 


583 


collision,  in  such  manner  as  to  make  them  most  visible,  and  so 
that  the  green  light  shall  not  be  seen  on  the  port  side  nor  the  red 
light  on  the  starboard  side,  nor,  if  practicable,  more  than  two 
points  abaft  the  beam  on  their  respective  sides.  To  make  the 
use  of  these  portable  lights  more  certain  and  easy  the  lanterns 
containing  them  shall  each  be  painted  outside  with  the  color  of 
the  light  they  respectively  contain,  and  shall  be  provided  with 
proper  screens. 

International  Only 
Lights  for  Small  Steam  and  Sail  Vessels  and  Open  Boats 

Art\  7.  Steam  vessels  of  less  than  forty,  and  vessels  under 
oars  or  sails  of  less  than  twenty  tons  gross  tonnage,  respectively, 
and  rowing  boats,  when  under  way,  shall  not  be  required  to 
carry  the  lights  mentioned  in  article  two  (a),  (b),  and  (c),  but  if 
they  do  not  carry  them  they  shall  be  provided  with  the  following 
lights : 

First.    Steam  vessels  of  less  than  forty  tons  shall  carry — 

(a)  In  the  fore  part  of  the  vessel,  or  on  or  in  front  of  the 
funnel,  where  it  can  best  be  seen,  and  at  a  height  above  the 
gunwale  of  not  less  than  nine  feet,  a  bright  white  light  con- 
structed and  fixed  as  prescribed  in  article  two  (a),  and  of  such  a 
character  as  to  be  visible  at  a  distance  of  at  least  two  miles. 

(b)  Green  and  red  side  lights  constructed  and  fixed  as  pre- 
scribed in  article  two  (b)  and  (c),  and  of  such  a  character  as  to 
be  visible  at  a  distance  of  at  least  one  mile,  or  a  combined 
lantern  showing  a  green  light  and  a  red  light  from  right  ahead 
to  two  points  abaft  the  beam  on  their  respective  sides.  Such 
lanterns  shall  be  carried  not  less  than  three  feet  below  the 
white  light. 

Second.  Small  steamboats,  such  as  are  carried  by  seagoing 
vessels,  may  carry  the  white  light  at  a  less  height  than  nine  feet 
above  the  gunwale,  but  it  shall  be  carried  above  the  combined 
lantern  mentioned  in  subdivision  one  (b). 

Third.  Vessels  under  oars  or  sails  of  less  than  twenty  tons 
shall  have  ready  at  hand  a  lantern  with  a  green  glass  on  one 
side  and  a  red  glass  on  the  other,  which,  on  the  approach  of  or 
to  other  vessels,  shall  be  exhibited  in  sufficient  time  to  prevent 
collision,  so  that  the  green  light  shall  not  be  seen  on  the  port 
side  nor  the  red  light  on  the  starboard  side. 

International  and  Inland 

Fourth.  Rowing  boats,  whether  under  oars  or  sail,  shall  have 
ready  at  hand  a  lantern  showing  a  white  light  which  shall  be 
temporarily  exhibited  in  sufficient  time  to  prevent  collision. 


The  vessels  referred  to  in  this  article  shall  not  be  obliged  to 
carry  the  lights  prescribed  by  article  four  (a)  and  article  eleven, 
last  paragraph. 

Lights  for  Pilot  Vessels 

Art  S,  Pilot  vessels  when  engaged  on  their  station  on  pilotage 
duty  shall  not  show  the  lights  required  for  other  vessels,  but 
shall  carry  a  white  light  at  the  masthead,  visible  all  around  the 
horizon,  and  shall  also  exhibit  a  flare-up  light  or  flare-up  lights 
at  short  intervals,  which  shall  never  exceed  fifteen  minutes. 

On  the  near  approach  of  or  to  other  vessels  they  shall  have 
their  side  lights  lighted,  ready  for  use,  and  shall  flash  or  show 
them  at  short  intervals,  to  indicate  the  direction  in  which  they 
are  heading,  but  the  green  light  shall  not  be  shown  on  the  port 
side,  nor  the  red  light  on  the  starboard  side. 

A  pilot  vessel  of  such  a  class  as  to  be  obliged  to  go  alongside 
of  a  vessel  to  put  a  pilot  on  board  may  show  the  white  light 
instead  of  carrying  it  at  the  masthead,  and  may,  instead  of  the 
colored  lights  above  mentioned,  have  at  hand,  ready  for  use,  a 
lantern  with  green  glass  on  the  one  side  and  red  glass  on  the 
other,  to  be  used  as  prescribed  above. 

Pilot  vessels  when  not  engaged  on  their  station  on  pilotage 
dtity  shall  carry  lights  similar  to  those  of  other  vessels  of  their 

tonnage. 

A  steam  pilot  vessel,  when  engaged  on  her  station  on  pilotage 
duty  and  in  waters  of  the  United  States,  and  not  at  anchor,  shall, 
in  addition  to  the  lights  required  for  all  pilot  boats,  carry  at  a 
distance  of  eight  feet  below  her  white  masthead  light  a  red  light, 
visible  all  around  the  horizon  and  of  such  a  character  as  to  be 
visible  on  a  dark  night  with  a  clear  atmosphere  at  a  distance  of  at 
least  two  miles,  and  also  the  colored  side  lights  required  to  be 
carried  by  vessels  when  under  way. 

When  engaged  on  her  station  on  pilotage  duty  and  in  waters 
of  the  United  States,  and  at  anchor,  she  shall  carry  in  addition 
to  the  lights  required  for  all  pilot  boats  the  red  light  above 
mentioned,  but  not  the  colored  side  lights.  When  not  engaged 
on  her  station  on  pilotage  duty,  she  shall  carry  the  same  lights 
as  other  steam  vessels. 


fl*-  •  * 


584  STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 

International  Only 

Lights,  Etc.,  of  Fishing  Vessels 

Art  9,  Fishing  vessels  and  fishing  boats,  when  under  way 
and  when  not  required  by  this  article  to  carry  or  show  the  lights 
hereinafter  specified,  shall  carry  or  show  the  lights  prescribed 
for  vessels  of  their  tonnage  under  way. 

(a)  Open  boats,  by  which  is  to  be  understood  boats  not  pro- 
tected from  the  entry  of  sea  water  by  means  of  a  continuous 
deck,  when  engaged  in  any  fishing  at  night,  with  outlying  tackle 
extending  not  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  horizontally 
from  the  boat  into  the  seaway,  shall  carry  one  all-round  white 
light. 

Open  boats,  when  fishing  at  night,  with  outlying  tackle  ex- 
tending more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  horizontally  from 
the  boat  into  the  seaway,  shall  carry  one  all-round  white  light, 
and  in  addition,  on  approaching  or  being  approached  by  other 
vessels,  shall  show  a  second  white  light  at  least  three  feet  below 
the  first  light  and  at  a  horizontal  distance  of  at  least  five  feet 
away  from  it  in  the  direction  in  which  the  outlying  tackle  is 
attached. 

(b)  Vessels  and  boats,  except  open  boats  as  defined  in  sub- 
division (a),  when  fishing  with  drift  nets,  shall,  so  long  as  the 
nets  are  wholly  or  partly  in  the  water,  carry  two  white  lights 
where  they  can  best  be  seen.  Such  lights  shall  be  placed  so 
that  the  vertical  distance  between  them  shall  be  not  less  than 
six  feet  and  not  more  than  fifteen  feet,  and  so  that  the  horizontal 
distance  between  them,  measured  in  a  line  with  the  keel,  shall 
be  not  less  than  five  feet  and  not  more  than  ten  feet.  The  lower 
of  these  two  lights  shall  be  in  the  direction  of  the  nets,  and  both 
of  them  shall  be  of  such  a  character  as  to  show  all  arotmd  the 
horizon,  and  to  be  visible  at  a  distance  of  not  less  than  three 
miles. 

Within  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  in  the  seas  bordering  the 
coasts  of  Japan  and  Korea  sailing  fishing  vessels  of  less  than 
twenty  tons  gross  tonnage  shall  not  be  obliged  to  carry  the 
lower  of  these  two  lights.  Should  they,  however,  not  carry  it, 
they  shall  show  in  the  same  position  (in  the  direction  of  the  net 
or  gear)  a  white  light,  visible  at  a  distance  of  not  less  than  one 
sea  mile,  on  the  approach  of  or  to  other  vessels. 

(c)  Vessels  and  boats,  except  open  boats  as  defined  in  sub- 
division (a),  when  line  fishing  with  their  lines  out  and  attached 
to  or  hauling  their  lines,  and  when  not  at  anchor  or  stationary 
within  the  meaning  of  subdivision  (h),  shall  carry  the  same 
lights  as  vessels  fishing  with  drift  nets.  When  shooting  lines, 
or  fishing  with  towing  lines,  they  shall  carry  the  lights  prescribed 
for  a  steam  or  sailing  vessel  under  way,  respectively. 


RULES  OF  THE  ROAD  AT  SEA 


585 


Within  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  in  the  seas  bordering  the 
coasts  of  Japan  and  Korea  sailing  fishing  vessels  of  less  than 
twenty  tons  gross  tonnage  shall  not  be  obliged  to  carry  the  lower 
of  these  two  lights.  Should  they,  however,  not  carry  it,  they 
shall  show  in  the  same  position  (in  the  direction  of  the  lines)  a 
white  light,  visible  at  a  distance  of  not  less  than  one  sea  mile  on 
the  approach  of  or  to  other  vessels. 

(d)  Vessels  when  engaged  in  trawling,  by  which  is  meant  the 
dragging  of  an  apparatus  along  the  bottom  of  the  sea — 

First.  If  steam  vessels,  shall  carry  in  the  same  position  as  the 
white  light  mentioned  in  article  two  (a)  a  tri-colored  lantern  so 
constructed  and  fixed  as  to  show  a  white  light  from  right  ahead 
to  two  points  on  each  bow,  and  a  green  light  and  a  red  light  over 
an  arc  of  the  horizon  from  two  points  on  each  bow  to  two  points 
abaft  the  beam  on  the  starboard  and  port  sides,  respectively; 
and  not  less  than  six  nor  more  than  twelve  feet  below  the  tri- 
colored  lantern  a  white  light  in  a  lantern,  so  constructed  as  to 
show  a  clear,  uniform,  and  unbroken  light  all  around  the  horizon. 

Second.  If  sailing  vessels,  shall  carry  a  white  light  in  a 
lantern,  so  constructed  as  to  show  a  clear,  uniform,  and  unbroken 
light  all  around  the  horizon,  and  shall  also,  on  the  approach  of 
or  to  other  vessels,  show  where  it  can  best  be  seen  a  white 
fiare-up  light  or  torch  in  sufficient  time  to  prevent  collision. 

All  lights  mentioned  in  subdivision  (d)  first  and  second  shall 
be  visible  at  a  distance  of  at  least  two  miles. 

(e)  Oyster  dredgers  and  other  vessels  fishing  with  dredge 
nets  shall  carry  and  show  the  same  lights  as  trawlers. 

(f)  Fishing  vessels  and  fishing  boats  may  at  any  time  use  a 
fiare-up  light  in  addition  to  the  lights  which  they  are  by  this 
article  required  to  carry  and  show,  and  they  may  also  use 
working  lights. 

(g)  Every  fishing  vessel  and  every  fishing  boat  under  one 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  length,  when  at  anchor,  shall  exhibit  a 
white  light  visible  all  around  the  horizon  at  a  distance  of  at  least 
one  mile. 

Every  fishing  vessel  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  length 
or  upward,  when  at  anchor,  shall  exhibit  a  white  light  visible 
all  arotmd  the  horizon  at  a  distance  of  at  least  one  mile,  and  shall 
exhibit  a  second  light  as  provided  for  vessels  of  such  length  by 
article  eleven. 

Should  any  such  vessel,  whether  under  one  hundred  and  fifty 
feet  in  length  or  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  length  or  upward, 
be  attached  to  a  net  or  other  fishing  gear,  she  shall  on  the  ap- 
proach of  other  vessels  show  an  additional  white  light  at  least 
three  feet  below  the  anchor  light,  and  at  a  horizontal  distance 
of  at  least  five  feet  away  from  it  in  the  direction  of  the  net  or  gear. 

(h)  If  a  vessel  or  boat  when  fishing  becomes  stationary  in 


M:i 


I    i. 


586 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


consequence  of  her  gear  getting  fast  to  a  rock  or  other  obstruc- 
tion, she  shall  in  da3rtime  haul  down  the  day  signal  required  by 
subdivision  (k) ;  at  night  show  the  light  or  lights  prescribed  for  a 
vessel  at  anchor;  and  during  fog,  mist,  falling  snow,  or  heavy 
rain  storms  make  the  signal  prescribed  for  a  vessel  at  anchor. 
(See  subdivision  (d)  and  the  last  paragraph  of  article  fifteen.) 

(i)  In  fog,  mist,  falling  snow,  or  heavy  rain  storms  drift-net 
vessels  attached  to  their  nets,  and  vessels  when  trawling, 
dredging,  or  fishing  with  any  kind  of  drag  net,  and  vessels  line 
fishing  with  their  lines  out,  shall,  if  of  twenty  tons  gross  tonnage 
or  upward,  respectively,  at  intervals  of  not  more  than  one 
minute  make  a  blast;  if  steam  vessels,  with  the  whistle  or  siren, 
and  if  sailing  vessels,  with  the  fog-horn,  each  blast  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  ringing  the  bell.  Fishing  vessels  and  boats  of  less 
than  twenty  tons  gross  tonnage  shall  not  be  obliged  to  give  the 
above-mentioned  signals;  but  if  they  do  not,  they  shall  make 
some  other  efficient  sound  signal  at  intervals  of  not  more  than 
one  minute. 

(k)  All  vessels  or  boats  fishing  with  nets  or  lines  or  trawls, 
when  under  way,  shall  in  daytime  indicate  their  occupation  to  an 
approaching  vessel  by  displaying  a  basket  or  other  efficient  signal 
where  it  can  best  be  seen.  If  vessels  or  boats  at  anchor  have 
their  gear  out,  they  shall,  on  the  approach  of  other  vessels,  show 
the  same  signal  on  the  side  on  which  those  vessels  can  pass. 

The  vessels  required  by  this  article  to  carry  or  show  the  lights 
hereinbefore  specified  shall  not  be  obliged  to  carry  the  lights 
prescribed  by  article  four  (a)  and  the  last  paragraph  of  article 
eleven. 

Inland  Only 

Lights,  Etc.,  of  Fishing  Vessels 

Art.  9.  (a)  Fishing  vessels  of  less  than  ten  gross  ions,  when 
under  way  and  when  not  having  their  nets,  trawls,  dredges,  or 
lines  in  the  water,  shall  not  be  obliged  to  carry  the  colored  side 
lights;  but  every  such  vessel  shall,  in  lieu  thereof,  have  ready 
at  hand  a  lantern  with  a  green  glass  on  one  side  and  a  red  glass 
on  the  other  side,  and  on  approaching  to  or  being  approached 
by  another  vessel  such  lantern  shall  be  exhibited  in  sufficient 
time  to  prevent  collision,  so  that  the  green  light  shall  not  be 
seen  on  the  port  side  nor  the  red  light  on  the  starboard  side. 

(b)  All  fishing  vessels  and  fishing  boats  of  ten  gross  tons  or 
upward,,  when  under  way  and  when  not  having  their  nets, 
trawls,  dredges,  or  lines  in  the  water,  shall  carry  and  show  the 
same  lights  as  other  vessels  under  way, 

(c)  AH  vessels,  when  trawling,  dredging,  or  fishing  with  any 
kind  of  drag  nets  or  lines,  shall  exhibit,  from  some  part  of  the 
vessel  where  they  can  be  best  seen,  two  lights.    One  of  these 


RULES  OF  THE  ROAD  AT  SEA 


587 


lights  shall  be  red  and  the  other  shall  be  white.  The  red  light 
shall  be  above  the  white  light,  and  shall  be  at  a  vertical  distance 
from  it  of  not  less  than  six  feet  and  not  more  than  twelve  feet; 
and  the  horizontal  distance  between  them,  if  any,  shall  not  be 
more  than  ten  feet.  These  two  lights  shall  be  of  such  a  char- 
acter and  contained  in  lanterns  of  such  construction  as  to  be 
visible  all  round  the  horizon,  the  white  light  a  distance  of  not 
less  than  three  miles  and  the  red  light  of  not  less  than  two  miles. 

Lights  for  Rafts  or  other  Craft  not  Provided  For 

(d)  Rafts,  or  other  water  craft  not  herein  provided  for, 
navigating  by  hand  power,  horse  power,  or  by  the  current  of 
the  river,  shall  carry  one  or  more  good  white  lights,  which  shall 
be  placed  in  such  manner  as  shall  be  prescribed  by  the  Board 
of  Supervising  Inspectors  of  Steam  Vessels. 

International  and  Inland 
Lights  for  an  Overtaken  Vessel 

Art.  10,  A  vessel  which  is  being  overtaken  by  another  shall 
show  from  her  stem  to  such  last-mentioned  vessel  a  white  light 
or  a  flare-up  light. 

The  white  light  required  to  be  shown  by  this  article  may  be 
fixed  and  carried  in  a  lantern,  but  in  such  case  the  lantern  shall 
be  so  constructed,  fitted,  and  screened  that  it  shall  throw  an 
unbroken  light  over  an  arc  of  the  horizon  of  twelve  points  of  the 
compass,  namely,  for  six  points  from  right  aft  on  each  side  of 
the  vessel,  so  as  to  be  visible  at  a  distance  of  at  least  one  mile. 
Such  light  shall  be  carried  as  nearly  as  practicable  on  the  same 
level  as  the  side  lights. 

Anchor  Lights 

Art.  11.  A  vessel  imder  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  length 
when  at  anchor  shall  carry  forward,  where  it  can  best  be  seen, 
but  at  a  height  not  exceeding  twenty  feet  above  the  hull,  a  white 
light,  in  a  lantern  so  constructed  as  to  show  a  clear,  uniform,  and 
unbroken  light  visible  all  arotmd  the  horizon  at  a  distance  of 
at  least  one  mile. 

A  vessel  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  or  upwards  in  length 
when  at  anchor  shall  carry  in  the  forward  part  of  the  vessel,  at  a 
height  of  not  less  than  twenty  and  not  exceeding  forty  feet  above 
the  hull,  one  such  light,  and  at  or  near  the  stern  of  the  vessel, 


588 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


RULES   OF  THE  ROAD  AT  SEA 


589 


and  at  such  a  height  that  it  shall  be  not  less  than  fifteen  feet 
lower  than  the  forward  light,  another  such  light. 

The  length  of  a  vessel  shall  be  deemed  to  be  the  length 
appearing  in  her  certificate  of  registry. 

International  Only 

A  vessel  aground  in  or  near  a  fairway  shall  carry  the  above 
light  or  lights  and  the  two  red  lights  prescribed  by  article  four  (a). 

International  and  Inland 

Special  Signals 

Art  12,    Every  vessel  may,  if  necessary  in  order  to  attract 

attention,  in  addition  to  the  lights  which  she  is  by  these  rules 

required  to  carry,  show  a  flare-up  light  or  use  any  detonating 

signal  that  can  not  be  mistaken  for  a  distress  signal. 

Naval  Lights  and  Recognition  Signals 
Art.  13.  Nothing  in  these  rides  shall  interfere  with  the 
operation  of  any  special  rules  made  by  the  Government  of  any 
nation  with  respect  to  additional  station  and  signal  lights  for 
two  or  more  ships  of  war  or  for  vessels  sailing  tmder  convoy, 
or  with  the  exhibition  of  recognition  signals  adopted  by  ship- 
owners, which  have  been  authorized  by  their  respective  Govern- 
ments and  duly  registered  and  published. 

Steam  Vessel  under  Sail  by  Day 
Art.  14.    A  steam  vessel  proceeding  under  sail  only,  but 
having  her  funnel  up,  shall  carry  in  daytime,  forward,  where  it 
can  best  be  seen,  one  black  ball  or  shape  two  feet  in  diameter. 

in. — Sound  Signals  for  Fog,  and  So  Forth 

Preliminary 

Art.  15.    All  signals  prescribed  by  this  article  for  vessels 
under  way  shall  be  given: 

First.    By  "  steam  vessels  "  on  the  whistle  or  siren. 

Second.    By  "  sailing  vessels  "  and  "  vessels  towed  "  on  the 
fog  horn. 

The  words  "  prolonged  blast "  used  in  this  article  shall  mean 
a  blast  of  from  four  to  six  seconds  duration. 

A  steam  vessel  shall  be  provided  with  an  efiicient  whistle  or 


siren,  sounded  by  steam  or  by  some  substitute  for  steam,  so 
placed  that  the  sound  may  not  be  intercepted  by  any  obstruction, 
and  with  an  efficient  fog  horn,  to  be  sounded  by  mechanical 
means,  and  also  with  an  efficient  bell. 

International  Only 

In  all  cases  where  the  rules  require  a  bell  to  be  used  a  drum 
may  be  substituted  on  board  Turkish  vessels,  or  a  gong  where 
such  articles  are  used  on  board  small  seagoing  vessels. 

International  and  Inland 

A  sailing  vessel  of  twenty  tons  gross  tonnage  or  upward  shall 
be  provided  with  a  similar  fog  horn  and  bell. 

In  a  fog,  mist,  falling  snow,  or  heavy  rain  storms,  whether  by 
day  or  night,  the  signals  described  in  this  article  shall  be  used 
as  follows,  namely: 

Steam  Vessel  under  Way 

(a)  A  steam  vessel  having  way  upon  her  shall  sound,  at 
intervals  of  not  more  than  two  minutes,  a  prolonged  blast. 

Inland  Only 

Steam  Vessel  under  Way 

(a)  A  steam  vessel  under  way  shall  sounds  at  intervals  of  not 
more  than  one  minute^  a  prolonged  blast. 

International  Only 

(b)  A  steam  vessel  under  way,  but  stopped,  and  having  no 
way  upon  her,  shall  sound,  at  intervals  of  not  more  than  two 
minutes,  two  prolonged  blasts,  with  an  interval  of  about  one 
second  between. 

International  and  Inland 
Sail  Vessel  imder  Way 

(c)  A  sailing  vessel  under  way  shall  sound,  at  intervals  of  not 
more  than  one  minute,  when  on  the  starboard  tack,  one  blast; 
when  on  the  port  tack,  two  blasts  in  succession,  and  when  with 
the  wind  abaft  the  beam,  three  blasts  in  succession. 

Vessels  at  Anchor  or  Not  Under  Way 

(d)  A  vessel  when  at  anchor  shall,  at  intervals  of  not  more  than 
one  minute,  ring  the  bell  rapidly  for  about  five  seconds. 

Vessels  Towing  or  Towed 

(e)  A  vessel  when  towing,  a  vessel  employed  in  laying  or  in 
picking  up  a  telegraph  cable,  and  a  vessel  under  way,  which  is 


590 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


RULES  OF  THE  ROAD  AT  SEA 


591 


unable  to  get  out  of  the  way  of  an  approaching  vessel  through 
being  not  under  command,  or  unable  to  maneuver  as  required 
by  the  niles,  shall,  instead  of  the  signals  prescribed  in  sub- 
divisions (a)  and  (c)  of  this  article,  at  intervals  of  not  more  than 
two  minutes,  sound  three  blasts  in  succession,  namely:  One 
prolonged  blast  followed  by  two  short  blasts.  A  vessel  towed 
may  give  this  signal  and  she  shall  not  give  any  other. 

International  Only 
Small  Sailing  Vessels  and  Boats 

Sailing  vessels  and  boats  of  less  than  twenty  tons  gross 
tonnage  shall  not  be  obliged  to  give  the  above-mentioned  signals, 
but,  if  they  do  not,  they  shall  make  some  other  efficient  sound 
signal  at  intervals  of  not  more  than  one  minute. 

Inland  Only 
Rafts  or  Other  Craft  Not  Provided  For 

(f)  All  rafts  or  other  water  craft,  not  herein  provided  for, 
navigating  by  hand-power,  horse-power,  or  by  the  current  of 
the  river,  shall  sound  a  blast  of  the  fog-horn,  or  equivalent 
signal,  at  intervals  of  not  more  than  one  minute. 

International  and  Inland 
Speed  in  Fog 

Art.  16.  Every  vessel  shall,  in  a  fog,  mist,  falling  snow,  or 
heavy  rain  storms,  go  at  a  moderate  speed,  having  careful  regard 
to  the  existing  circumstances  and  conditions. 

A  steam  vessel  hearing,  apparently  forward  of  her  beam,  the 
fog  signal  of  a  vessel  the  position  of  which  is  not  ascertained 
shall,  so  far  as  the  circumstances  of  the  case  admit,  stop  her 
engines,  and  then  navigate  with  caution  until  danger  of  collision 
is  over. 

IV. — Steering  and  Sailing  Rules 
Preliminary 

Risk  of  collision  can,  when  circumstances  permit,  be  ascer- 
tained by  carefully  watching  the  compass  bearing  of  an  approach- 
ing vessel.  If  the  bearing  does  not  appreciably  change,  such 
risk  should  be  deemed  to  exist. 

Sailing  Vessels 
Art.  17.    When   two   sailing  vessels   are   approaching   one 
another,  so  as  to  involve  risk  of  collision,  one  of  them  shall  keep 
out  of  the  way  of  the  other,  as  follows,  namely: 


(a)  A  vessel  which  is  running  free  shall  keep  out  of  the  way 
of  a  vessel  which  is  closehauled. 

(b)  A  vessel  which  is  closehauled  on  the  port  tack  shall  keep 
out  of  the  way  of  a  vessel  which  is  closehauled  on  the  starboard 
tack. 

(c)  When  both  are  running  free,  with  the  wind  on  different 
sides,  the  vessel  which  has  the  wind  on  the  port  side  shall  keep 
out  of  the  way  of  the  other. 

(d)  When  both  are  running  free,  with  the  wind  on  the  same 
side,  the  vessel  which  is  to  the  windward  shall  keep  out  of  the 
way  of  the  vessel  which  is  to  the  leeward. 

(e)  A  vessel  which  has  the  wind  aft  shall  keep  out  of  the  way 

of  the  other  vessel. 

International  Only 

Steam  Vessels 

Art.  18.  When  two  steam  vessels  are  meeting  end  on,  or 
nearly  end  on,  so  as  to  involve  risk  of  collision,  each  shall  alter 
her  course  to  starboard,  so  that  each  may  pass  on  the  port  side 
of  the  other. 

This  article  only  applies  to  cases  where  vessels  are  meeting 
end  on,  or  nearly  end  on,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  involve  risk  of 
collision,  and  does  not  apply  to  two  vessels  which  must,  if  both 
keep  on  their  respective  coxirses,  pass  clear  of  each  other. 

The  only  cases  to  which  it  does  apply  are  when  each  of  the 
two  vessels  is  end  on,  or  nearly  end  on  to  the  other;  in  other 
words,  to  cases  in  which,  by  day,  each  vessel  sees  the  masts  of 
the  other  in  a  line,  or  nearly  in  a  line,  with  her  own;  and  by 
night,  to  cases  in  which  each  vessel  is  in  such  a  position  as  to 
see  both  the  side-lights  of  the  other. 

It  does  not  apply  by  day  to  cases  in  which  a  vessel  sees  another 
ahead  crossing  her  own  course ;  or  by  night,  to  cases  where  the 
red  light  of  one  vessel  is  opposed  to  the  red  light  of  the  other,  or 
where  the  green  light  of  one  vessel  is  opposed  to  the  green  light 
of  the  other,  or  where  a  red  light  without  a  green  light,  or  a 
green  light  without  a  red  light,  is  seen  ahead,  or  where  both 
green  and  red  lights  are  seen  anywhere  but  ahead. 

Inland  Only 
Steam  Vessels 

Art.  18.  Rule  I.  When  steam  vessels  are  approaching  each 
other  head  and  head,  that  is,  end  on,  or  nearly  so,  it  shall  be 
the  duty  of  each  to  pass  on  the  port  side  of  the  other;  and  either 
vessel  shall  give,  as  a  signal  of  her  intention,  one  short  and 


1    I 


592 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


RULES   OF  THE  ROAD  AT  SEA 


593 


distinct  blast  of  her  whistle,  which  the  other  vessel  shall  answer 
promptly  by  a  similar  blast  of  her  whistle,  and  thereupon  such 
vessels  shall  pass  on  the  port  side  of  each  other.  But  if  the 
courses  of  such  vessels  are  so  far  on  the  starboard  of  each  other 
as  not  to  be  considered  as  meeting  head  and  head,  either  vessel 
shall  immediately  give  two  short  and  distinct  blasts  of  her 
whistle,  which  the  other  vessel  shall  answer  promptly  by  two 
similar  blasts  of  her  whistle,  and  they  shall  pass  on  the  star- 
board side  of  each  other. 

The  foregoing  only  applies  to  cases  where  vessels  are  meeting 
end  on,  or  nearly  end  on,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  involve  risk 
of  collision;  in  other  words,  to  cases  in  which,  by  day,  each 
vessel  sees  the  masts  of  the  other  in  a  line,  or  nearly  in  a  line, 
with  her  own,  and  by  night  to  cases  in  which  each  vessel  is  in 
such  a  position  as  to  see  both  the  side-lights  of  the  other. 

It  does  not  apply  by  day  to  cases  in  which  a  vessel  sees 
another  ahead  crossing  her  own  course,  or  by  night  to  cases 
where  the  red  light  of  one  vessel  is  opposed  to  the  red  light  of 
the  other,  or  where  the  green  light  of  one  vessel  is  opposed  to 
the  green  light  of  the  other,  or  where  a  red  light  without  a  green 
light  or  a  green  light  without  a  red  light,  is  seen  ahead,  or 
where  both  green  and  red  lights  are  seen  anywhere  but  ahead. 

Rule  in.  If,  when  steam  vessels  are  approaching  each  other, 
either  vessel  fails  to  understand  the  course  or  intention  of  the 
other,  from  any  cause,  the  vessel  so  in  doubt  shall  immediately 
signify  the  same  by  giving  several  short  and  rapid  blasts,  not 
less  than  four,  of  the  steam  whistle. 

Rule  V.  Whenever  a  steam  vessel  is  nearing  a  short  bend 
or  curve  in  the  channel,  where,  from  the  height  of  the  banks  or 
other  cause,  a  steam  vessel  approaching  from  the  opposite 
direction  can  not  be  seen  for  a  distance  of  half  a  mile,  such 
steam  vessel,  when  she  shall  have  arrived  within  half  a  mile  of 
such  curve  or  bend,  shall  give  a  signal  by  one  long  blast  of  the 
steam  whistle,  which  signal  shall  be  answered  by  a  similar  blast 
giveri  by  any  approaching  steam  vessel  that  may  be  within 
hearing.  Should  such  signal  be  so  answered  by  a  steam  vessel 
upon  the  farther  side  of  such  bend,  then  the  usual  signals  for 
meeting  and  passing  shall  immediately  be  given  and  answered; 
but,  if  the  first  alarm  signal  of  such  vessel  be  not  answered,  she 
is  to  consider  the  channel  clear  and  govern  herself  accordingly. 

When  steam  vessels  are  moved  from  their  docks  or  berths, 
and  other  boats  are  liable  to  pass  from  any  direction  toward 
them,  they  shall  give  the  same  signal  as  in  the  case  of  vessels 
meeting  at  a  bend,  but  immediately  after  clearing  the  berths 


so  as  to  be  fully  in  sight  they  shall  be  governed  by  the  steering 
and  sailing  rules. 

Rule  VIII.  When  steam  vessels  are  running  in  the  same 
direction,  and  the  vessel  which  is  astern  shall  desire  to  pass  on 
the  right  or  starboard  hand  of  the  vessel  ahead,  she  shall  give 
one  short  blast  of  the  steam  whistle,  as  a  signal  of  such  desire, 
and  if  the  vessel  ahead  answers  with  one  blast,  she  shall  put 
her  helm  to  port;  or  if  she  shall  desire  to  pass  on  the  left  or 
port  side  of  the  vessel  ahead,  she  shall  give  two  short  blasts 
of  the  steam  whistle  as  a  signal  of  such  desire,  and  if  the  vessel 
ahead  answers  with  two  blasts,  shall  put  her  helm  to  starboard; 
or  if  the  vessel  ahead  does  not  think  it  safe  for  the  vessel  astern 
to  attempt  to  pass  at  that  point,  she  shall  immediately  signify 
the  same  by  giving  several  short  and  rapid  blasts  of  the  steam 
whistle,  not  less  than  four,  and  under  no  circumstances  shall 
the  vessel  astern  attempt  to  pass  the  vessel  ahead  until  such 
time  as  they  have  reached  a  point  where  it  can  be  safely  done, 
when  said  vessel  ahead  shall  signify  her  willingness  by  blowing 
the  proper  signals.  The  vessel  ahead  shall  in  no  case  attempt 
to  cross  the  bow  or  crowd  upon  the  course  of  the  passing  vessel. 

Rule  IX.  The  whistle  signals  provided  in  the  rules  under 
this  article,  for  steam  vessels  meeting,  passing,  or  overtaking, 
are  never  to  be  used  except  when  steamers  are  in  sight  of  each 
other,  and  the  course  and  position  of  each  can  be  determined  in 
the  daytime  by  a  sight  of  the  vessel  itself,  or  by  night  by  seeing 
its  signal  lights.  In  fog,  mist,  falling  snow  or  heavy  rain 
storms,  when  vessels  can  not  see  each  other,  fog  signals  only 
must  be  given. 

Supplementary  Regulations 

Sec .  2 .  Tha  t  the  super  vising  ins  pec  tors  of  s  team-  vessels  and 
the  Supervising  Inspector-General  shall  establish  such  rules 
to  be  observed  by  steam  vessels  in  passing  each  other  and  as  to 
the  lights  to  be  carried  by  ferryboats  and  by  barges  and  canal 
boats  when  in  tow  of  steam  vessels,  not  inconsistent  with 
the  provisions  of  this  act,  as  they  from  time  to  time  may  deem 
necessary  for  safety,  which  rules  when  approved  by  the  Secre- 
tary of  Commerce  are  hereby  declared  special  rules  duly  made 
by  local  authority,  as  provided  for  in  article  thirty  of  chapter 
eight  hundred  and  two  of  the  laws  of  eighteen  hundred  and 
ninety.  Two  printed  copies  of  such  rules  shall  be  furnished 
to  such  ferryboats  and  steam  vessels,  which  rules  shall  be 
kept  posted  up  in  conspicuous  places  in  such  vessels,* 

*  See  Pilot  rules,  page  597. 


! 


594 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


r 


International  and  Inland 
Two  Steam  Vessels  Crossing 
Art  19,    When  two  steam  vessels  are  crossing,  so  as  to 
involve  risk  of  collision,  the  vessel  which  has  the  other  on  her 
own  starboard  side  shall  keep  out  of  the  way  of  the  other. 

Steam  Vessel  Shall  Keep  Out  of  the  Way  of  Sailing  Vessel 
Art  20,    When  a  steam  vessel  and  a  sailing  vessel  are  pro- 
ceeding in  such  directions  as  to  involve  risk  of  collision,  the 
steam  vessel  shall  keep  out  of  the  way  of  the  sailing  vessel. 

Course  and  Speed 

Art  21,  Where,  by  any  of  these  rules,  one  of  two  vessels  is 
to  keep  out  of  the  way  the  other  shall  keep  her  course  and 
speed. 

Note — ^When,  in  consequence  of  thick  weather  or  other  causes, 
such  vessel  finds  herself  so  close  that  collision  can  not  be 
avoided  by  the  action  of  the  giving-way  vessel  alone,  she  also 
shall  take  such  action  as  will  best  aid  to  avert  collision.  [See 
articles  twenty-seven  and  twenty-nine.] 

Crossing  Ahead 
Art  22,    Every  vessel  which  is  directed  by  these  rules  to 
keep  out  of  the  way  of  another  vessel  shall,  if  the  circumstances 
of  the  case  admit,  avoid  crossing  ahead  of  the  other. 

Steam  Vessel  Shall  Slacken  Speed  or  Stop 
Art  23,    Every  steam  vessel  which  is  directed  by  these  rules 
to  keep  out  of  the  way  of  another  vessel  shall,  on  approaching 
her,  if  necessary,  slacken  her  speed  or  stop  or  reverse. 

Overtaking  Vessels 

Art  24,  Notwithstanding  anything  contained  in  these  rules 
every  vessel,  overtaking  any  other,  shall  keep  out  of  the  way 
of  the  overtaken  vessel. 

Every  vessel  coming  up  with  another  vessel  from  any  direction 
more  than  two  points  abaft  her  beam,  that  is,  in  such  a  position, 
with  reference  to  the  vessel  which  she  is  overtaking  that  at  night 
she  would  be  imable  to  see  either  of  that  vessel's  side  lights, 
shall  be  deemed  to  be  an  overtaking  vessel;  and  no  subsequent 


RULES  OF  THE  ROAD  AT  SEA 


595 


I 


alteration  of  the  bearing  between  the  two  vessels  shall  make  the 
overtaking  vessel  a  crossing  vessel  within  the  meaning  of  these 
rules,  or  relieve  her  of  the  duty  of  keeping  clear  of  the  overtaken 
vessel  until  she  is  finally  past  and  clear. 

As  by  day  the  overtaking  vessel  can  not  always  know  with 
certainty  whether  she  is  forward  of  or  abaft  this  direction  from 
the  other  vessel  she  should,  if  in  doubt,  assume  that  she  is  an 
overtaking  vessel  and  keep  out  of  the  way. 

Narrow  Channels 

Art  25,  In  narrow  channels  every  steam  vessel  shall,  when 
it  is  safe  and  practicable,  keep  to  that  side  of  the  fairway  or 
mid-channel  which  lies  on  the  starboard  side  of  such  vessel. 

Right  of  Way  of  Fishing  Vessels 

Art  26,  Sailing  vessels  under  way  shall  keep  out  of  the  way 
of  sailing  vessels  or  boats  fishing  with  nets,  or  lines,  or  trawls. 
This  rule  shall  not  give  to  any  vessel  or  boat  engaged  in  fishing 
the  right  of  obstructing  a  fairway  used  by  vessels  other  than 
fishing  vessels  or  boats. 

General  Prudential  Rule 

Art  27,  In  obe3ring  and  construing  these  rules  due  regard 
shall  be  had  to  all  dangers  of  navigation  and  collision,  and  to  any 
special  circumstances  which  may  render  a  departure  from  the 
above  rtiles  necessary  in  order  to  avoid  immediate  danger. 

Sotmd  Signals  for  Passing  Steamers 

Art  28,  The  words  "  short  blast "  used  in  this  article  shall 
mean  a  blast  of  about  one  second's  duration. 

When  vessels  are  in  sight  of  one  another,  a  steam  vessel  under 
way,  in  taking  any  course  authorized  or  required  by  these  rules, 
shall  indicate  that  course  by  the  following  signals  on  her  whistle 
or  siren,  namely: 

One  short  blast  to  mean,  "  I  am  directing  my  course  to  star- 
board." 

Two  short  blasts  to  mean,  "  I  am  directing  my  course  to  port." 

Three  short  blasts  to  mean,  **  My  engines  are  going  at  full 
speed  astern." 


i 


596 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


I  ^ 


,  ,11. 


I 


Precaution 
Art,  29.  Nothing  in  these  rules  shall  exonerate  any  vessel, 
or  the  owner  or  master  or  crew  thereof,  from  the  consequences 
of  any  neglect  to  carry  lights  or  signals,  or  of  any  neglect  to  keep 
a  proper  lookout,  or  of  the  neglect  of  any  precaution  which  may 
be  required  by  the  ordinary  practice  of  seamen,  or  by  the  special 
circtmistances  of  the  case. 

International  Only 

Art.  30.  Nothing  in  these  rules  shall  interfere  with  the 
operation  of  a  special  rule,  duly  made  by  local  authority,  relative 
to  the  navigation  of  any  harbor,  river,  or  inland  waters. 

Inland  Only 
Lights  on  United  States  Naval  Vessels  and  Coast  Guard  Cutters 

Art.  30.  The  exhibition  of  any  light  on  board  of  a  vessel  of 
war  of  the  United  States  or  a  Coast  Guard  cutter  may  be 
suspended  whenever,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  the  commander  in  chief  of  a  squadron,  or  the  commander 
of  a  vessel  acting  singly,  the  special  character  of  the  service 
may  require  it. 

International  and  Inland 

Distress  Signals 

Art.  31.  When  a  vessel  is  in  distress  and  requires  assistance 
from  other  vessels  or  from  the  shore  the  following  shall  be  the 
signals  to  be  used  or  displayed  by  her,  either  together  or  separ- 
ately, namely: 

In  the  daytime — 

First.  A  gun  or  other  explosive  signal  fired  at  intervals  of 
about  a  minute. 

Second.  The  international  code  signal  of  distress  indicated 
by  N  C. 

Third.  The  distance  signal,  consisting  of  a  square  flag,  having 
either  above  or  below  it  a  ball  or  anything  resembling  a  ball. 

Fourth.    A  continuous  sotmding  with  any  fog-signal  apparatus. 

At  night — 

First.  A  gun  or  other  explosive  signal  fired  at  intervals  of 
about  a  minute. 

Second.  Flames  on  the  vessel  (as  from  a  burning  tar  barrel, 
oil  barrel,  and  so  forth). 


RULES  OF  THE  ROAD  AT  SEA 


597 


Third.    Rockets  or  shells  throwing  stars  of  any  color  or  de- 
scription, fired  one  at  a  time,  at  short  intervals. 
Fourth.    A  continuous  sotmding  with  any  fog-signal  apparatus. 

in 

U.  S.  Pilot  Rules 

Pilot  Rules  for  all  Harbors,  Rivers,  and  Inland  Waters  of  the 
United  States,  Except  the  Great  Lakes  and  Their  Connecting 
and  Tributary  Waters  as  far  East  as  Montreal  and  the  Red 
River  of  the  North  and  Rivers  Emptying  into  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  Their  Tributaries. 

Preliminary 

In  the  following  rules  the  words  steam  vessel  shall  include 
any  vessel  propelled  by  machinery. 

A  vessel  is  under  way,  within  the  meaning  of  these  rules,  when 
she  is  not  at  anchor,  or  made  fast  to  the  shore,  or  agrotmd. 

Risk  of  collision  can,  when  circumstances  permit,  be  ascer- 
tained by  carefully  watching  the  compass  bearing  of  an  approach- 
ing vessel.  If  the  bearing  does  not  appreciably  change,  such 
risk  should  be  deemed  to  exist. 

Signals 

The  whistle  signals  provided  in  these  rules  shall  be  sounded 
on  an  efficient  whistle  or  siren  sounded  by  steam  or  by  some 
substitute  for  steam. 

A  short  blast  of  the  whistle  shall  mean  a  blast  of  about  one 
second's  duration. 

A  prolonged  blast  of  the  whistle  shall  mean  a  blast  of  from 
four  to  six  seconds'  duration.* 

One  short  blast  of  the  whistle  signifies  intention  to  direct 
course  to  own  starboard,  except  when  two  steam  vessels  are 
approaching  each  other  at  right  angles  or  obliquely,  when  it 
signifies  intention  of  steam  vessel  which  is  to  starboard  of  the 
other  to  hold  course  and  speed. 

*  Under  the  provisions  of  par.  (a),  sec.  4,  of  act  of  Congress  approved 
June  9,  1910,  "  a  blast  of  at  least  two  seconds  shall  be  deemed  a  prolonged 
blast  within  the  meaning  of  the  law,"  when  given  by  vessels  propelled  by 
machinery  and  not  more  than  65  feet  in  length,  except  tugboats  and  towboats 
propelled  by  steam. 


M 


( 


1 


^   I 


598 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Two  short  blasts  of  the  whistle  signify  intention  to  direct 
course  to  own  port. 

Three  short  blasts  of  the  whistle  shall  mean,  "  My  engines 
are  going  at  full  speed  astern." 

When  vessels  are  in  sight  of  one  another  a  steam  vessel  under 
way  whose  engines  are  going  at  full  speed  astern  shall  indicate 
that  fact  by  three  short  blasts  on  the  whistle. 

Rule  /.  If,  when  steam  vessels  are  approaching  each  other, 
either  vessel  fails  to  understand  the  course  or  intention  of  the 
other,  from  any  cause,  the  vessel  so  in  doubt  shall  immediately 
signify  the  same  by  giving  several  short  and  rapid  blasts,  not 
less  than  four,  of  the  steam  whistle,  the  danger  signal. 

Rule  II,  Steam  vessels  are  forbidden  to  use  what  has  be- 
come technically  known  among  pilots  as  "  cross  signalsy^^  that  is, 
answering  one  whistle  with  two,  and  answering  two  whistles 
with  one. 

Rule  III,  The  signals  for  passing,  by  the  blowing  of  the 
whistle,  shall  be  given  and  answered  by  pilots,  in  compliance 
with  these  rules,  not  only  when  meeting  "  head  and  head," 
or  nearly  so,  but  at  all  times,  when  the  steam  vessels  are  in 
sight  of  each  other,  when  passing  or  meeting  at  a  distance  within 
half  a  mile  of  each  other,  and  whether  passing  to  the  starboard 
or  port. 

The  whistle  signals  provided  in  the  rules  for  steam  vessels 
meeting,  passing,  or  overtaking,  are  never  to  be  used  except 
when  steam  vessels  are  in  sight  of  each  other,  and  the  course  and 
position  of  each  can  be  determined  in  the  daytime  by  a  sight  of 
the  vessel  itself,  or  by  night  by  seeing  its  signal  lights.  In  fog, 
mist,  falling  snow  or  heavy  rain-storms,  when  vessels  can  not  so 
see  each  other,  fog  signals  only  must  be  given. 

Situations 

Rule  IV,  When  steam  vessels  are  approaching  each  other 
head  and  head,  thai  is,  end  on,  or  nearly  so,  it  shall  be  the  duty 
of  each  to  pass  on  the  port  side  of  the  other;  and  either  vessel 
shall  give,  as  a  signal  of  her  intention,  one  short  and  distinct 
blast  of  her  whistle,  which  the  other  vessel  shall  answer  promptly 
by  a  similar  blast  of  her  whistle,  and  thereupon  such  vessels 
shall  pass  on  the  port  side  of  each  other.    But  if  the  courses  of 


RULES  OF  THE  ROAD  AT  SEA 


599 


such  vessels  are  so  far  on  the  starboard  of  each  other  as  not  to 
be  considered  as  meeting  head  and  head,  either  vessel  shall 
immediately  give  two  short  and  distinct  blasts  of  her  whistle, 
which  the  other  vessel  shall  answer  promptly  by  two  similar 
blasts  of  her  whistle,  and  they  shall  pass  on  the  starboard  side 
of  each  other. 

The  foregoing  only  applies  to  cases  where  vessels  are  meeting 
end  on  or  nearly  end  on,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  involve  risk  of 
collision;  in  other  words,  to  cases  in  which,  by  day,  each  vessel 
sees  the  masts  of  the  other  in  a  line,  or  nearly  in  a  line,  with  her 
own,  and  by  night  to  cases  in  which  each  vessel  is  in  such  a 
position  as  to  see  both  the  side  lights  of  the  other. 

It  does  not  apply  by  day  to  cases  in  which  a  vessel  sees  another 
ahead  crossing  her  own  course,  or  by  night  to  cases  where  the 
red  light  of  one  vessel  is  opposed  to  the  red  light  of  the  other, 
or  where  the  green  light  of  one  vessel  is  opposed  to  the  green 
light  of  the  other,  or  where  a  red  light  without  a  green  light  or  a 
green  light  without  a  red  light,  is  seen  ahead,  or  where  both 
green  and  red  lights  are  seen  anjrwhere  but  ahead. 

Rule  V,  Whenever  a  steam  vessel  is  nearing  a  short  bend  or 
curve  in  the  channel,  where,  from  the  height  of  the  banks  or 
other  cause,  a  steam  vessel  approaching  from  the  opposite  direc- 
tion can  not  be  seen  for  a  distance  of  half  a  mile,  such  steam 
vessel,  when  she  shall  have  arrived  within  half  a  mile  of  such 
curve  or  bend,  shall  give  a  signal  by  one  long  blast  of  the  steam 
whistle,  which  signal  shall  be  answered  by  a  similar  blast,  given 
by  any  approaching  steam  vessel  that  may  be  within  hearing. 
Should  such  signal  be  so  answered  by  a  steam  vessel  upon  the 
farther  side  of  such  bend,  then  the  usual  signals  for  meeting 
and  passing  shall  immediately  be  given  and  answered;  but,  if 
the  first  alarm  signal  of  such  vessel  be  not  answered,  she  is  to 
consider  the  channel  clear  and  govern  herself  accordingly. 

When  steam  vessels  are  moved  from  their  docks  or  berths, 
and  other  boats  are  liable  to  pass  from  any  direction  toward 
them,  they  shall  give  the  same  signal  as  in  the  case  of  vessels 
meeting  at  a  bend,  but  immediately  after  clearing  the  berths 
so  as  to  be  fully  in  sight  they  shall  be  governed  by  the  steering 
and  sailing  rules. 

Rule  VL     When  steam  vessels  are  running  in  the  same 


\ 


I 


600 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


direction,  and  the  vessel  which  is  astern  shall  desire  to  pass  on 
the  right  or  starboard  hand  of  the  vessel  ahead,  she  shall  give 
one  short  blast  of  the  steam  whistle,  as  a  signal  of  such  desire, 
and  if  the  vessel  ahead  answers  with  one  blast,  she  shall  put  her 
helm  to  port;  or  if  she  shall  desire  to  pass  on  the  left  or  port 
side  of  the  vessel  ahead,  she  shall  give  two  short  blasts  of  the 
steam  whistle  as  a  signal  of  such  desire,  and  if  the  vessel  ahead 
answers  with  two  blasts,  shall  put  her  helm  to  starboard; or 
if  the  vessel  ahead  does  not  think  it  safe  for  the  vessel  astern 
to  attempt  to  pass  at  that  point,  she  shall  immediately  signify 
the  same  by  giving  several  short  and  rapid  blasts  of  the  steam 
whistle,  not  less  than  four,  and  imder  no  circumstances  shall  the 
vessel  astern  attempt  to  pass  the  vessel  ahead  until  such  time 
as  they  have  reached  a  point  where  it  can  be  safely  done,  when 
said  vessel  ahead  shall  signify  her  willingness  by  blowing  the 
proper  signals.  The  vessel  ahead  shall  in  no  case  attempt  to 
cross  the  bow  or  crowd  upon  the  course  of  the  passing  vessel. 

Every  vessel  coming  up  with  another  vessel  from  any  direction 
more  than  two  points  abaft  her  beam,  that  is,  in  such  a  position, 
with  reference  to  the  vessel  which  she  is  overtaking  that  at 
night  she  would  be  unable  to  see  either  of  that  vessePs  side 
lights,  shall  be  deemed  to  be  an  overtaking  vessel;  and  no 
subsequent  alteration  of  the  bearing  between  the  two  vessels 
shall  make  the  overtaking  vessel  a  crossing  vessel  within  the 
meaning  of  these  rules,  or  relieve  her  of  the  duty  of  keeping 
clear  of  the  overtaken  vessel  until  she  is  finally  past  and  clear. 

As  by  day  the  overtaking  vessel  can  not  always  know  with 
certainty  whether  she  is  forward  of  or  abaft  this  direction  from 
the  other  vessel  she  should,  if  in  doubt,  assume  that  she  is  an 
overtaking  vessel  and  keep  out  of  the  way. 

Rule  VIL  When  two  steam  vessels  are  approaching  each 
other  at  right  angles  or  obliquely  so  as  to  involve  risk  of  col- 
lision, other  than  when  one  steam  vessel  is  overtaking  another, 
the  steam  vessel  which  has  the  other  on  her  own  port  side  shall 
hold  her  course  and  speed ;  and  the  steam  vessel  which  has  the 
other  on  her  own  starboard  side  shall  keep  out  of  the  way  of  the 
other  by  directing  her  course  to  starboard  so  as  to  cross  the 
stem  of  the  other  steam  vessel,  or,  if  necessary  to  do  so,  slacken 
her  speed  or  stop  or  reverse. 


RULES   OF  THE  ROAD  AT  SEA 


601 


If  from  any  cause  the  conditions  covered  by  this  situation  are 
such  as  to  prevent  immediate  compliance  with  each  other's 
signals,  the  misunderstanding  or  objection  shall  be  at  once  made 
apparent  by  blowing  the  danger  signal,  and  both  steam  vessels 
shall  be  stopped  and  backed  if  necessary,  until  signals  for  passing 
with  safety  are  made  and  understood. 

Rule  VIII,  When  a  steam  vessel  and  a  sailing  vessel  are 
proceeding  in  such  directions  as  to  involve  risk  of  collision,  the 
steam  vessel  shall  keep  out  of  the  way  of  the  sailing  vessel. 

Rule  IX,  Every  steam  vessel  which  is  directed  by  these  rules 
to  keep  out  of  the  way  of  another  vessel  shall,  if  the  circum- 
stances of  the  case  admit,  avoid  crossing  ahead  of  the  other. 

Rule  X,  In  narrow  channels  every  steam  vessel  shall,  when 
it  is  safe  and  practicable,  keep  to  that  side  of  the  fairway  or  mid- 
channel  which  lies  on  the  starboard  side  of  such  vessel. 

Rule  XI,  In  obeying  and  construing  these  rules  due  regard 
shall  be  had  to  all  dangers  of  navigation  and  collision,  and  to  any 
special  circumstances  which  may  render  a  departure  from  the 
above  rules  necessary  in  order  to  avoid  immediate  danger. 

Sound  Signals  for  Fog,  and  So  Forth 

Rule  XII,  In  fog,  mist,  falling  snow,  or  heavy  rainstorms, 
whether  by  day  or  night,  signals  shall  be  given  as  follows : 

A  steam  vessel  under  way,  except  when  towing  other  vessels 
or  being  towed,  shall  sound,  at  intervals  of  not  more  than  one 
minute,  on  the  whistle  or  siren,  a  prolonged  blast. 

A  steam  vessel  when  towing  other  vessels  shall  sound,  at 
intervals  of  not  more  than  one  minute,  on  the  whistle  or  siren, 
three  blasts  in  succession,  namely,  one  prolonged  blast  followed 
by  two  short  blasts. 

A  vessel  towed  may  give,  at  intervals  of  not  more  than  one 
minute,  on  the  fog  horn,  a  signal  of  three  blasts  in  succession, 
namely,  one  prolonged  blast  followed  by  two  short  blasts,  and 
she  shall  not  give  any  other. 

A  vessel  when  at  anchor  shall,  at  intervals  of  not  more  than 
one  minute,  ring  the  bell  rapidly  for  about  five  seconds. 


m 


{}  \ 


I 


602 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Speed  to  be  Moderate  in  Fog,  and  So  Forth 

Rule  XIII.  Every  steam  vessel  shall,  in  a  fog,  mist,  falling 
snow,  or  heavy  rainstorms,  go  at  a  moderate  speedy  having 
careful  regard  to  the  existing  circumstances  and  conditions. 

A  steam  vessel  hearing,  apparently  forward  of  her  beam,  the 
fog  signal  of  a  vessel  the  position  of  which  is  not  ascertained 
shall,  so  far  as  the  circumstances  of  the  case  admit,  stop  her 
engines,  and  then  navigate  with  caution  until  danger  of  collision 
is  over. 

Posting  of  Pilot  Rules 

On  steam  and  other  motor  vessels  of  over  100  gross  tons,  two 
copies  of  the  placard  form  of  these  rules  (Form  803)  shall  be  kept 
posted  up  in  conspicuous  places  in  the  vessel,  one  copy  of  which 
shall  be  kept  posted  up  in  the  pilot  house. 

Diagrams 

The  following  diagrams  are  intended  to  illustrate  the  working 
of  the  system  of  colored  lights  and  pilot  rules: 


N 

First  Situation 
Here  the  two  colored  lights  visible  to  each  will  indicate  their 
direct  approach  "  head  and  head  "  toward  each  other.  In  this 
situation  it  is  a  standing  rule  that  both  shall  put  their  helms  to 
port  and  pass  on  the  port  side  of  each  other,  each  having  previ- 
ously given  one  blast  of  the  whistle. 


Second  Situation 
In  this  situation  the  red  light  only  will  be  visible  to  each,  the 
screens  preventing  the  green  lights  from  being  seen.    Both 
vessels  are  evidently  passing  to  port  of  each  other,  which  is 


RULES  OF  THE  ROAD  AT  SEA 


603 


rulable  in  this  situation,  each  pilot  having  previously  signified 
his  intention  by  one  blast  of  the  whistle. 


Third  Situation 

In  this  situation  the  green  light  only  will  be  visible  to  each,  the 
screens  preventing  the  red  light  from  being  seen.  They  are 
therefore  passing  to  starboard  of  each  other,  which  is  rulable  in 
this  situation,  each  pilot  having  previously  signified  his  intention 
by  two  blasts  of  the  whistle. 


Fourth  Situation 
In  this  situation  one  steam  vessel  is  overtaking  another  steam 
vessel  from  some  point  within  the  angle  of  two  points  abaft  the 
beams  of  the  overtaken  steam  vessel.  The  overtaking  steam 
vessel  may  pass  on  the  starboard  or  port  side  of  the  steam 
vessel  ahead  after  the  necessary  signals  for  passing  have  been 
given,  with  assent  of  the  overtaken  steam  vessel,  as  prescribed 
in  Rule  VI. 


Fifth  Situation 

In  this  situation  two  steam  vessels  are  approaching  each 
other  at  right  angles  or  obliquely  in  such  manner  as  to  involve 


i    ' 


t  [  I 


n-\ 


■^  i 


604 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


RULES  OF  THE  ROAD  AT  SEA 


605 


risk  of  collision,  other  than  where  one  steam  vessel  is  overtaking 
another.  The  steam  vessel  which  has  the  other  on  her  own 
port  side  shall  hold  course  and  speed,  and  the  other  shall  keep 
clear  by  crossing  astern  of  the  steam  vessel  that  is  holding 
course  and  speed,  or,  if  necessary  to  do  so,  shall  slacken  her 
speed  or  stop  or  reverse. 

IV 

Special  Rules 

U.  S,  Local  Inspectors  of  Steam  Vessels 

Act  of  September  4,  1890,  m  Regard  to  Collision  at  Sea,  that 
Went  into  Efifect  December  15,  1890 

By  the  President  of  the  United  States  of  America 

A  proclamation 

Whereas  an  act  of  Congress  in  regard  to  collisions  at  sea  was 
approved  September  4,  1890,  the  said  act  being  in  the  following 
words : 

"  Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives 
of  the  United  States  of  America  in  Congress  assembled,  That 
in  every  case  of -collision  between  two  vessels  it  shall  be  the 
duty  of  the  master  or  person  in  charge  of  each  vessel,  if  and  so 
far  as  he  can  do  so  without  serious  danger  to  his  own  vessel, 
crew,  and  passengers  (if  any),  to  stay  by  the  other  vessel  until 
he  has  ascertained  that  she  has  no  need  of  further  assistance, 
and  to  render  to  the  other  vessel,  her  master,  crew,  and  pas- 
sengers (if  any)  such  assistance  as  may  be  practicable  and  as 
may  be  necessary  in  order  to  save  them  from  any  danger  caused 
by  the  collision,  and  also  to  give  to  the  master  or  person  in  charge 
of  the  other  vessel  the  name  of  his  own  vessel  and  her  port  of 
registry,  or  the  port  or  place  to  which  she  belongs,  and  also  the 
name  of  the  ports  and  places  from  which  and  to  which  she  is 
bound.  If  he  fails  so  to  do,  and  no  reasonable  cause  for  such 
failure  is  shown,  the  collision  shall,  in  the  absence  of  proof  to 
the  contrary,  be  deemed  to  have  been  caused  by  his  wrongful 
act,  neglect,  or  default. 

"  Sec.  2.  That  every  master  or  person  in  charge  of  a  United 
States  vessel  who  fails,  without  reasonable  cause,  to  render 


such  assistance  or  give  such  information  as  aforesaid  shall  be 
deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  shall  be  liable  to  a  penalty 
of  one  thousand  dollars,  or  imprisonment  for  a  term  not  exceeding 
two  years;  and  for  the  above  sum  the  vessel  shall  be  liable  and 
may  be  seized  and  proceeded  against  by  process  in  any  district 
court  of  the  United  States  by  any  person ;  one-half  of  such  sum  to 
be  payable  to  the  informer  and  the  other  half  to  the  United  States. 

"  Sec.  3.  That  this  act  shall  take  effect  at  a  time  to  be  fixed 
by  the  President  by  Proclamation  issued  for  that  purpose." 

And  whereas  it  is  provided  by  section  3  of  the  said  act  that  it 
shall  take  effect  at  a  time  to  be  fixed  by  the  President  by  procla- 
mation issued  for  that  purpose : 

Now,  therefore,  I,  Benjamin  Harrison,  President  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  do  hereby,  in  virtue  of  the  authority 
vested  in  me  by  section  3  of  the  said  act,  proclaim  the  fifteenth 
day  of  December,  1890,  as  the  day  on  which  the  said  act  shall 
take  effect. 

In  testimony  whereof  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  caused 
the  seal  of  the  United  States  of  America  to  be  affixed. 

Done  at  the  city  of  Washington  this  eighteenth  day  of  Novem- 
ber, in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
ninety  and  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States  the  one 
hundred  and  fifteenth. 

[Seal]  Benj.  Harrison 

By  the  President: 

James  G.  Blaine,  Secretary  of  State 

Rule  Relating  to  the  Use  of  Searchlights 

The  Board  of  Supervising  Inspectors,  at  their  annual  meeting 
of  January,  1905,  adopted  the  following  rule  relating  to  the  use 
of  searchlights : 

Any  master  or  pilot  of  any  steam  vessel  who  shall  flash  or 
cause  to  be  flashed  the  rays  of  the  searchlight  into  the  pilot 
house  of  a  passing  vessel  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  misconduct 
and  shall  be  liable  to  have  his  license  suspended  or  revoked. 

Rule  Prohibiting  Unnecessary  Sounding  of  the  Steam  Whistle 
[Authority:  Act  of  Congress  approved  February  8,  1907] 
The  Board  of  Supervising  Inspectors,  at  their  aimual  meeting 
of  January,  1907,  adopted  the  following  rule: 


i 
i 


606 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


RULES   OF  THE  ROAD  AT  SEA 


607 


Unnecessary  sounding  of  the  steam  whistle  is  prohibited  within 
any  harbor  limits  of  the  United  States.  Whenever  any  licensed 
officer  in  charge  of  any  steamer  authorizes  or  permits  such 
unnecessary  whistling,  upon  conviction  thereof  before  any  board 
of  inspectors  having  jurisdiction,  such  officer  shall  be  suspended 
from  acting  under  his  license  as  the  inspectors  trying  the  case 
may  deem  proper. 

Rule  Prohibitmg  the  Carrying  of  Unauthorized  Lights  on 

Steam  Vessels 

[Adopted  by  the  Board  of  Supervising  Inspectors  on  February  16,  1910,  and 
approved  by  the  Secretary  of  Commerce  on  March  9,  1910.  Authority: 
Section  4450,  Revised  Statutes] 

Any  master  or  pilot  of  any  steam  vessel  who  shall  authorize  or 
permit  the  carrying  of  any  light,  electric  or  otherwise,  not  re- 
quired by  law,  on  the  outside  structure  of  the  cabin  or  hull  of 
the  vessel  that  in  any  way  will  interfere  with  distinguishing  the 
signal  lights  shall,  upon  conviction  thereof  before  any  board  of 
inspectors  having  jurisdiction,  be  deemed  guilty  of  misconduct 
and  shall  be  liable  to  have  his  license  suspended  or  revoked. 


Notes  on  Rules  of  the  Road 

Death  through  negligence,  misconduct,  etc. 

"  Every  captain,  engineer,  pilot  or  other  person  employed  on 
any  steamboat  or  vessel,  by  whose  misconduct,  negligence,  or 
inattention  to  his  duties  on  such  vessel  the  life  of  any  person  is 
destroyed,  and  every  owner,  charterer,  inspector,  or  other  public 
officer,  through  whose  fraud,  neglect,  connivance,  misconduct,  or 
violation  of  law  the  life  of  any  person  is  destroyed,  shall  be  fined 
not  more  than  ten  thousand  dollars  or  imprisoned  not  more 
than  ten  years,  or  both,  ..." 

Act  March  3, 190S,  Sec.  282;  35  St.  at  Large  1144. 


Rules  of  the  Road  are  mandatory. 

"  I  do  not  want  any  option  in  these  rules.  The  minute  that 
you  permit  a  sailor  to  have  an  option,  whether  he  will  or  will  not 
do  a  certain  thing,  you  introduce  confusion  in  the  rules.  I  want 
to  see  these  rules,  as  far  as  they  can  be  made,  as  rigid  as  steel, 
so  that  there  shall  be  no  doubt  what  the  Conference  of  Nations 
mean.    They  say,  *  Obey  these  rules,  and  you  will  be  saved 


from  the  danger  of  negligence;  disobey  them,  and  the  courts 
will  impose  upon  you  the  penalties  of  disobedience  to  the  rules 
adopted  by  the  nations  of  the  world.'  " 

Delegate  Goodrich  (United  States)  in  the  International 
Conference  Rule  of  the  Road  Committee. 

Rules  apply  to  all  vessels  alike. 

"  The  size,  importance  or  speed  of  a  vessel  does  not  give  her 
special  rights  over  small,  less  important  or  slower  vessels.  All 
are  equal  under  the  rules  and  obligated  to  the  same  strict 
observance   of   them.    Passenger   steamers   have   no   special 

rififhts." 

The  Bellingham,  138  Fed.  619. 

Obedience  to  rules. 

"  Obedience  to  the  rules  is  not  a  fault  even  if  a  different 
course  would  have  prevented  the  collision,  and  the  necessity 
must  be  clear  and  the  emergency  sudden  and  alarming  before 
the  act  of  disobedience  can  be  excused.  Masters  are  bound  to 
obey  the  rules  and  entitled  to  rely  on  the  assimiption  that  they 
will  be  obeyed." 

Bilden  V.  Chase,  150  U.  S.,  674,  699. 

The  rule  of  special  circumstances. 

"  In  obeying  and  construing  the  rules,  due  regard  must  be  had 
to  all  the  dangers  of  navigation  and  collision,  and  to  any  special 
circumstances  which  may  render  a  departure  from  the  rules 
necessary  in  order  to  avoid  immediate  danger." 


Close  shaving  must  be  avoided. 

"...  if  the  rules  are  carried  out  according  to  the  spirit  of 
them,  I  am  sure  every  one  will  agree  with  me  in  sa3ring  that  it  is 
necessary  for  the  keeping-out-of-the-way  vessel  to  maneuver 
so  as  to  leave  the  way  free  for  the  other  vessel  in  time,  not  only 
in  time  to  avoid  a  collision,  but,  as  far  as  possible,  in  time  to 
avoid  even  the  risk  of  a  collision.    Close  shaving  is  to  be 

avoided." 

Prot.  of  Proc,  p.  524. 

When  a  vessel  is  "  under  way?^ 

A  vessel  lying  dead  in  the  water  is  imder  way,  if  not  at  anchor 
or  made  fast  to  the  shore  or  aground,  and  is  an  overtaken  vessel 
in  respect  to  any  vessel  approaching  from  any  direction  more  than 
two  points  abaft  her  beam. 

The  George  W.  Elder,  249  Fed.  956,  958» 


22 


II 


M 


M> 


t* 


608 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


RULES  OF  THE  ROAD  AT  SEA 


609 


Screening  lights. 

"  Great  care  should  be  exercised  to  see  that  the  inboard 
screens  of  the  colored  running  lights  are  placed  exactly  as 
required  by  the  rules,  and  that  the  lights  are  set  in  their  proper 
positions.  If  so  placed,  the  rays  will  cross  at  the  proper  distance 
ahead  of  the  ship. 

"  Extraordinary  care  should  always  be  exercised  in  screening 
and  watching  the  running  lights  when  placed  in  the  rigging. 
In  the  case  of  lights  so  located,  it  is  difficult  to  fix  the  inboard 
screens  sufficiently  rigid  on  a  line  with  the  keel  and  in  per- 
pendicular so  that  they  will  not  show  across  the  bow;  but 
failure  to  have  such  lights  conform  in  these  and  in  all  other 
respects  with  the  regulations  is  a  source  of  danger.  The  diffi- 
culty should,  therefore,  increase  the  caution.  Side  lights  so 
located  on  sailing  vessels  are  particularly  apt  to  cause  trouble, 
and  being  subject  to  change  under  sail  pressure,  are  likely  to 
convey  to  an  approaching  vessel  the  impression  that  the  sailing 
vessel  has  changed  her  course." 

La  Boyteaux. 

Anchor  lights. 

"  Anchor  lights  should  be  placed  strictly  in  accordance  with 
the  rule.  They  should  not  he  placed  in  too  close  proximity  to 
the  masts,  nor  where  they  will  be  obscured  in  any  direction 
by  the  masts,  spars,  sails  or  rigging. 

"  Sails  and  all  gear  should  be  so  stowed  that  they  will  not 
obstruct  the  anchor  lights  in  any  way. 

"The  forward  light  for  vessels  of  150  feet  or  upwards  in 
length  must  be  located  in  the  forward  part  of  the  vessel.  The 
forestay  is  the  usual  and  probably  the  best  place." 

La  Boyteaux. 

speed  in  fog. 

"  The  discretion  of  the  navigator  in  the  matter  of  speed  in  a 
fog  must  be  exercised  not  wholly  as  a  matter  of  individual  judg- 
ment or  individual  views  as  to  what  is  moderate  speed,  but 
also  with  due  regard  to  the  interpretation  of  the  term  *  moderate 
speed '  by  the  maritime  courts  and  to  the  general  standards  of 
good  seamanship  established  by  those  courts  in  applying  the 
term  *  moderate  speed.' " 

The  Sagamore,  247  Fed.  743,  749. 


Vessel  may  be  stopped  in  fog. 

"  .  .  .  if  a  steam  vessel  in  a  fog  cannot  be  continuously  navi- 
gated at  such  a  slow  speed  as  will  comply  with  the  requirement 
of  Article  16,  she  must,  in  the  absence  of  exceptional  dangers  of 
navigation,  such  as  may  arise  from  narrow  waters  or  current, 
be  stopped  from  time  to  time  to  take  off  her  way." 

The  Eagle  Point  (C.C.A.),  120  Fed.  449,  454. 


Precautions. 

"  The  general  consensus  of  opinion  in  this  country  is  to  the 
effect  that  a  steamer  is  bound  to  use  only  such  precautions  as 
will  enable  her  to  stop  in  time  to  avoid  a  collision,  after  the 
approaching  vessel  comes  in  sight,  provided  such  approaching 
vessel  is  herself  going  at  the  moderate  speed  required  by  law." 

U.  S.  Supreme  Court. 

Circumstances  affecting  speed  in  fog.* 

Amongst  the  circumstances  and  conditions  for  which  careful 
regard  must  be  had  in  determining  what  shall  constitute  moder- 
ate speed,  the  following  were  mentioned  in  the  discussion  before 
the  conference : 

The  density  of  the  fog  and  the  condition  of  the  weather  for 
hearing  fog  signals; 

Whether  the  vessel  is  in  narrow  waters  or  on  the  broad 
ocean; 

Whether  on  fishing  grounds  or  in  frequented  or  unfre- 
quented waters; 
The  possibili^  or  probability  of  meeting  other  vessels; 
The  readiness  with  which  a  vessel  (if  laden  or  in  ballast) 
is  able  to  maneuver; 

The  quickness  with  which  she  can  be  brought  to  a  stand- 
still with  the  reserve  of  steam  available  for  that  purpose ; 

Her  position  with  respect  to  heavy  tideways,  strong  currents 
or  other  dangers. 

The  rate  of  speed  constituting  "  moderate  speed  "  under  the 
requirement  of  this  rule,  therefore,  will  depend  entirely  upon  the 
location  of  the  vessel,  the  probability  of  meeting  other  vessels, 
the  density  of  the  fog,  her  ability  to  maneuver  or  bring  herself 
to  a  standstill  quickly,  and  any  and  all  other  surrounding  cir- 
cumstances and  conditions  affecting  her  own  safety  or  the  safety 
of  others. 

This  rule  permits  only  such  speed  in  a  fog  as  a  vessel  may 
maintain  without  danger  to  herself  or  without  endangering  others. 

La  Boyteaux. 

The  first  thing  that  a  mate  on  the  bridge  does  when  he  hears  a 
fog  horn  is  to  blow  his  own,  and  he  always  answers  the  signal 

*  Steamers  eqtiipped  with  wireless  apparatus  and  also  those  equipped  with 
submarine  signalling  apparatus  should  make  full  use  of  these  systems  to  safe- 
guard to  the  utmost  navigation  in  a  fog.  Navigators  whose  vessels  are  so 
equipped  must  not,  however,  rely  upon  information  secured  through  the 
use  of  such  apparatus  to  disregard  the  positive  requirements  of  the  rule  in 
respect  to  moderate  speed  or  the  stopping  of  the  engines  upon  hearing  a  fog 
signal  forward  of  the  beam. 


610 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


RULES  OF  THE  ROAD  AT  SEA 


611 


I 


I  'J 


■ 


at  once.  The  man  on  the  other  vessel  cannot  possibly  hear  him, 
because  his  ears  are  deafened  by  the  noise  of  his  own  horn, 
and  he  is,  therefore,  not  aware  of  the  presence  of  the  other  vessel 
until  it  is  too  late,  and  at  the  subsequent  trial  he  will  swear,  and 
truthfully  too,  that  he  never  heard  the  fog  horn,  although  it  was 
blown  as  often  as  his  own.  All  officers  should  be  warned  that  if 
they  blow  their  horn  immediately  after  hearing  another  one  they 
will  not  be  heard.  They  should  wait  at  least  half  a  minute 
before  they  answer  a  distant  call,  in  order  to  allow  those  on 
board  the  other  vessel  to  regain  the  full  use  of  their  ears. 

Nautical  Magazine. 


>4UT0MATIC 


OFF 


_J. 


5WiTCH? 


TO  DYNAMO 


Automatic  fog  signal  arrangement. 


Sailing  craft  in  fog. 

Moderate  speed  for  a  sailing  craft  is  such  speed  as  will  enable 
her  to  be  kept  properly  under  command,  but  no  more. 

The  provision  "  having  careful  regard  for  the  existing  circum- 
stances and  conditions  "  is  intended  as  a  warning  that  strict 


attention  and  consideration  must  be  given  by  mariners  to  all 
conditions,  the  density  of  the  fog,  etc.,  the  state  of  the  weather, 
the  proximity  of  the  land  or  rocks,  the  position  of  the  vessel 
in  respect  to  the  possibility  or  probability  of  other  vessels 
being  in  the  vicinity;  and,  in  fact,  to  any  and  all  circumstances 
which  could  in  any  manner  affect  the  handling  of  the  vessel. 

Sailing  vessel  and  steamer. 

"  Where  a  sailing  vessel  and  a  steamer  are  proceeding  in  a 
direction  that  may  involve  collision,  the  duty  of  the  former  is  to 
hold  its  course,  while  the  latter  keeps  out  of  its  way.  The  ob- 
servance of  the  rule  is  no  more  strictly  required  of  one  than  of 
the  other.  The  rule  creates  a  mutual  obligation,  whereby  the 
sailing  vessel  is  required  to  hold  its  course  in  order  that  the 
other  may  know  its  position,  and  not  be  led  into  erroneous 
maneuvers  in  endeavoring  to  comply  with  the  requirements  of 
the  rule.    The  rule  is  imperative,  and  admits  of  no  option  or 

choice." 

Europa,  116  Fed.  696,  698. 

Sailing  vessel  and  steamer. 

"  Meeting  a  sailing  vessel  proceeding  in  such  a  direction  as  to 
involve  risk,  it  was  her  [the  steamer's]  duty  to  keep  out  of  the 
way,  and  nothing  but  inevitable  accident,  or  the  conduct  and 
movements  of  the  ship  can  repel  the  presumption  that  she  was 
negligent,  arising  from  the  fact  of  collision.  But  this  duty  of 
the  steamer  implies  a  correlative  obligation  of  the  ship  to  keep 
her  course,  and  do  nothing  to  mislead." 

The  Scotia,  14  Wall.  170,  181. 

Sailing  vessel  cannot  hold  on  blindly. 

"  As  a  privileged  vessel  [sailing  vessel],  she  was  bound  to 
maintain  her  course  so  long  as  it  was  possible  for  the  burdened 
vessel  to  avoid  her,  at  least  in  the  absence  of  some  distinct 
indication  that  the  burdened  vessel  was  about  to  fail  in  her 
duty.  We  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  schooner  had  notice  of  the 
intention  of  the  tug  [the  burdened  vessel]  to  hold  her  course, 
and  thus  create  a  situation  where  disaster  was  inevitable  unless 
the  schooner  gave  way,  at  a  time  when  there  was  ample  oppor- 
tunity to  have  avoided  a  collision  had  she  acted  promptly  and  with 
ordinary  skill  and  prudence.  .  .  .  The  tug  gave  no  indication  of 
changing  her  course,  and  the  situation  was  one  calling  for  the 
utmost  caution  on  the  part  of  the  schooner.  .  .  .  The  tug,  by 
her  own  negligence,  of  course,  had  brought  about  a  situation 
where  a  collision  could  be  avoided  only  by  the  prompt  intelligent 
action  of  the  schooner.  Can  there  be  a  doubt  that  it  was  her 
duty  so  to  act?    Was  she  justified  in  holding  her  course  with 


r-     I 


1 


f  V 


m 


612 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


RULES  OF  THE  ROAD  AT  SEA 


613 


♦  !' 


stubborn  determination  when  it  was  demonstrated  that  such 
action  could  only  result  in  a  collision?  We  think  not.  The 
law  provides  that  in  obe3ring  and  construing  the  rules  of  naviga- 
tion *  due  regard  shall  be  had  to  all  dangers  of  navigation,  and 
to  any  special  circumstances  which  may  render  a  departure  from 
the  above  rides  necessary  in  order  to  avoid  immediate  danger.' 
The  rules  are  not  to  be  blindly  followed  to  certain  disaster.  It 
behooves  every  navigator  to  avoid  a  collision  if  he  can  do  so  and 
for  manifest  error,  except  in  the  jaws  of  collision,  he  must  be 
held  responsible.  He  cannot  plead  that  his  was  the  privileged 
vessel  to  relieve  him  from  consequences  which  were  induced  by 
his  own  lack  of  prudence  and  common  sense." 

The  Gladys  (C.C.A.),  144  Fed.  653,  657. 

Steamers'  Whistles 

It  seems  surprising  that  so  little  attention  has  been  given  to 
so  important  a  part  of  the  vessel's  equipment  on  which  her 
safety,  and  that  of  perhaps  hundreds  of  lives,  may  depend,  but 
it  is  a  fact  that  many  steamers  are  at  present  trading  on  the 
coast  the  whistles  of  which  are  by  no  means  sufficient  to  indicate 
their  proximity  to  other  ships  in  fog  or  to  indicate  to  another 
vessel  in  sight  the  course  she  is  about  to  take. 

The  fault  does  not  lie  so  often  with  the  power  of  the  whistle 
as  with  the  method  adopted  for  draining  off  the  water  condensed 
while  the  whistle  is  out  of  use  or  for  rapidly  disposing  of  the 
condensed  steam  which,  in  cold  weather,  is  deposited  in  the 
whistle  or  connections  long  before  a  clear  blast  can  be  sounded. 
Probably  the  cause  of  a  great  deal  of  unsuitability  in  whistles 
is  due  to  the  fact  of  their  having  been  installed  without  regard 
to  the  boiler  pressure  they  are  to  work  with  and  many  cases  have 
been  observed  where  an  inefficient  whistle,  under  a  bench  test, 
has  sotmded  perfectly,  though  remaining  as  bad  as  before  when 
reinstalled  on  board  the  ship. 

The  principal,  and  most  dangerous,  defect  of  steam  whistles  is, 
however,  the  refusal  to  sound  a  clear  blast  imtil  the  water  ac- 
cumulated in  the  pipe  has  been  blown  out  or  the  whistle  been 
thoroughly  warmed  by  being  repeatedly  blown,  and  faults  of 
this  description  are  very  prone  to  mislead  another  ship  and 
prompt  her  to  take  a  course  that  might  land  both  vessels  in 
serious  difficulty. 

It  is  no  imcommon  sight  on  the  Whangpoo  to  see  a  steamer 
approaching  another  attempt  to  give  a  short  blast  on  her  whistle 
to  indicate  that  she  is  taking  the  starboard  side  of  the  channel 
and  be  unable  to  produce  more  than  a  gasping  cough  that  can 
hardly  be  heard  on  her  own  forecastle  head.  The  officer  in 
charge,  naturally,  does  not  regard  this  as  an  efficient  signal  to 


^ 


3k\ 


the  other  ship  and  repeats  the  blast  to  get  a  clear  and  audible 
sound  from  his  whistle.    But  it  is  quite  probable  that  the  man  m 
the  approaching  ship  has  seen  the  jet  of  steam  from  the  first 
blast  and  concludes  that  some  noise  in  his  own  vicinity  has  pre- 
vented the  sound  bemg  heard.     On  seeing  the  second  jet,  and 
perhaps  hearing  that  blast,  he  con- 
cludes that  two  whistles  have  been 
blown  and  that  the  other  ship  is  alter- 
ing her  course  to  port,  regulating  the 
course  of  his  own  vessel  to  that  be- 
lief.   It  does  not  need  much  imagin- 
ation  to   realize    that   here   is    the 
making  of  a  first-class  disaster  for  the 
occurrence  of  which  it  would  be  wrong 
to   blame   either  officer.      If  blame 
attaches  to  anyone,  it  must  certainly 
be  to  the  builder  who  installed  st^ch 
a  whistle,  the  surveyor  who  permitted 
it  to  pass   or   the    marine  superin- 
tendent who  neglected  to  have  the 
defect  rectified  when  pointed  out  to 
him. 

Unfortunately,  there  can  be  no  hard- 
and-fast  rule  as  to  efficiency  of  steam 
whistles,  but  it  should  certainly  be 
insisted  upon  that  every  whistle  is 
capable  of  blowing  a  loud  and  clear 
blast  the  first  time  the  lanyard  is 
pulled  instead  of  being  seized  with  a 
prolonged  fit  of  coughing  and  splut-  A,  water,  no  sound.  B, 
termg  that  lasts  until  the  water  has  whistle  sounds  when  clear  of 
been   blown    out    and    the    whistle  water, 

warmed.* 

The  instant  readiness  of  the  steam  whistle  or  siren  to  give  a 
clear  blast  indicating  the  course  the  vessel  is  about  to  take  may 
seem  a  small  matter  to  the  uninitiated,  but  its  failure  to  do  so  at  a 
critical  moment  in  crowded  waters  such  as  the  Whangpoo  or 
Yangtze  might  cause  grave  confusion  in  the  mind  of  the  captain 
or  pilot  of  an  approaching  vessel  and,  by  misleading  him  in  his 
interpretation  of  the  other  vessel's  premeditated  action,  lead  him 
to  take  a  course  that  would  bring  about  the  very  accident  to 
avoid  which  the  signal  was  given. 

Shipping  and  Engineering  (Shanghai),  Aug.  6, 1920, 

*  Whistle  pipes  should  connect  directly  to  the  boiler.  A  straight  lead  will 
keep  them  drained.  This  also  prevents  freezing  in  cold  weather.  Leading 
the  pipe  to  the  whistle  inside  the  stack  casing  is  good  practice. 


B 


M 


I 


;i:- 


I'    1, 


614 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Whistle  Steam  pipes  should  be  provided  with  drains.  The 
whistle  installation  is  one  of  the  most  important  details  of  ship 
construction. 

The  Four  Whistle  Signal  and  the  Halifax  Disaster* 

"  Take  the  case  of  the  collision  between  the  ships  which  caused 
the  great  disaster  to  the  City  of  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  on  Dec. 


First  Phase 


6,  1917.    It  will  be  remembered  that  the   Norwegian  steamer 

*  Imo '  of  5043  gross  tons  was  leaving  Bedford  Basin,  Halifax, 
bound  to  sea  and  collided  with  the  French  steamer  *  MU  Blanc  ' 
of  3121  gross  tons  laden  with  TNT,  and  other  explosives,  bound 
in  for  Bedford  Basin.  The  collision  took  place  in  the  Narrows 
and  was  due  entirely  to  a  misunderstanding  of  signals.  There 
was  plenty  of  room  for  the  vessels  to  have  passed  each  other, 
and  the  vessels  were  also  plainly  visible  to  each  other. 

"  At  the  official  inquiry  the  captain  of  the  *  Mt  Blanc '  said 
that  he  was  on  the  starboard  side  of  the  passage  about  one 
hundred  and  twenty  feet  from  the  Dartmouth  shore ;   that  the 

*  Im6*s  *  starboard  side  was  visible  to  him  about  two  points 
on  his  port  bow  distant  about  half  a  mile  and  that  she  was 
headed  across  his  course,  viz.  toward  the  Dartmouth  shore. 
{First  Phase.)    He  gave  one  short  blast  to  indicate  that  he  was 

*  Printed  by  courtesy  of  The  National  Marine,  and  Lieut.  James  Otis 
Porter,  U.S.N.R.,  formerly  Executive  Officer  of  the  Massachusetts  Schoolship 
Nantucket, 


RULES  OF  THE  ROAD  AT  SEA 


615 


going  to  starboard,  and  slowed  his  engines.  The  *  Imo ' 
replied  with  two  short  blasts,  crossing  his  signals,  contrary  to 
all  rules.    It  is  fair  to  say  however  that  survivors  of  the  Imo  say 


2nd  Phase 


that  the  Mt.  Blanc  gave  two  blasts.*  She  did  not,  but  they 
thought  she  did.  K  she  had  it  would  have  created  a  very  awk- 
ward situation,  and  right  there  was  where  a  four  whistle  danger 
signal  by  the  Mt.  Blanc  on  the  Imo  would  have  prevented  the 
accident.  The  Mt.  Blanc  was  swinging  to  starboard  and  Imo 
to  port  and  rapidly  approaching  each  other.  In  the  meantime 
the  captain  of  the  Mt.  Blanc  stopped  his  engines.  When  the 
ships  were  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  apart  he  gave  two 
blasts.  The  ships  were  now  fifty  feet  apart  nearly  parallel  each 
having  the  other  to  starboard.  {Second  Phase.)  The  Imo  re- 
versed her  enginest  and  gave  three  blasts  and  the  Mt.  Blanc 
also  gave  three  blasts  and  reversed,^  with  a  starboard  helm, 
in  order  to  take  the  blow  as  far  forward  as  possible.  {Third 
Phase.) 

"  The  master  of  the  Mt.  Blanc  was  asked  while  on  the  witness 
stand  at  the  inquiry  if  he  understood  the  Imo*s  two  whistles, 
viz.  in  answer  to  the  first  one  he  gave?  He  said,  *  I  thought 
she  was  whistling  wrong,  but  as  she  signalled  first  I  could  not 
change.' 

*  See  above  on  water  in  whistle. 
t  Bow  swings  to  starboard. 
t  Bow  swings  to  starboard. 


I 


t 


1 


i 


(!• 


616 


I 


ti^.3 


! 

I 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


"  Right  there  was  the  place  and  time  when  the  four  whistle 
signal  would  have  prevented  the  collision.  It  would  have  warned 
the  captain  of  the  Imo  that  he  must  have  misunderstood  the 
Mt,  Blanc  and  that  he  could  not  hold  his  course  without  danger 
of  disaster." 


3rd  Phase 


Wireless  phone. 

The  use  of  whistle  signals  is  unsatisfactory,  but  seems  to  be 
the  best  thing  we  have,  for  the  present,  at  least.  When  the 
wireless  phone  comes  into  general  use  it  should  be  of  great  help 
in  these  matters.  "  I  am  steering  to  starboard  "  would  not  be 
misunderstood. 

The  two  whistle  signal. 

As  this  is  used  when  going  contrary  to  the  general  rule  that 
vessels  should  pass  each  other  on  the  port  hand,  it  should  only 
be  employed  when  absolutely  necessary.  Such  cases  arise  very 
frequently  in  the  crowded  waters  about  New  York,  but  it  is  well 
to  always  go  to  starboard  if  possible. 

Local  routes. 

When  running  along  a  coast  at  night  or  in  thick  weather 
always  have  in  mind  the  local  conditions.  A  vessel  passing 
the  mouth  of  a  large  river,  or  the  entrance  to  a  port,  may  expect 
other  craft  to  come  upon  her  broad  on  either  beam.  A  knowledge 
of  trade  routes,  especially  those  frequented  by  sail  (see  pilot 
charts)  is  of  great  importance. 

Backing. 

Vessels  backing  observe  the  same  steering  rules  as  when 
going  ahead.    But  a  backing  vessel  that  must  give  way  is  often 


RULES  OF  THE  ROAD  AT  SEA 


617 


A  light  tower  or  lighthouse. 


unable  to  do  so  because  of  her  poor  steering  ability  and  the 
rule  of  special  circumstances  comes  into  play. 

Foreign  Inland  Rules. 

Consult  "  Pilots,"  sailing  directions,  and  chart  notes. 

Light  towers. 

On  sailing  craft,  wherever  possi- 
ble, the  side  lights  should  not  be 
carried  in  the  rigging,  where  the 
condition  of  the  shrouds,  either 
slack  to  leeward  or  taut  to  wind- 
ward, may  greatly  efifectthe  screen- 
ing of  the  lights.  On  large  vessels 
light  towers  are  usually  fitted  on 
the  forecastle  head.  These  not 
only  provide  a  well-placed  and  rigid  position  for  the  side  lights, 
but  also  protect  them  from  damage  by  gear  and  from  the  wash 
of  heavy  seas. 

Shapes. 

The  various  shapes  prescribed  by  the  rules  of  the  road  are 
generally  made  of  painted  canvas  stretched  on  metal  frames. 
As  these  shapes  are  seldom  used  it  is  often  found  that  they  are 
out  of  order  when  needed.  They  should  be  stowed  in  a  special 
compartment  of  the  bridge  signal  chest. 

Depth  of  fog. 

Fog  often  lies  in  comparatively  thin  layers.  Send  a  hand  aloft 
and  also  get  a  lookout  down  as  far  as  possible  as  at  times  the 
range  of  view  will  be  widely  extended  from  such  positions. 

Crowds  nest  signals. 

On  some  ships  it  is  the  custom  to  have  the  crow's  nest  lookout 
provided  with  a  horn.  One  short  blast — ^vessel  on  starboard  bow. 
Two  short  blasts— vessel  on  port  bow.  Three  short  blasts — 
vessel  ahead. 

Course  signals. 

Vessels  coming  close  together  in  a  fog,  but  not  in  sight  of  each 
other,  must  not  use  the  direction  signals.  As  soon  as  they  sight 
each  other  these  signals  may  be  used,  although  the  general 
rules  for  steering  hold.  In  the  case  of  a  sailing  vessel,  her 
signals,  on  the  fog  horn  (a  distinctive  sound)  will  indicate  the 
tack  she  is  on  and  her  general  direction.  Wind  is  usually  light 
in  a  fog. 


\ 


618 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


These  verses  by  Thomas  Gray  are  a  good  aid  to  memory — so 
far  as  they  go. 

Two  Steamships  Meeting 

When  you  see  Three  Lights  ahead — 
Port  your  Helm,  and  show  your  Red. 


»•'    nil 


I     :i!' 


ti    i!'l; 


Two  Steamships  Passing 

Green  to  Green,  or  Red  to  Red — 
Perfect  safety,  Go  ahead! 

Two  Steamships  Crossing 

//  to  your  Starboard  Red  appear, 

It  is  your  duty  to  Keep  Clear; 

To  act  as  judgment  says  is  proper, 

To  Port,  or  Starboard,  Back,  or  Stop  her. 

But  when  upon  your  Port  is  seen 

A  Steamers  Starboard  light  of  Green, 

There^s  not  so  much  for  you  to  do. 

The  Green  light  must  keep  clear  of  you. 


V 


I'      I 


General  Caution 

Both  in  safety  and  in  doubt 
Always  keep  a  good  look-out. 
In  danger,  with  no  room  to  turn. 
Ease  her— Stop  her— Go  astern. 

Sailing  Ships 

//  close  hauled  on  the  starboard  tack. 
No  other  ship  can  cross  your  track; 
If  on  the  port  tack  you  appear. 
Ships  going  free  must  all  keep  clear; 
While  you  must  yield  when  going  free. 
To  sail  close  hauled  or  on  your  lee. 
And,  if  you  have  the  wind  right  aft. 
Keep  clear  of  every  sailing  craft. 


CHAPTER  17 


GROUND  TACKLE 


Foreword 

The  ground  tackle  of  a  vessel  consists  of  anchors  and  cables* 
(generally  chain  cables).  The  windlass^  or  anchor  engine,  as 
some  call  it,  is  used  for  heaving  up  the  anchor  or  weighing 
anchor.  The  hawse  pipes  are  loeated  near  the  stem  and  provide 
a  lead  for  the  anchor  chain,  and,  in  the  case  of  stockless  anchors, 
they  provide  stowage  for  the  shank  of  the  anchor,  the  flukes 
resting  snug  against  the  vessel's  side.  A  hawse  pipe  is  some- 
times fitted  in  the  stern  for  a  stern  anchor. 

Coming  up  through  the  hawse  pipes  the  anchor  chain  usually 
passes  through  riding  chocks  fitted  with  heavy  pawls  used  for 
the  purpose  of  taking  the  stress  off  of  the  windlass  when  riding 
at  anchor  in  heavy  weather.  S toppers y  of  various  design,  are 
also  fitted  in  many  vessels  between  the  hawse  pipes  and  the 
windlass  and  are  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

The  chain  passes  over  a  sprocket  wheel  on  the  windlass 
known  as  a  wildcat.  This  engages  the  chain,  link  by  link,  and 
serves  to  apply  the  power  of  the  windlass  engine  to  the  chain 
when  heaving  in.  When  letting  go,  the  wildcat  is  thrown  out  of 
connection  and  revolves  freely,  except  for  its  control  by  a  fric- 
tion band  operated  by  a  brake  lever,  or  a  screw  and  wheel. 

On  merchant  vessels  the  chain,  after  passing  over  the  wild- 
cat, generally  drops  directly  into  the  chain  locker  located  im- 
mediately below.  Chain  lockers  are  usually  built  just  forward 
of  the  collision  bulkhead,  or  just  abaft  of  it.  They  are  deep 
compartments  divided  by  a  stout  wooden  bulkhead  to  separate 
the  starboard  and  port  anchor  chains.  Inspection  of  various 
drawings  in  the  book  (pp.  254,  344),  will  show  the  position  of  the 

*  Torpedo  boats  use  wire  cables.  Fishing  schooners  use  hemp  cables. 
Both  generaZly  use  old-fashioned  anchors. 

619 


< 


1, 


I 


I, 


620 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


chain  locker.  It  is  not  necessary  to  tier  the  chain,  that  is  to 
stow  it,  when  heaving  in.  This  is  done  by  the  shape  of  the 
locker;  the  chain,  confined  by  the  sides  of  the  locker,  falling  and 
resting  in  irregular  short  fakes,  one  on  top  of  another. 


Wildcat- 


Wirtcf/ass 
foundations^ 


Devil  Claw 
!  Stopper 


Diagram  showing  stowage  of  stockless  anchor ^  and  deck  arrangements 

for  working  chain  cable. 

Sometimes  additional  controllers,  or  compressors,  are  fitted 
under  the  deck  chain  pipes  or  naval  pipes  leading  to  the  chain 
locker.    These  lock,  or  control,  the  chain  abaft  of  the  windlass. 

The  deck  chain  pipes,  abaft  of  the  windlass,  should  be  pro- 
vided with  effective  watertight  stoppers.  Where  hawse  pipes 
lead  into  a  'tween  deck,  or  under  a  forecastle  head,  conical 
canvas  stoppers,  stuffed  with  tarred  oakum,  are  often  fitted. 
These  are  pulled  into  the  pipes,  big  end  outboard.  They  are 
hove  tight  by  means  of  rope  tails  usually  taken  to  the  g3rpsey 
heads  of  the  windlass.  These  fittings  are  known  to  sailors  as 
jackasses.  They  are  the  most  effective  method  of  making 
hawse  pipes  water  tight,  especially  in  deep  water  sailing  ships 
with  old-fashioned  ground  tackle,  where  the  anchors  stow  on  the 
bill  boards,  and  chains  are  unshackled  and  hauled  in  when  off 
soundings. 

Ground  tackle  is  in  many  respects  the  most  vital  part  of  a 
vessel's  equipment.  Her  safety  frequently  depends  upon  the 
good  design  and  sound  construction  of  this  important  gear. 
Proper  ground  tackle  has  saved  many  ships  and  lives,  and  on  the 


GROUND  TACKLE 


621 


other  hand,  poor  ground  tackle,  or  ground  tackle  poorly  managed, 
has  often  been  the  prime  cause  of  disaster.  The  seaman  must 
know  his  ground  tackle,  understand  its  use,  its  limitations,  and 
the  many  elements  that  enter  into  its  effective  operation. 

The  writer  recalls  an  experience  in  the  Bay  of  Gibraltar,  in 
1897,  when  the  New  York  Schoolship  St  Mary^s,  anchored  out- 
side of  the  squall  line.  During  a  heavy  blast  from  the  north, 
the  ship  dragged  her  two  bower  anchors,  with  one  hundred 
fathoms  of  chain  on  each  anchor,  yards  braced  sharp  up,  and 
sheet  anchors  about  to  let  go,  when  the  old  ship  slid  off  into  deep 
water  in  the  Straits.  Making  sail  in  the  squalls  and  trying  to 
keep  control  of  the  ship  with  all  of  her  bower  chain  overboard 
was  no  fun.  But  this  was  practical  training.  The  skipper, 
Lieut.  Comm.  W.  H.  Reeder  (in  those  days  a  lieutenant  com- 
mander in  the  U.  S.  Navy  was  an  officer  with  about  twenty-five 
years  of  regular  sea  service  behind  him)  gave  the  boys  on  board 
an  example  of  splendid  seamanship.  It  is  pleasant  to  recal  that 
stirring  time  when  the  old  Mary^s  dragged  past  the  coal  hulk 
Three  Brothers,  once  a  famous  Yankee  ship,  then,  and  perhaps 
still,  a  coal  hulk  in  Gib,  We  went  so  close  our  boat  booms  were 
only  saved  by  quick  work. 

For  half  a  day  forty  boys  at  a  time  manned  the  capstan  bars, 
working  in  the  heavy  chain  inch  by  inch,  while  the  other  sixty 
sailed  the  ship,  or  gave  a  hand  dragging  chain  along  the  gun 
deck  to  the  lockers  located  at  the  foot  of  the  mainmast.  As  the 
boys  at  the  capstan  fell  out  from  time  to  time,  oatmeal  water 
was  fed  to  them,  and  a  yoimgster  with  a  fife,  sitting  on  the 
drum  head  of  the  capstan,  livened  up  the  scene  which  was  wild 
enough,  with  the  roaring  wind  and  slatting  canvas. 

After  this  the  skipper  gave  quite  a  lecture  on  always  studying 
local  conditions  before  coming  to  anchor. 

No  matter  where  you  anchor,  never  for  a  moment  rest  in 
security.  A  nice  muddy  bottom  may  seem  safe,  but  the  mud 
may  only  be  a  soft  silt  without  holding  power  overlying  a  hard- 
pan  bottom,  also  without  holding  power,  especially  if  your  anchor 
plows  through  the  soft  mud  almost  upright.  The  writer  can  tell 
a  story  of  just  such  conditions  in  the  harbor  of  Pensacola,  but 
space  here  will  not  permit,  remember — always  watch  the  weather. 


I 


I 


-; 


622 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


GROUND  TACEXE 


623 


Before  going  on  with  the  specific  details  of  ground  Jackie,  it 
may  be  advisable  to  impress  upon  the  reader  the  importance  of 
knowing  the  exact  state  of  and  method  of  handling  the  gear  in 
the  vessel  in  which  you  happen  to  be.  Books  are  all  right,  but  a 
book  cannot  supply  you  with  all  the  things  you  should  know 
about  the  ground  tackle  you  are  shipmates  with.  Merchant 
craft  anchor  so  seldom,  compared  with  navy  vessels,  that  many 
seaman  make  voyage  after  voyage  directly  from  dock  to  dock, 
never  using  their  anchors.  This  is  all  the  more  reason  why  the 
merchant  seaman  should  make  a  special  study  of  his  ground 

tackle. 

The  young  seaman  should  remember  that  ground  tackle  is 
always  spoken  of  by  sailors  as  ground  TAYKEL  (phonetic  spell- 
ing). The  ay  is  sounded  as  in  may.  Philologists  may  find 
fault  with  this,  but  nevertheless  it  is  the  way  seamen  talk. 

n 

Anchors 

After  centuries  of  development  the  anchor  finally  reached  a 
stage  where  no  further  improvement  seemed  possible.    This 

form  of  anchor,  generally 
known  as  the  "  old-fashi- 
oned "  anchor  is  shown  in  the 
drawing  with  the  names  of 
parts  marked  upon  it.  A  sim- 
ilar formation  of  arms  and 
flukes  seems  to  be  of  very 
early  origin.  Medals,  found 
in  the  Catacombs  of  Rome, 
depict  an  anchor  closely  re- 
sembling that  of  the  present 
day.  The  use  of  an  eye  in 
the  crown,  no  doubt  for  bending  a  tripping  line,  was  a  conces- 
sion to  its  excellent  holding  power.  Of  course  in  those  days  an- 
chor was  weighed  by  hand  with  perhaps  some  form  of  purchase. 
The  anchors  of  Columbus  were  distinguished  by  their  long 
shank,  straight  arms  and  sharp  triangular  flukes.  Heavy  wooden 
stocks  were  lashed,  or  wedged,  by  hoops.  These  were  excellent 
anchors  for  sandy  bottom. 


Anchors  of  early  Christian  era. 
Medals  found  in  Catacombs,  Rome. 


Heavy  pin  through 
eye  of  shank  ana  -^ 
shack /e  secured by\ 
forelock. 


^'fiing  or  Jews  Harp 
also  Shackle 


The  essential  things  to  be  kept  in  mind  in  anchor  design  are 
as  follows :  It  must  bite  quickly,  hold  firm,  even  when  the  vessel 
swings  around  on  her  cable,  and  it  must  be  easy  to  break  out, 
when  weighing  anchor.  It  must  also  present  the  least  chance 
of  fouling,  as  a  foul  anchor  (the  chain  leadmg  around  the  stock 
or  an  arm)  will  not  hold. 

Anchors  with  long  shanks  and  small  sharp  flukes  take  hold 
better  in  sandy  bottom.  A  soft  bottom  will  afford  better  hold  to 
an  anchor  with  a  large  fluke  or  palm.  The  most  general  design 
is  one  m  which  the  shank,  arms,  stock,  etc.,  are  about  as  shown 
in  the  illustration.  The  old-fashioned  anchor  with  the  metal 
stock  is  of  a  heavier  type  and 
that  shown  is  the  design  used 
in  the  navy.  The  balls  at  the 
end  of  the  stock  are  to  prevent 
it  from  sinking  into  the  bottom 
when  canting. 

When  an  old-fashioned  an- 
chor is  let  go  it  strikes  bottom 
crown  first.  The  vessel  should 
have  sternboard,  or  headway, 
so  that  the  chain,  as  it  pays 
out,  will  not  fall  on  top  of  the 
anchor  and  foul  the  stock.  As 
the  anchor  strikes  bottom  it 
will  fall  over  on  its  side  and 
rest  on  the  crown  and  the 
lower  end  of  the  stock.  The 
pull  of  the  chain,  when  the 
brake  is  put  on  the  windlass, 
will  cause  the  stock  to  lie  hori- 
zontal and  cant  the  anchor, 
one  arm  will  point  down,  and  the  bill,  or  pee  will  bite.  The 
palm  or  fluke  will  then  work  down  into  the  bottom.  A  heavy 
pull  will  cause  a  well-designed  anchor  to  bury  itself  in  the 
bottom.  When  weighing  anchor,  the  pull  becomes  up  and  down 
and  the  lifting  of  the  shank  will  cause  the  curved  arm  to  work 
around  in  a  circle  bringing  the  bill  and  fluke  up  through  the 
bottom. 


'^Slade 


Arm -: 


^^"Arrrf 


Throat  or 
Trend  '  -^•crown 

An  old-fashioned  anchor- 
wooden  stock. 


I 


624 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


! 


! 


Q--^ 


The  old-fashioned  anchor  with  its  single  arm  holding  the  bot- 
tom is  more  easily  adjusted  to  different  directions  of  the  cable. 

K  a  vessel  swings  through  a  wide 
angle  the  stock  may  cause  the 
holding  arm  to  come  out,  but  at 
once  the  canting  action  of  the 
stock  will  again  cause  the  other, 
or  the  same  arm,  to  engage  the 
bottom  as  when  letting  go. 
When  swinging  gradually  the 
stock  will  keep  the  arm  pointed 
vertical  and  it  will  pivot  around 
with  the  ship.  The  curved  shape 
of  the  arm  will  prevent  it  from 
working  out  of  its  grip. 

The  old-fashioned  anchor  has 
some  disadvantages.     Difficulty 
in   stowing,  and   ease  of  foul- 
Old-fashioned  anchor.  Metal  stock,   ing  from  improper  letting  go,  are 
Stock  stowed.  among  the  most  objectionable 

features.  Both,  however,  are 
easily  overcome  by  skilled  handlmg.  But  the  time  saved  in 
stowing  a  patent,  or  stockless  anchor,  is  so  important  that  this 
type  is  superseding  the  old-fashioned  anchor  in  most  modern 
craft.  Stockless  anchors  are  even  being  fitted  in  sailmg  craft. 
Here  the  old-fashioned  anchor  should  be  retained.  Sailers, 
even  when  fitted  with  motors,  are  so  much  more  dependent 
upon  their  ground  tackle  that  the  very  best  holding  qualities 
should  be  sought  regardless  of  time  or  trouble  in  catting  and 
fishing. 

This  greater  dependence  of  sailing  craft  upon  their  ground 
tackle  is  recognized  by  the  rules  of  the  classification  societies. 
A  5,000  ton  (equipment  tonnage)  sailer  is  required,  according  to 
A.B.S.  Rules,  to  carry  bower  anchors  weighing  over  8,000  lbs., 
while  a  steamer  of  the  same  size  must  only  have  6,000  lb.  bowers. 
The  greater  amount  of  tophamper  carried  by  sailers  is  also  a 
factor  m  this  greater  weight  of  anchors.  As  a  general  thing,  the 
preponderence  of  weight  in  sailing  ship  anchors  over  steamer 
anchors,  in  vessels  of  the  same  tonnage,  is  as  four  is  to  three. 


GROUND  TACKLE 


625 


The  Patent,  or  Stockless  Anchor* 

This  anchor  is  most  used  in  steam  and  motor  vessels.  In  a 
general  way  it  consists  of  the  following  parts:  The  shank  and 
the  armSf  having  motion  about  the  shank  as  shown  in  the 
drawings.  The  crown  or  head  is  the  part  between  the  arms 
where  they  pivot  on  the  shank.  The  flukes  are  large,  in  fact 
the  arms  are  all  fluke.  Tripping  palms  are  cast  at  the  base  of 
the  arms  to  make  the  fluke  bite.  Practically  all  stockless  anchors 
are  assembled  as  follows:  The  bare  shank,  without  anchor 
shackle,  is  passed  up  through  the  hole  in  the  crown  or  head  of 
the  anchor  between  the  flukes.  It  is  then  secured  in  various 
ways  against  backing,  or  falling  out,  usually  by  pins,  under  the 
heel  of  the  shank,  through  the  heel  of  the  shank,  or  through 
locking  pieces  which  close  up  the  hole  in  the  crown.  All  of  the 
best  anchors  however  are  so  built  that  shoulders,  on  the  shank, 
of  various  shapes  engage  recesses  in  the  head  so  that  the  shank 
cannot  pull  through.  The  Baldt  anchor  is  assembled  in  the 
same  way  and  is  held  by  a  ball  and  socket  joint.  An  inspection 
of  the  drawings  will  show  that  great  similarity  exists  between 
the  standard  form  of  stockless  anchors.  Sketches  of  the  fore- 
most makes  in  the  United  States  are  given  as  a  matter  of  in- 
terest. The  Gruson-Heiny  a  German  anchor,  carries  its  flukes 
in  close  to  the  stock,  giving  somewhat  the  effect  of  a  single 
split  anchor  arm,  an  advantage  when  swinging.  One  object- 
ion to  the  double  fluke  anchor  is  the  tendency  to  cant  or  step 
upy  as  greater  pressure  comes  on  one  fluke  and  then  on  the  other, 
while  a  vessel  swings  or  when  the  anchor  drags  through  un- 
even ground.  Also  one  fluke  may  strike  a  rock  and  the  other 
one  lift  out  of  the  bottom,  causing  the  anchor  to  capsize.  The 
wider  apart  the  flukes  the  more  this  canting  effect  will  be  em- 
phasized. 

Stockless  anchors  have  been  designed  carrying  a  single  fluke, 
and  a  wide  head,  which  performs  the  duty  of  the  old-fashioned 
stock.  Mr.  A.  W.  Jansen,  late  safety  engineer  at  the  navy  yard, 
New  York,  has  developed  such  an  anchor. 

All  well-designed  stockless  anchors  are  provided  with  pro- 
jections or  tripping  palms  on  the  head,  so  that  these  take  hold 

*  Where  weight  of  anchors  is  specified  in  A.B.S.  tables,  l^  the  weight  given 
must  be  added  if  stockless  anchors  are  used. 


I) 


626 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


GROUND  TACKLE 


627 


Dunn 


Admiral 


Allison 


Gruson-Hein 


I  ■! 


Baldt 

National 
Types  of  stockless  anchors  in  general  use  at  sea. 


and  ttirn  the  flukes  down  into  the  ground  when  a  pull  comes  on 
the  cable.    The  drawmgs  indicate  this  clearly. 

The  flukes  are  given  motion  through  ninety' degrees,  forty-five 
degree  on  either  side  of  the  shank. 

The  Eells  Anchor  differs  in  design  from  other  stockless  anchors 
and  presents  many  features  of  interest. 

The  following  extract  from  tests  of  an  Eells  anchor  is  of  interest 
as  it  not  only  demonstrates  the  excellent  holding  power  of  this 
anchor  but  gives  a  good  idea  of  how  an  anchor  test  may  be  made. 

The  method  used  in  conducting  the  tests  was  as  follows : 

The  anchor  to  be  tested  was  shackled  on  to  the  starboard  chain 
and  then  dropped,  the  chain  being  rim  out  to  the  desired  scope 
and  then  shackled  on  to  the  port  chain  on  which  a  testing  link 
with  a  Watson  and  Stillman  100  ton  gauge  attached,  had  been 
placed  between  the  hawsepipe  and  windlass,  port  wildcat  being 
locked  and  compressor  on.  With  starboard  wildcat  open  and 
chain  slack  so  that  no  resistance  was  offered,  the  engines  were 
put  astern  at  various  speeds  in  order  to  obtain  the  results  as  set 
forth  below. 

After  one  anchor  had  been  tested  it  was  hove  up  and  put  on 
deck  while  the  other  anchor  was  being  tested  in  a  similar  way. 
Two  anchors  were  used,  one  a  regular  stockless  type  weighing 
3,145  lbs.  and  one  "  Eells  "  weighing  2,375  lbs. 

Approximate  dimensions  of  steamer  with  which  tests  were 
made  are  as  follows:  Length  150  feet,— breadth  34  feet, — draft 
mean  17  feet,  with  engines  of  1200  horsepower. 

Following  is  a  record  of  the  tests  in  the  order  in  which  they 
occurred. 

First  test:  11  A.M.  off  Stapleton,  S.I.  in  42  feet  of  water,  soft 
mud  bottom;  strong  ebb  tide  rxmning.  Regular  stockless 
anchor  38  fathoms  of  chain  outside.  Engine  Yz  speed  astern, 
anchor  dragging,  no  strain  on  chain. 

Second  test:  12  noon,  same  place  and  conditions.  Eells 
anchor  scope  of  chain  as  above.  Engines  Vs  speed  astern  for 
about  four  minutes,  anchor  holding,  engines  put  %  speed  astern, 
anchor  dragging,  strain  on  chain  3%  tons. 

Third  test:  2 'AS  P.M.  Vi  mile  outside  entrance  buoy  to 
Ambrose  Channel  in  6  fathoms  of  water,  hard  sand  and  gravel 
bottom,  12  knot  breeze,  flood  tide,  slight  sea,  steamer  pitching 
slightly.  Eells  anchor  53  fathoms  scope.  Engines  1/3  speed 
astern  for  few  minutes,  then  %  speed  astern  with  gauge  register- 
ing 6  tons  strain  and  anchor  holding,  then  engines  full  astern 
and  anchor  beginning  to  drag. 

Fourth  test:  4  lis  P,M.    Same  place  and  conditions.    Regu- 


t 


I  i 


628 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


lar  stockless  anchor  same  scope  of  chain.  Engmes  Vs  speed 
astern,  anchor  holding,  then  engines  %  speed  astern  anchor 
commencing  to  drag  when  gauge  registered  a  strain  of  two  tons. 


■'immmii 


Mushroom  Anchor 


^=^=^ 


Grapnel 


J© 


Tro+mans  Anchor 


Mooring  Anchor. 

Types  of  special  anchors. 


Eells  Anchor 


Fifth  test:  7:00  P.M.  On  lower  spit  of  Red  Hook  Flats  in 
6  fathoms  of  water,  hard  clay  bottom,  calm,  sea  smooth,  strong 
flood  tide,  stocless  anchor  scope  of  chain  as  above.  Engines 
started  astern  and  gradually  worked  up  to  full  speed,  anchor 
holding  registered  strain  on  chain  6Vi  tons.  Engines  stopped 
and  backed  full  speed  three  times,  anchor  commencing  to  drag 
on  third  attempt. 

Sixth  test:  8:15  P.M.  Same  place  and  conditions.  Eells 
anchor,  same  scope  of  chain.  Engines  gradually  worked  up  to 
%  speed  astern,  anchor  then  commencing  to  drag  when  gauge 
registered  a  strain  of  6  tons  on  chain. 


GROUND  TACKLE 


629 


Considering  the  previous  tests  it  was  concluded  that  the  last 
test  of  the  Eells  anchor  was  not  a  fair  test;  but  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  it  was  getting  dark  no  additional  test  could  be  made. 

This  anchor  is  used  to  a  great  extent  by  wrecking  companies, 
and  seems  to  be  well  fitted  for  use  as  a  stream  anchor  or  a  kedge 
because  of  its  superior  holding  power.  Anchors  of  the  largest 
size,  however,  are  built  on  this  design. 

Trotman^s  anchor  is  notably  free  from  fouling  as  the  upper 
arm  lies  close  to  the  shank.  It  is  really  an  old-fashioned  anchor 
and  has  much  to  recommend  it  for  use  by  sailers.* 

The  single  arm  mooring  anchor  is  also  free  from  fouling.  It  is 
a  good  anchor  to  put  down  as  a  permanent  mooring ;  for  ship  use 
it  is  uncertain  as  the  anchor  may  cant,  fluke  upj  and  the  vessel 
drag  for  an  indefinite  distance. 

In  anchor  design  extra  large  palms  are  not  always  an  advantage 
as  they  are  more  liable  to  become  shod  and  loose  much  of  their 
holding  power.    This  is  specially  so  in  clay  bottom. 

Classification  of  Anchors 

Anchors  are  classed  as  follows : 

Bower  anchors,  the  main  working  anchors  of  a  vessel,  are 
carried  on  or  near  the  bow  and  are  generally  referred  to  as  the 
Starboard  and  Port  anchors. 

The  spare  bower  anchor  may  be  lighter  in  weight  than  the 
regular  bowers,  according  to  the  rulings  of  the  A.B.S.  It  is 
usually  carried  on  deck,  or  on  the  forecastlie  head,  where  it  can 
be  put  over  the  side  by  a  boom  and  tackle  from  the  foremast  head. 

Sheet  anchors  are  not  generally  carried  by  merchant  craft, 
but  are  found  in  many  naval  vessels.  These  are  usually  carried 
abaft  of  the  bower  anchors  and  are  provided  with  extra  hawse 
pipes  on  either  bow.  In  the  old  days  the  sheet  anchors  were 
carried  on  the  rail  well  aft  and  just  over  the  sheaves  for  the  fore 
sheets.  Sheet  anchors  are  only  let  go  in  extreme  emergencies 
when  bower  anchors  drag  or  are  carried  away.f  It  is  now  the 
•  practice  to  carry  only  one  sheet  anchor. 

Stem  anchors  are  coming  into  use  and  are  very  easily  stowed 
in  the  stem  hawse  pipes  fitted  on  some  of  the  latest  battleships 

*  The  Great  Eastern  carried  ten  bower  anchors.    Eight  of  them  are  said 
to  have  been  7,000  lb.  Trotman  anchors, 
t  Called  Vancre  desperance  by  the  French. 


1 


I 


630 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


and  liners.  These  are  heavy  anchors,  as  large  as,  or  larger  than, 
the  bowers.  The  stem  anchor  takes  the  place  of  the  sheet 
anchor  referred  to  above. 

These  anchors  constitute  the  main  dependence  of  the  vessel 
when  anchoring  is  necessary  dtiring  heavy  weather.  Bower  and 
stem  anchors  range  from  a  ton  to  fifteen  tons  in  weight.  How- 
ever the  very  largest  working  anchors  are  seldom  over  ten  tons. 

Stream  anchors  are  about  one  half  as  heavy  as  the  bower 
anchors  and  are  used  for  stern  mooring  in  congested  waters. 
These  anchors  are  useful  in  many  ways  when  an  anchor  has  to 
be  carried  out  and  it  is  not  necessary  to  use  the  bowers.  The 
stream  anchor  may  be  stowed  in  a  stem  hawse  pipe  and  may  be 
handled  by  an  after  windlass,  connected  with  the  after  capstan 
engine.* 

Kedges  are  about  half  as  heavy  as  the  stream  anchor  according 
to  A.B.S.  Rules.  These  are  used  for  ordinary  kedging  work 
when  a  vessel  may  have  to  be  moved  about  without  power  other 
than  deck  capstans  and  winches.  It  is  well  to  carry  at  least 
two  kedges. 

Grapnels  make  good  boat  anchors  and  are  useful  in  many 
ways  on  board  ship.  If  a  wire  or  anchor  chain  runs  overboard 
(the  first  often  happens)  a  grapnel  will  bring  it  up  if  water  is  not 
too  deep.  One  wire  saved  will  pay  for  all  the  grapnels  in  the 
ship.  The  weights  most  common  range  from  twenty  to  a  hundred 
pounds. 

Boat  anchors  are  usually  of  the  old-fashioned  type  with  metal 
stock  and  should  run  to  about  a  hundred  potmds  for  a  large  life 
boat. 

*  There  is  no  clearly  defined  practice  relative  to  the  use  of  stern  anchors. 
The  Germans  have  used  them  in  many  of  their  large  naval  vessels.  On 
these  ships  a  single  anchor  carried  in  a  hawse  pipe  well  aft,  either  at  the  side 
or  on  the  centerline,  has  frequently  been  fitted.  The  British  have  followed  a 
similar  practice  in  such  vessels  as  the  Eagle  and  Argus,  Furious,  Courageous 
and  Glorious,  as  well  as  in  some  light  cruisers  and  monitors.  Most  of  the 
capital  ships  in  the  United  States  Navy  carry  small  stem  anchors  weighing 
5,000  or  6,000  potmds.  They  are  not,  however,  carried  in  hawse  pipes,  but 
are  stowed  on  deck  and  handled  by  means  of  crane  or  davit.  In  some  of  the 
United  States  gunboats,  stem  anchors  are  carried  stowed  on  chocks  on  the 
weather  deck  aft.  In  such  cases  a  collapsible  anchor  crane  has  frequently 
been  fitted,  so  located  as  to  plumb  the  stowage  position,  and  of  such  outreach 
as  to  swing  the  anchor  well  clear  of  the  vessel's  side. — Marine  Engineering, 


GROUND  TACKLE 


631 


Mushroom  anchors  are  useful  in  securing  mooring  buoys, 
and  in  anchoring  navigational  buoys.  They  are  seldom  foimd 
on  board  ship.  They  range  up  to  about  five  tons  in  weight  and 
are  hard  to  foul. 

Mooring  clumps  are  concrete  mooring  weights  fitted  with 
heavy  iron  eyes. 

The  classification  societies  require  that  anchors  shall  be 
severely  tested  both  as  to  material  and  construction. 

When  anchors  have  satisfactorily  passed  the  American  Bureau 
of  Shipping*  requirements  they  are  to  be  clearly  stamped  by  the 
manuf actturer  as  follows : 


•  Ordinary  Anchor 

A.  The  Number  of  Certificate.    (Furnished 

by  the  Surveyor) 7147 

B.  The  Initials  of  the  Surveyor  who  wit- . . 

nesses  the  Proof  Test X.Y.Z. 

C.  Month  and  Year  of  Test 3,  17 

D.  Proof  Test  applied  (lbs.) 76440 

E.  Signifying  that  the  Testing  Machine  is 

recognized  by  the  Committee  of  the 
American  Bureau  of  Shipping A.B. 

F.  The  Weight  of  Anchor  (excluding  Stock) 

(lbs.) 4200 

G.  The  Weight  of  Stock  (lbs.) 1050 


*  Anchors  are  to  be  made  of  forged  wrought  iron,  forged  open  hearth  ingot 
steel,  or  cast  steel;  the  shackles  may  be  of  wrought  iron  or  of  forged  steel 
tmwelded. 

Anchor  stocks  are  to  be  in  weight  equal  to  one-fourth  that  of  the  anchor. 

Stockless  anchors  may  be  adopted,  subject  to  the  Committee's  approval 
and  the  addition  of  one-fourth  to  the  weights  for  ordinary  anchors;  the 
weight  of  the  head  is  not  to  be  less  than  three-fifths  of  the  total  weight  of  the 
anchor. 

No  vessel  can  be  classed  with  the  letter  (g)  tmless  the  anchors  have  been 
tested  and  the  weights  are  in  accordance  with  requirements  as  to  tonnage  of 
vessel. 

All  anchors  are  to  be  tested  tmder  the  inspection  of  a  Surveyor  to  this 
Bureau  in  a  machine  recognized  for  such  purposes  by  the  Committee  of  the 
American  Bureau  of  Shipping.  • 

Prior  to  testing  the  actual  weight  of  the  anchor  is  to  be  ascertained. 

— Rules  of  A.B.S. 


1 
:  i  -'i  a 


632  STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 

Stockless  Anchor 

A.  The  Number  of  Certificate.    (Furnished 

by  the  Surveyor) 7147 

B.  The  Initials  of  the  Surveyor  who  wit- 
nesses the  Proof  Test X.Y.Z. 

C.  Month  and  Year  of  Test 3,  17 

D.  Proof  Test  applied  (lbs.) 76440 

E.  Signifying  that  the  Testing  Machine  is 
recognized  by  the  Committee  of  the 
American  Bureau  of  Shipping A.B. 

F.  The  Weight  of  Anchor  (lbs.) 4200 

G.  Signifying  that  the  Anchor  Head  has 
been  tested  by  a  Siureyor  to  the 
American  Bureau A.B. 

H,  The  Weight  of  Anchor  Head  (lbs.) 2520 

J.  The  Initials  of  the  Surveyor  who  wit- 
nesses the  Drop  Test X.Y.Z. 

K,  The  Number  of  Drop  Test  Certificate. 

(Furnished  by  the  Surveyor) 4914 

L.  Month  and  Year  of  Drop  Test 3,  17 

One  side  of  the  anchor  should  be  reserved  solely  for  the  above 
marks,  and  the  other  side  be  solely  used  for  the  makers'  name 
or  other  trade  marks  that  may  be  desired.  If  the  design  of  the 
anchor  does  not  admit  of  the  above  marks  being  placed  or 
grouped  as  indicated,  a  suitable  boss  should  be  cast  on  each 
arm,  on  which  the  marks  should  be  stamped. 

m 

Cables 

As  important  as  the  anchors  themselves  are  the  cables,  or 
chain  cables,  to  give  them  their  full  name,  which  attach  to  the 
anchor.    In  large  vessels  these  are  always  made  of  stud  link 
chain  of  either  forged  or  cast  steel.    The 
characteristics  of  these  cables  are  shown  in 
the  sketches.    The  stud  in  forged  chain  is 
forced  into  the  link  after  it  is  formed  and 
merely  serves  to  keep  the  sides  of  the  link 
from  coming  together  under  an  excessive 
stress.    It  is  said  to  add  about  15  per  cent  to 
the  ultimate  strength  of  the  chain.    Studs  also  seem  to  keep  the 


GROUND   TACKLE 


633 


Length 

4 

..  t 

A  stud  link 

• 

chain  free  from  kinks.    Chain  is  tested  in  two  ways,  proof  and 
breaking, 

A  proof  test  (about  70  per  cent  of  the  required  breaking  test), 
is  applied  to  each  fifteen  fathom  shot  of  chain.  The  full  breaking 
test  is  only  given  to  selected  experimental  lengths  of  three  links 
each  cut  from  each  fifteen  fathom  shot. 

Chain  cable  ranges  in  size  up  to 
four  inches*  (the  diameter  of  the 
metal  in  a  link).  The  A.B.S. 
tables  give  the  -requirements  for 
334  inch  chain  as  follows: 


Lzngfh  of  &  Links- 


Wrought  iron  and  steel 

Breaking  588,320  lbs. 

Proof  425,370  lbs. 
Cast  steel 

Breakmg  824,000  lbs. 

Proof  588,500  lbs. 
Weight  per  fifteen  fathoms  12,025  lbs. 

It  will  be  noted  that  this  is  some  chain. 

The  reason  why  so  much  care  is  taken  in  testing  chain  cable 
is  self-evident. 

The  size  of  chain  reqtiired  for  the  various  tonnages  is  deter- 
mined by  the  rtdes  of  the  A.B.S.  and  must  be  strictly  adhered  to 
in  order  that  a  vessel  may  get  her  rating  for  equipment.  Seamen 
who  are  interested  in  this  matter  should  get  the  Rules  of  the 
American  Bureau  of  Shipping.  These  can  be  obtained  from  the 
Bureau  (the  price  is  S5.00)  or  may  be  consulted  in  any  public 
library. 

The  following  accotmt  of  how  an  anchor  chain  is  made  is 
taken  from  an  article  by  F.  A.  Collins  which  appeared  in  Collier* s 
Weekly. 

"  The  links  (of  a  modern  anchor  chain)  are  a  foot,  or  perhaps  a 
foot  and  a  half  long.  Such  chains  are  forged  and  every  detail  of 
the  work  is  carefully  safeguarded.  Every  link  must  pass  the 
most  exacting  tests.  Link  by  link  the  great  chain  must  be 
patiently  built  up.  The  iron  used  for  the  chain  comes  in  long 
bars.    The  diameter  of  the  bars  is  determined  only  after  accurate 

*  414  inch  chains  have  been  made. 


II 


W 


I 


II 


I 
I 


634 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


calculations  of  its  tensile  strength.  The  bars  are  first  cut  in 
unifoim  lengths  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  link.  One  end 
of  the  bar  is  then  heated  until  it  is  more  or  less  pliable,  when  it 
is  slightly  bent  over.  The  enormous  force  ncessary  to  bend  the 
bar  is  supplied  by  a  powerful  machine  operated  by  hydraulic 
power.  When  both  ends  of  the  bar  have  been  turned  it  is  placed 
imder  a  hammer  which  swedges  out  the  curved  ends  to  a  point. 
To  keep  the  link  from  slipping  it  is  placed  in  a  die  cut  in  a  place 
block.  All  this  is  the  work  of  a  few  well-directed  blows  of  the 
steam  hammer. 

"  The  link  is  now  ready  for  the  bending  machine  which  is  to 
press  it  into  shape.  The  bar  is  heated  and*  placed  upon  an 
ingenuous  device  that  twists  it  into  shape.  The  tons  of  pressure 
required  are  exerted  by  an  hydraulic  press  and  the  bar  takes 
the  form  of  a  link  in  a  few  seconds.  A  crew  of  three  men  is 
required  for  the  work.  Two  men  lift  the  bar  and  hold  it  in 
position  while  a  third  operates  the  hydraulic  mechanism.  It 
is,  however,  important  that  the  work  be  done  as  quickly  as 
possible  before  the  metal  cools.  In  fact  it  is  necessary  to  heat 
the  links  several  times  during  the  process  of  bending  and 
welding,  and  as  the  old  forms  of  furnaces  wotdd  be  too  slow, 
oil  furnaces  are  used. 

"  Twenty  or  thirty  of  these  giant  links  are  placed  in  a  furnace 
at  one  time  and  removed  as  quickly  as  they  come  to  the  proper 
heat.  The  workmen  are  obliged  to  use  tongs  3  or  4  feet  in  length 
in  placing  the  links  in  the  furnace  and  removing  them,  for  the 
heat  is  intense.  The  use  of  the  oil  furnace  saves  an  immense 
amount  of  time  in  chain  forging. 

"  Now  that  the  link  has  been  scarphed  and  bent  it  is  ready 
for  welding.  The  two  flattened  ends  have  been  bent  over  until 
they  overlap  but  without  joining.  Again  the  link  is  placed  in  the 
oil  furnace  and  heated  to  the  proper  temperature,  when  it  is 
placed  beneath  the  hammers  of  the  welding  forge.  Two  husky 
workmen  grasp  the  link  with  long  tongs  and  swing  it  quickly  to 
the  welding  machine  while  a  third  works  the  levers  controlling 
the  hammer.  The  end  of  the  chain  to  which  the  new  link  is  to 
be  attached  hangs  just  above  the  hammer.  The  heated  ends 
are  slipped  through  the  last  link  of  the  finished  chain,  placed 
under  the  hammer  and  a  few  strokes  welds  the  two  ends  together 
in  a  complete  link.  By  so  slow  and  painstaking  a  process  is  the 
great  chain  lengthened  out  link  by  link. 

"  After  the  welding  the  link  is  once  more  reheated  in  an  oil 
blast  furnace.  This  is  a  very  delicate  operation  since  it  is  an 
easy  matter  to  carry  the  heating  too  far  and  a  few  seconds' 
miscalculation  may  burn  the  iron.  The  link  has  already  been 
fastened  to  the  chain,  and  if  it  is  burned  it  is  necessary  to  cut  it 
away  and  replace  it  with  a  new  link.    A  special  form  of  oil  blast 


GROUND  TACEXE 


635 


furnace  is  used  for  this  stage  of  the  work.  The  end  of  the 
massive  chain,  which  is  coiled  up  near  by,  is  carried  over  and 
suspended  by  a  pulley  directly  above  the  furnace,  where  it  is 
lowered  into  place.  So  intense  is  the  heat  that  the  workmen 
use  plyers  and  welding  devices  mounted  at  the  end  of  arms 
4  feet  or  more  in  length.  Even  these  are  handled  with  thick 
gloves.  Only  workmen  of  long  experience  are  entrusted  with 
this  delicate  part  of  the  work. 

"  The  link  is  now  ready  for  its  final  shaping.  The  poundmg 
it  has  received  has  forced  it  out  of  shape,  and  it  is  important 
that  the  links  be  uniform.  It  is  again  heated  and  placed  in  a 
steel  die  cut  to  the  proper  form.  Another  powerful  hammer 
driven  by  hydraulic  power  now  descends  upon  it  and  quickly 
forces  it  into  the  die,  giving  the  link  its  true  form.  After  a  few 
strokes  the  link  is  taken  from  the  die  and  the  stud  is  inserted. 
The  small  cross  bar  found  in  these  heavy  chains  prevents  the 
links  from  becoming  tangled  up  and  relieves  the  strain.  The 
cross  bar  is  heated  and  set  in  place,  when  a  single  blow  with  the 
steam  hanmier  makes  it  firm.  It  is  unnecessary  to  weld  this 
piece  into  position  as  carefully  as  the  ends  of  the  bar  are  joined 
in  forming  the  link  itself. 

"  The  link  is  finished  by  hand.  Once  more,  and  for  the  last 
time,  it  is  softened  by  heat.  The  finishing  consists  in  cutting 
away  all  the  rough  edges  of  the  link  and  the  slight  rough  pro- 
jection at  the  ends.  A  smoother  or  rounded  die  is  then  held  by 
hand  over  the  rough  parts  of  the  link  and  a  few  smart  blows 
with  a  hand  hammer  quickly  smooths  out  all  inequalities. 
This  is  the  only  part  of  the  hammering  which  is  now  done  by 
hand.  Formerly  all  the  hammering  and  welding  was  hand 
work  which  rendered  the  process  much  more  laborious.  The 
great  sledge  hammer  blows  of  the  steam  hammer  not  only  do 
the  work  much  more  quickly  but  the  links  thus  formed  are 
stronger  than  those  forged  by  hand  power  alone.  With  the 
assistance  of  the  steam  hammer  there  is  practically  no  limit  to 
the  size  of  a  chain  which  may  be  forged. 

"  3%"  chain  is  the  heaviest  form  used  in  the  United  States 
Navy,  and  is  usually  attached  to  the  largest  anchors.  Each 
link  when  complete  weighs  112  poimds.  To  handle  these  links  a 
gang  of  four  skilled  workmen  are  required,  a  chainmaker,  a 
hammer  man,  a  tongs  man  and  a  hoist  man.  The  work  of 
each  man  is  indicated  by  his  name,  and  each  becomes  some- 
thing of  a  specialist  in  his  line  before  he  is  entrusted  with  a 
great  chain." 

Stream  chain  is  close  link,  without  studs  and  is  used  for  the 
stream  anchor  or  on  small  or  medium-sized  vessels. 


J 


i 


636 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


y 


§  WIIIIIMIUUI 


Oval 
Pin.. 


\4f 
Anchor  shackle. 


lillMlllllUDllllillil>UHiii,„ 
E ' 


o  : 

illHlUUUMiiniiH 


£gg  Shaped 
Pin 


Cast  steel  chain  has  been  developed  in  recent  years,  one 
link  being  cast  into  another  with  good  success.  The  stud  is 
cast  directly  into  the  link  forming  an  integral  part  of  the  chain. 
The  chain  may  be  cast  in  two  ways.  The  whole  is  cast  as  a 
continuous  chain,  or  the  process  is  made  up  of  two  steps.    Whole 

links  are  cast;  then,  after  these  have  been 
inspected  and  cleaned,  connecting  links  are 
cast  between  the  whole  links. 

Anchor  shackles  are  wider  than  joiner 
shacklesj  but  in  every  instance  the  strength 
must  be  equal.  Shackle  pins  are  held  in 
place  by  a  forelock  pin^  usually  of  hickory. 
Sometimes  a  steel  pin  is  used  and  this  is  pre- 
vented from  coming  out  by  setting  it  with  a  pellet  ^ 
of  lead  hammered  down  over  the  head  of  the  pin.  Q 
When  a  steel  or  iron  pin  is  used  it  should  be 
tinned  to  prevent  rusting  in.  ^ 

Swivels  are  provided  to  prevent  the  accumula- 
tion of  tturns  in  the  cable.  In  merchant  service 
practice  a  swivel  is  placed  at  three  or  four  links 
from  the  anchor,  where  it  will  never  come  to 
the   wildcat  and   where  it   can  be    examined 

when  the  anchor  is  housed  in  the  hawse 
pipe.  Only  one  swivel  is  used.  In  the 
merchant  service  all  shots  of  chain  are 
fifteen  fathoms,  throughout  the  length  of 
the  cables. 

In  the  navy  outboard  swivel  shots  of 
five  fathoms  are  used  next  the   anchor. 
A  swivel  These  are  Vg"  larger  than  the  rest  of  the 

cable. 

Marking  of  Chain  Cables 

This  is  a  most  important  matter  and  merits  careful  attention. 
The  merchant  service  custom  is  to  mark  chain  cable  by  turns  of 
wire  alone.  The  navy  custom  of  painting  the  links  white  should 
be  used  by  merchant  seamen. 

*  In  the  British  navy  a  shot  of  cable  is  121/2  fathoms. 


Joiner  shackle. 


M 

i 


■i 


15  fathoms 


30  fathoms 


45  fathoms 


60  fathoms 


75  fathoms 


90  fathoms 


GROUND  TACKLE 

Merchant  Service 

One  turn  of  wire  on  first 
stud  from  each  side  of 
shackle. 

Two  turns  of  wire  on  sec- 
ond stud  from  each  side 
of  shackle. 

Three  turns  of  wire  on 
third  stud  from  each  side 

•    of  shackle. 

Four  turns  of  wire  on 
fourth  stud  from  each 
side  of  shackle. 

Five  turns  of  wire  on  fifth 
stud  from  each  side  of 
shackle. 

Six  turns  of  wire  on  sixth 
stud  from  each  side  of 
shackle. 


637 

Navy 
One  white  Unk,    next    to 
shackle. 

Two  white  links,  next  to 
shackle. 

Third  stud  link  on  each 
side  of  shackle  white, 
and  three  turns  of  wire 
on  each  painted  links. 

Fourth  stud  link  on  each 
side  of  shackle  white, 
and  four  turns  of  wire  on 
painted  links. 

Fifth  stud  link  on  each 
side  of  shackle  white, 
and  five  turns  of  wire  on 
painted  links. 

Sixth  stud  link  on  each 
side  of  shackle  white, 
and  six  turns  of  wire  on 
painted  links. 


Where  links  are  painted,  these  should  be  dried  off  and  touched 
up  with  fresh  paint  as  the  chain  comes  in  when  conditions  are 
favorable  for  this.    Put  plenty  of  dryer  in  the  paint. 

Chain  cables  are  ranged  in  a  nimiber  of  ways. 

If  at  anchor  on  a  clean  sandy  bottom,  with  plenty  of  room  to 
swing,  kick  the  vessel  astern  with  the  engines,  if  tide  and  wind 
are  not  sufficient,  and  pay  out  chain  to  the  bitter  end.  Clean 
the  locker,  and  if  time  permits  paint  it.  If  the  bottom  is  sharp 
clean  sand  it  will  do  no  harm  to  let  the  vessel  ride  around  her 
cable  before  heaving  in.  Scrub  off  when  heaving  in  slowly. 
Place  an  anchor  buoy  over  your  anchor  when  doing  this  sort  of 
work. 

When  in  dry  dock  range  the  cable  on  the  bottom  of  the  dock. 
Lower  anchor  carefully,  place  on  skids,  and  paint.  The  cable 
should  be  ranged  in  long  fakes,  all  markings  and  shackles  over- 
hauled, and  all  links  sounded  with  a  hammer.  If  a  link  does  not 
seem  to  ring  true  go  over  it  carefully  for  defects. 

A  record  should  be  kept  in  the  maintenance  book  (more  about 
this  later  on)  showing  just  when  and  where  the  cables  have  been 


1 

i 


I 


\l 


I 


I 


638 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


VMM///////// 


Top  of 
Chain 
Locker 


ranged.    When  ranging  in  a  dry  dock  try  to  paint  or  mastic  them 
before  stowing. 

Swivels  should  be  greased  and  all  shackle  pins  should  be 
backed  out,  examined  and  coated  with  white  lead  and  tallow 
before  assembling. 

Securing  the  Chain  Cables  in  the  Locker 

Some  seamen  prefer  to  have  the  ends  of  both  cables  shackled 
together  and  connected  through  the  bulkhead  separating  the 
chain  lockers.  This  is  a  bad  practice.  The  hitter  end  of  each 
chain  should  be  passed  through  a  link  in  the  bottom  of  the  locker 

and  then  up  to  the  top  of  the  locker  to  another 
link  near  the  scuttle.  Bring  the  chain  up  in  a 
comer  of  the  locker  and  stop  it  along  the  corner 
with  small  stuff  to  prevent  it  fouling  the  bight 
of  the  chain.  The  upper  end  should  be  lashed, 
or  secured  by  a  stout  slip  hook. 

When  it  becomes  necessary  to  slip  the  cable, 
the  bitter  end  can  be  cast  loose  without  trouble, 
the  stops  will  break. 

Chain  cables  vary  in  length  according  to  the 
size  of  the  vessel. 

The  longest  cables  listed  by  the  A.B.S.,  for  an 
equipment   tonnage    of   26,500   tons,   are    330 
fathoms.    This  length  of  cable  is  required  for 
all  vessels  down  to  twelve  thousand  tons  and 
then  goes  down  by  thirty  fathom  increments. 
The  cable  listed  is  of  course  divided  between 
the  two  bower  anchors,  165  fathoms  on  each  anchor. 
Cables  are  attached  to  the  anchors  as  follows : 
1st.     Bending  or  anchor  shackle  (bow  of  shackles  always  on 
anchor  side)  into  anchor  shackle^  or  Jew^s  harp.    As  this  is  very 
heavy,  the  bending  shackle  has  to  be  wide. 
2d.     Extra  heavy  open  link, 
3d.     Stud  link  (or  open  link). 

4th.    Swivel,  bow  toward  anchor,  swivel  eye  inboard. 
5th.     Stud  link  (or  open  link). 

6th.  Shackle  (bow  toward  anchor).  This  shackles  into  first 
shot  of  the  cable. 


Boftom 
of  Chain 
Locker 
'w///////;/^;/m/; 

Securing  chain 
in  locker. 


GROUND  TACKLE 


639 


Note,    Other  methods  are  in  use  but  this  is  reconunended. 
End  links,  long  end  links  (long  link  with  stud  to  one  end), 
and  enlarged  stud  links  are  used  in  connectmg  swivels  and 

shackles. 
The  combination  of  links,  swivel  and  shackles  is  called  a 

swivel  piece. 

Mooring  swivels  are  used  to  connect  two  cables  to  a  single 
swivel  and  this  is  shackeled  to  the  chains  leading  into  the  hawse 
pipes  from  which  the  vessel  is  riding. 

A  cable's  length  is  100  fathoms. 

According  to  A.B.S.  Rules.     Chains  are  marked  as  follows: 

After  being  weighed  the  shackles  and  the  end  links  of  each 
shot,  and  every  15  fathoms  in  the  case  of  chain  which  is  in  one 
continuous  length  without  joining  shackles,  are  to  be  clearly 
stamped  by  the  manufacturers  as  follows : 


A.  The  Number  of  Certificate.     (Furnished  by  Surveyor) 8442 

B.  The  Initials  of  the  Surveyor  who  witnesses  the  Test X.Y.Z. 

C.  Month  and  Year  of  Test 3,  17 

D.  The  Breaking  Test  (lbs.) 211680 

E.  The  Proof  Test  appUed  (lbs.) 151200 

F.  Signifying  that  the  Testing  Machine  is  recognized  by  the  Com- 

mittee of  the  American  Bureau  of  Shipping A3. 

IV 

The  Windlass 

The  windlass  is  a  winding  engine  having  a  horizontal  axle  to 
which  is  keyed  the  worm  or  spur  gear  for  appljring  power  and 
the  barrels y  gypsies,  and  wildcats  for  hauling  in  rope  or  chain. 
These  things  have  been  mentioned  briefly  in  the  foreword  to 
the  present  chapter.  The  illustration  gives  a  good  idea  of  the 
relation  of  these  parts  and  the  method  of  control. 


23 


4 

1 
I 

4 
4 


4 

I 

II  I 


! 


k 


'^: 


:. 


m 


v^ 


640 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


To  let  go  an  anchor,  the  wildcats  are  unlocked  and  the  brakes 
are  applied.  This  holds  the  wildcats  rigid  with  respect  to  the 
frame.  The  stoppers  are  then  released,  wherever  they  may  be, 
either  forward  or  abaft  the  wildcats  and  the  chain  is  ready  for 
letting  go.  The  anchor,  in  the  case  of  a  stockless  type,  is  let 
fall  by  releasing  the  pressure  on  the  brake  band,  allowing  the 
wildcat  to  revolve  and  lower  the  chain.  This  is  a  good  method 
of  lettmg  go  as  it  gives  control  over  the  run  of  chain.  The  chain 
can  be  held  as  soon  as  the  anchor  strikes  bottom  and  only  allowed 
to  pay  out  as  the  vessel  rides  away  from  her  anchor. 


Parts  of  a  Windlass. — A,  Brakes  wheels  on  wildcats.  B,  Re  versing  con  nol 
on  engine.  Operates  the  slip  eccentric.  C,  Chain  riding  in  the  grip  of 
wildcats  (sprockets).  D,  Main  driving  gear.  E,  Gypsie  heads.  F,  Brake 
bands.  G,  Locking  rings.  H,  Horizontal  beam  for  shipping  hand  levers, 
I,  Ratchets  for  pawls  of  hand  power  mechanism. 

To  heave,  in  the  wildcat  is  locked  to  the  axle  or  shaft  of  the 
windlass,  the  brake  band  is  released  and  steam,  or  other  power, 
applied  to  the  worm  or  pinion. 

In  heaving  up  an  anchor  by  hand,  long  brake  beams  are  fitted 
in  the  cross  head  and  these  engage  the  turning  gear  by  means 


GROUND   TACKLE 


641 


of  pawls.  Heaving  in  by  hand  is  a  long,  tedious  job.  Where  the 
windlass  is  situated  beneath  a  forecastle  head  the  hand  power  is 
usually  applied  by  a  worm  or  pinion  attached  to  the  vertical  shaft 
of  a  forecastle  capstan.  Power  is  then  applied  by  means  of 
capstan  bars.    This  is  the  best  method  of  heaving  in  by  hand. 

The  following  directions  apply  to  the  Hyde  steam  windlass 
with  forecastle  deck  capstan.  This  tjrpe  is  a  worm  gear  windlass. 
The  directions  are  as  given  by  the  maker. 

To  Work  Windlass  by 

Steam  Ahead  and 

Heave  in  Chain 


For  Windlass  With 
Reverse  Valve.  Lock 
the  Windlass.  Start 
ahead  by  opening  the 
throttle  in  steam  pipe, 
and  push  the  hand  lever 
"  L "  of  the  reverse 
valve  "  K "  forward 
and  control  the  rimning 
of  the  engine  by  means 
of  the  lever  or  by  the 
throttle  valve  as  is  most 
convenient. 

For  Windlass  With 
Slip  Eccentric.  Lock 
the  Windlass.  See  that 
eccentric  is  set  for  run- 
ning ahead,  open  the 
throttle  valve  and  con- 
trol by  throttle. 

On  either  style  of 
windlass,  if  it  is  not  de- 
sired to  run  the  capstan  m' 
at  the  same  time,  throw 
out  the  pawls  in  the 
capstan  worm  gear  "  H  " 
by  turning  the  hand 
wheel  "  G  "  to  the  right 
hand,  until  it  brings  up. 
When  running  ahead,  it 
is  better  to  keep  the 
backing  pawl  in  the  en- 
gine worm  gear  "  E  " 
thrown  out,  avoiding  the  noise  it  otherwise  makes. 


m 


(sJ:;; 


642 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


To  Stop  the  Windlass 


Windlass  With  Reverse  Valve.  Bring  the  reverse  lever  "  L  " 
back  to  central  position  if  only  stopping  for  a  short  time,  but  if 
stopping  permanently,  also  close  the  throttle  valve. 

Windlass  With  Slip  Eccentric,    Close  the  throttle  valve. 

To  Reverse  Windlass  for  Veering  Chain.  See  that  the  back- 
ing pawl  in  the  engine  worm  gear  "  E  "  is  thrown  in,  and  the  two 
pawls  in  the  hand  worm  gear  "  D  "  are  thrown  out,  then 

For  Windlass  With  Reverse  Valve.  The  throttle  being  open, 
pull  the  reverse  lever  "  L  "  aft,  and  control  as  before. 

For  Windlass  With  Slip  Eccentric.  See  that  eccentric  is  set 
to  run  backwards  and  start  the  windlass  by  opening  throttle  valve. 

To  Work  Wmdlass  by  Hand 

See  that  the  backing  pawl  in  engine  worm  gear  "  E  "  is 
thrown  out,  the  two  pawls  in  the  hand  worm  gear  "  D  "  are 
thrown  in,  drop  the  pins  into  the  two  holes  in  the  lower  part  of 
capstan  barrel  "  P  "  and  turn  the  capstan  "  with  the  sun." 

To  Lock  Windlass 

Turn  the  hand  wheel  "  B  "  towards  you,  or  from  forward  aft, 
making  sure  that  the  face  of  the  projections  on  the  wildcat 
"  C  "  do  not  come  in  direct  contact  with  the  face  of  the  projec- 
tions on  worm  gears  "  E  "  or  "  D,"  but  that  they  go  by  and 
bring  up  against  the  rims  of  the  worm  gears  in  such  a  way  that 
one  projection  will  engage  the  other  as  in  a  clutch. 

To  Unlock  Windlass 

Turn  the  hand  wheel  "  B  "  in  the  opposite  direction  until  the 
nut  brings  up  against  the  stop  in  the  shaft. 

To  Obtain  Double  Purchase  on  Windlass 

Throw  out  the  go-ahead  pawls  in  engine  worm  gear  "  E  " 
and  keep  them  out  by  the  set  screws  provided  for  that  purpose. 
See  that  the  pawls  in  the  hand  worm  gear  "  D  "  and  the  capstan 
worm  gear  "H"  are  thrown  in.  Start  the  windlass,  and  the 
capstan  worm  "  J  "  on  the  forward  end  of  the  engine  crank 
shaft  will  drive  the  upright  shaft  or  capstan  spindle  "  O  " 
which  in  turn  will  drive  the  windlass  through  the  hand  worm 
"  I "  and  gear  "  D."  It  is  imnecessary  to  use  this  purchase 
under  ordinary  circumstances. 

To  Veer  Chain  Without  Using  the  Engine 

Unlock  the  wild  cat  "  C  "  by  turning  the  hand  wheel  "  B  " 
forward  and  until  the  nut  brings  up  on  stop  in  shaft,  and  control 
the  wild  cats  by  tiieans  bf  the  friction  brake  levers  "  M." 


GROUND  TACKLE 


643 


To  Run  Capstan  by  Steam 

Throw  in  the  pawls  in  the  capstan  worm  gear  "  H."  See 
that  the  pins  are  in  the  holes  in  the  lower  part  of  the  capstan 
barrel  "  P  "  and  run  the  engines  ahead  as  when  running  the 
windlass,  at  the  same  time  having  the  wild  cats  thrown  out. 

If  it  should  be  desired  to  run  the  capstan  constantly,  without 
working  the  windlass,  the  go-ahead  pawls  in  the  engine  worm 
gear  **  E  "  may  be  thrown  out  and  kept  out  by  set  screws  pro- 
vided for  that  purpose. 

To  Run  Capstan  by  Hand 

Pull  out  the  two  pins  in  the  lower  part  of  capstan  barrel  "  P." 
Holes  will  be  found  in  the  base  to  hold  these  pins  while  not  in 
use.  Use  as  an  ordinary  hand  capstan,  turning  head  "  with 
the  sun  "  for  speed,  and  "  against  the  sun  "  for  power. 

Use  of  Pins  in  Capstan 

The  pins  or  toggles  connecting  capstan  to  shaft  are  only 
removed  when  capstan  is  to  be  worked  by  hand. 

Use  of  Friction  Bands 

Ride  only  by  friction  bands  "  R  "  and  with  windlass  unlocked. 
It  is  then  ready  to  pay  out  chain  at  an  instant's  notice.  Windlass 
should  be  locked  only  when  heaving  in  chain.  Do  not  use  oil 
on  the  friction  bands.  Keep  the  turnbuckles  free  from  rust  so 
they  can  be  screwed  up  at  any  time. 

Working  the  Pawls 

To  throw  out  the  backing  pawl  in  the  engine  worm  gear  "  E  " 
and  the  two  pawls  in  the  hand  worm  gear  "  D,"  pull  the  pawl 
lifter  cam  away  from  its  seat  one-eighth  of  an  inch  and  give  it 
half  a  turn  to  the  left. 

To  throw  the  same  pawls  in,  turn  the  pawl  lifter  cam  to  the 
right  or  in  the  opposite  direction. 

To  throw  out  the  pawls  in  the  capstan  worm  gear  H,"  turn 
the  hand  wheel  "  G  "  to  the  right  or  "  with  the  sun  "  until  it 

brings  up. 

To  throw  these  pawls  in,  turn  the  hand  wheel  "  G  to  the 
left,  "  against  the  sun  "  or  in  the  opposite  direction  from  above, 
tmtil  it  brings  up. 

Directions  for  Keeping  Windlass  in  Order 

Oil  holes  will  be  found  in  the  wild  cats,  in  the  nuts,  and  in  the 
rims  of  the  worm  wheels. 


1 


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"^1  \ 


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STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Turn  windlass  by  hand  occasionally,  to  insure  the  oil  working 
under  the  rims  of  worm  wheels.  Use  sperm  oil  on  all  parts  of 
windlass  that  are  exposed,  or  where  ordinary  oil  would  "  chill." 

Careful  study  of  the  foregoing  instructions  and  drawings  will 
give  the  seaman  a  very  good  idea  of  the  operation  of  a  modern 
windlass  no  matter  what  kind  of  anchor  engine  he  may  be  ship- 
mates with.  Always  study  the  windlass  in  your  ship,  know  how 
to  work  it  on  the  darkest  night.  Do  this  no  matter  what  your 
station  may  be.  A  Second  Mate,  Boatswain  or  Quartermaster, 
may  be  called  upon  to  use  the  windlass,  and  generally  would 
only  be  required  to  do  so  under  extraordinary  circumstances. 
The  Chief  Mate  and  Carpenter  must  know  it  thoroughly. 

A  final  word  may  be  said  about  hand  gear.  Try  it  out  with 
your  crew  on  the  first  fine  afternoon  at  sea.  Release  the  wild 
cats,  come  up  on  the  brakes  (chain  and  anchors  secured,  of 
course)  and  give  the  windlass  a  good  turning  over,  throwing  the 
gear  in  and  out  a  few  times  to  make  sure  that  every  one  under- 
stands its  use. 

This  same  practice  should  extend  to  the  hand  steering  gear  as 
well.  Here  it  would  be  just  as  well  to  steer  for  a  half  hour  by 
hand.* 

*  Anchor  Engines  are  severely  tested  in  the  Navy.  The  following  from 
U.  S.  Navy  Specifications  may  be  of  interest  here: 

The  Anchor  Engine  should  be  tested  on  or  before  the  official  trial  of  the 
vessel  by  hoisting  and  lowering  two  bower  anchors  simultaneously,  in  30 
fathoms  of  water  or  in  the  greatest  depth  of  water  obtainable  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  building  yard,  continuously  at  the  approximate  rate  of  6  fathoms  of 
chain  per  minute.  If  the  depth  of  water  is  less  than  30  fathoms,  weights  shall 
be  attached  to  the  anchors  to  compensate  for  the  lesser  depth,  the  weight, 
however,  not  to  exceed  the  weight  of  the  anchor.  The  operation  of  the  wind- 
lass and  any  heating  of  thrust  and  worm  bearings  should  be  noted.  The 
windlass  brake  and  locking  device  should  be  tested. 

In  the  case  of  steam  windlasses  the  duration  of  the  test  should  be  one  hour. 

In  the  case  of  electric  windlasses  the  test  should  be  divided  into  three 
divisions,  viz.,  the  wildcats  being  labeled  "  A,"  "  B,"  and  "  C,"  the  test  shall 
be  nm  continuously  with  all  motors  operating  together  as  follows:  "  A  "  and 
"  B  "—one-half  hour;  "  B  "  and  "  C  "—one-half  hour;  "  C  "  and  "  B  "— 
one-half  hour.    For  further  tests  in  deep  water  see  p.  1448. 

The  tests  of  evaporating  and  distilling  plant,  of  refrigerating  machines, 
of  steering  and  anchor  gear,  and  the  bilge  test  of  circulating  pumps  should  be 
made  before  trials  in  free  route. 

Anchor  Engine  Trials.    With  the  vessel  at  sea  in  a  depth  of  water  excee  J- 


GROUND  TACKLE 


645 


Coming  To  Anchor 

Coming  to  anchor  involves  many  problems  of  pilotage  and 
ship  handling.    The  method  of  letting  go  will  be  described  here. 

Having  determined  to  come  to  anchor  send  word  to  the  Chief 
Mate  at  once.  (If  entering  port  anchors  should  always  be 
"  ready  to  let  go.") 

The  men  being  at  their  stations,  the  commands  are  as  follows : 

"  Stand  by  starboard  anchor  (or  port),  stand  clear  starboard 
chain!  " 

"  Aye,  aye,  sir!  "     (All  ready  for  letting  go.) 

"  Let  go!  " 

Then  follow  this  command,  or  precede  it,  with  instruction  as 
to  the  amoimt  of  chain  to  veer, 

"  Forty-five  fathoms  at  the  windlass!  "  (or  thirty  fathoms  at 
the  water),  or  whatever  scope  of  chain  is  desired.  Many  officers 
prefer  to  name  the  shackle  at  the  windlass,  especially  at  night. 
The  Carpenter  should  work  the  brake  and  watch  the  chain  as  it 
goes  out,  calling  the  shackles  to  the  Mate  who  will  be  on  the 
forecastle  head  watching  the  trend  of  the  chain.  As  the  chain 
runs  out  the  Mate  should  indicate  the  trend  to  the  Master  on  the 
bridge  by  the  direction  of  his  arm.  At  night  he  may  call  out, 
"  Chain  up  and  down! "  as  an  indication  that  the  vessel  has 

ing  60  fathoms,  one  of  the  anchors  shall  be  backed  out  until  the  60-fathom 
shackle  is  at  the  water's  edge  and  the  anchor  clear  of  the  bottom.  The 
anchor  shall  then  be  hove  in  at  a  speed  of  at  least  6  fathoms  per  min.  and  the 
results  noted.  Two  of  the  anchors  shall  then  be  backed  out  simultaneously, 
one  to  60  fathoms  and  the  other  55  fathoms,  so  that  two  shackles  will  not  be 
on  the  wildcat  at  the  same  time.  The  anchors  shall  then  be  hove  up*  together 
at  6  fathoms  per  min.  and  the  results  noted.  The  single-anchor  test  shall  be 
made  twice,  using  a  different  windlass  each  time  (also  a  different  motor  in 
case  of  electric  windlasses).  The  two-anchor  test  shall  also  be  made  twice, 
using  different  pairs  of  windlasses  for  the  two  tests  (using  both  motors  in 
case  of  electric  windlasses).  The  deep-sea  tests  shall  be  carried  out  under 
such  conditions  as  will  not  cause  fouling  of  the  anchors  and  chains.  All  useful 
data  shall  be  taken  during  both  series  of  tests,  such  as  speed  of  hoisting  and 
lowering,  temperature  of  bearings  and  worm  gearing,  etc.  For  electric  wind- 
lasses there  should  be  included  the  horsepower  developed  by  the  motors, 
and  speed  of  motors.  If  there  is  only  one  wildcat  the  windlass  test  shall  be 
conducted  by  hoisting  and  lowering  one  anchor  instead  of  two. 


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STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


not  sufficient  way,  either  ahead  or  astern.  Or  he  may  sing  out 
"  chain  ahead!  "  or  "  chain  leading  aft!  " 
Team  work  in  this  respect  is  most  valuable,  especially  at  night. 
The  Mate  will  control  the  run  of  the  chain  and  should  be  care- 
ful not  to  let  it  go  out  too  fast,  nipping  it  on  the  wildcat  with 
the  brake. 

When  the  chain  will  not  pay  out  and  the  desired  scope  has 
not  nm  out.  The  Mate  should  advise  the  Master:  "  WonH 
take  chain,  sir,"  or  "  Chain  not  veering,  sir! " 

In  coming  to  anchor  a  certain  amount  of  sternboard  is  desir- 
able and  only  practice  can  determine  how  much.  Vessels  of 
heavy  tonnage  must  be  handled  with  greater  care  than  smaller 
craft.  Going  astern,  or  ahead  too  fast  may  put  a  dangerous 
stress  on  the  cable  should  the  anchor  bite  into  hard  ground  and 
get  a  sudden  hold.  Such  stresses  are  dangerous  as  they  tend 
to  weaken,  if  not  part,  the  chain. 

Where  an  old-fashioned  anchor  is  carried  and  let  go  from 
the  bill  board,  be  careful  to  have  the  stoppers  off  and  the  windlass 

ready  with  wild  cat  under 
ripping  y  control  of  the  brake.     Do 

not  have  the  wild  cat 
bound  too  tight,  but  keep 
enough  control  over  the 
brake  to  easily  nip  the 
chain  as  soon  as  the  anchor 
fetches  bottom.  In  letting 
go  from  the  bill  board  the 
anchor  is  said  to  be  let  go 
"  stock  and  fluke."  It  is 
held  by  the  ring  stopper  on 
the  cat  head  and  the  shank  painter  on  the  bill  board.  More 
modern  rigs  provide  a  tripping  device  as  shown  in  sketch,  letting 
go  with  one  movement. 

Should  it  be  necessary  to  come  to  anchor  while  the  vessel  has 
considerable  way  upon  her,  or  is  being  swept  along  on  a  tide, 
veer  as  much  chain  as  is  safe,  nipping  the  cable  gradually.  In  a 
steamer  the  engines  may  control  this  and  overcome  the  speed 
while  the  chain  is  running  out.  When  at  rest  heave  in  to  the 
desired  scope. 


^AnchorSedor 
Bill  Board 


Tripping  Gear 
De+ail 


pid-fashioned  tripping  gear. 


Coming  to  anchor  on  a  sailing  ship  under  unfavorable  condi- 
tions is  a  test  of  seamanship.  Where  canvas  cannot  be  set  aback 
to  check  her  way,  the  veermg  of  cham  is  almost  always  necessary. 
Large  yachts,  running  up  to  their  moorings,  are  stopped  by 
throwmg  the  rudder  hard  over  from  side  to  side,  shiftmg  the 
helm  before  the  yacht  has  a  chance  to  swmg.  The  rudder  when 
hard  over  acts  as  a  brake.  A  sailer  should  always,  if  possible, 
approach  her  anchorage  by  luffing  up  into  the  wind. 

When  coming  to  anchor  in  deep  water,  say  anything  over  ten 
fathoms,  use  great  care  in  veering  chain,  as  the  weight  of  chain 
alone  will  cause  it  to  run  overboard  after  the  anchor  has  reached 
bottom.    If  allowed  to  run  it  may  pUe  up  on  the  anchor  and 

cause  it  to  foul. 

Scope  of  Chain 

A  safe  rule  to  follow  in  commg  to  anchor  is  to  allow  five  fathoms 
of  chain  to  each  fathom  of  depth  in  holding  ground  known  to  be 
good.  When  blowing  veer  more  chain,  ten  or  twelve  to  one. 
The  "  five  to  one  "  rule  should  always  be  the  minimum  scope 
unless  there  is  not  sufficient  room  to  swing,  when  mooring  must 

be  resorted  to. 
In  bad  weather,  with  poor  holdmg  ground,  use  judgment  in 

giving  the  vessel  more  scope. 

Commg  to  anchor  and  handling  ground  tackle  will  be  treated 
further  in  the  chapters  following,  on  management  of  steamers 

and  sailers. 

VI 

Weighing  Anchor 

When  weighing  anchor  on  a  steamer  or  motor  vessel  ease  the 
windlass  by  careful  use  of  the  engines  and  helm  if  necessary. 
The  stations  for  weighing  are  similar  to  those  for  letting  go. 
The  Chief  Mate  should  indicate  the  trend  of  the  chain  and  call 
out  the  shackles  as  the  chain  comes  in.  Call  out  when  at  the 
water's  edge  in  the  day  time  or  when  on  the  windlass,  at  night.* 
Always  have  a  hose  ready  and  wash  off  the  chain  as  it  comes  in. 

"  Short  stay!  "  is  reported  when  the  anchor  cable  is  in  line  with 

the  fore  stay. 

*  A  cargo  light  on  the  forecastle  head  is  very  handy  at  night,  especially  if 
the  anchor  comes  up  foul. 


i 


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I  ill 


"  Up  and  down! "  when  the  vessel  is  right  over  her  anchor 
and  ready  to  "  break  out." 

"  Anchor  aweigh!  "  when  the  anchor  leaves  the  bottom. 
This  is  generally  indicated  by  the  wmdlass  engine  picking  up  the 
chain  with  greater  ease. 

K  the  anchor  refuses  to  break  out  it  is  sometimes  advisable  to 
lock  the  windlass  and  give  the  vessel  a  kick  ahead  with  the 
engines.  This  will  usually  trip  the  anchor  and  bring  it  free. 
K  the  hold  is  very  hard  stopper  the  cham  before  working  the 
engines. 

"  Foul  anchor!  "  is  reported  as  soon  as  in  sight,  or  if  the 
anchor  is  clear  it  is  well  to  report  "  Clear  anchor!  " 

To  clear  a  foul  anchor  some  means  must  be  found  to  cant 
the  anchor  clear,  or  to  hang  the  anchor  and  clear  by  surging  or 
slacking  the  chain.  No  definite  rules  can  be  laid  down.  Some 
officers  have  a  wire  clearing  pendant  already  fitted.  This  is 
provided  with  a  large  fish  hook  and  is  handled  on  the  forecastle 
by  the  capstan.  It  is  generally  easy  enough  to  hook  on  with  this, 
leading  the  pendant  down  through  the  bow  chock.  Then  heave 
up  and  take  the  weight  of  the  anchor.  After  that  be  guided  by 
the  manner  in  which  the  anchor  is  fouled. 

The  worst  instance  of  fouling  that  the  writer  can  remember 
occurred  when  the  Schoolship  Newport  picked  up  a  waterlogged 
spar  buoy,  some  thirty  fathoms  of  close  link  chain,  and  a  mush- 
room anchor,  all  incorporated  with  the  ship's  own  chain  and 
anchor.  This  happened  in  the  Hudson  River  with  a  strong  tide 
running  ebb,  assisted  by  the  current  of  the  stream  and  a  brisk 
north  wind. 

Very  often  such  thmgs  happen  at  a  time  when  the  power  to 
maneuver  the  vessel  is  limited  and  to  let  go  a  second  anchor  is 
next  to  impossible.  Fortunately  stockless  anchors  are  very  free 
from  fouling  and  this  is  perhaps  their  best  recommendation. 

A  final  word  about  weighing.  Never  break  out  an  anchor 
with  a  shackle  on  the  windlass,  if  the  hold  is  hard.  Ease  the 
shackle  ofif  and  break  out  with  the  engines  as  recommended 
above. 

When  an  anchor  is  buoyed,  pick  up  the  buoy  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible. This  should  be  fitted  with  a  slip  rope,  so  it  can  be  hauled 
on  board,  after  the  turns  have  been  taken  out  of  it. 


Weighing  from  a  Mooring 

When  two  anchors  are  down,  circumstances  permitting,  veer 
chain  on  the  anchor  to  which  the  vessel  is  riding  strongest,  sheer 
over  toward  the  leeward  anchor  and  heave  in.  When  this 
anchor  is  up,  hold  your  sheer  and  heave  in  on  the  second  anchor. 

When  anchored  in  a  crowded  harbor  always  keep  steam  on 
the  windlass. 

vn 

stowing  Anchors 

Most  anchors  of  the  stockless  type  stow  in  the  hawse  pipes 
and  require  no  special  gear.  Care  must  be  taken  in  heaving  in 
to  not  bring  a  heavy  stress  on  the  anchor  after  it  is  snug.  Gen- 
erally no  special  means  for  securing  the  anchor  are  necessary. 


Stowing  an  old-fashioned  anchor.    Showing  fish  davit,  guys,  fish  tackle, 
fish  hook,  balancing  band.     Fish  fall  {leading  aft  along  deck),  bill  board. 
The  sailor  is  about  to  "  pass  "  the  shank  painter. 

Some  ships  make  sure  of  the  anchor  by  passing  a  heavy  steel 
bar  through  the  chain  just  over  the  inside  end  of  the  hawse  pipe. 
This  bar  should  be  fitted  with  a  lanyard  and  lashed  to  deck  bolts. 


650 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


GROUND  TACKLE 


651 


I 


M,  I    t, 


I 


The  practice  is  not  very  safe  as  the  other  method,  of  locking  the 
chain  by  a  deviPs  claw  stopper,  leaves  the  anchor  free  to  let  go 
without  first  lifting  it  by  the  windlass. 

Old-fashioned  anchors  usually  stow  on  the  bows.  The  best 
practice  is  to  stow  them  on  an  anchor  bed  or  bill  board,*  In 
sailing  craft  the  anchor  is  lifted  by  means  of  a  long  fish  pendant 
fitted  to  the  foremast  head  in  schooners  and  to  the  foretopmast 
head  in  square  riggers.  Many  vessels  carry  a  special  fish  davit 
for  lifting  the  anchor.  Steamers  fitted  with  old-fashioned 
anchors  almost  all  make  use  of  a  fish  davit. 

As  soon  as  an  old-fashioned  anchor  comes  up  to  the  water's 
edge,  the  fish  tackle  is  overhauled,  the  fish  hook  is  hooked  in 
the  balancing  link^  the  fish  tackle  is  rounded  in,  and  as  it  picks 
up  the  anchor,  the  windlass  is  backed  and  the  chain  $urged\  to 
allow  the  anchor  to  rise  to  its  bed. 

Cat  heads  (the  small  projection  or  davit  fitted  on  the  bow  to 
lift  the  anchor)  are  seldom  met  with  nowadays.  In  the  old  days 
two  falls  were  used.  The  cat  f ally  reeving  through  shieves  in  the 
cat  head  and  fitted  with  a  cat  hook  on  the  lower  block.  This  was 
a  threefold  purchase.  The  cat  hook  took  hold  of  the  ring  of 
the  anchor.  The  fish  tackle  was  generally  a  twofold  purchase 
and  was  extended  out  over  the  bow  by  the  fish  boom,  pivoted  in  a 
gooseneck  on  the  forward  side  of  the  foremast.  The  fish  hook 
was  hooked  under  the  fluke  of  the  anchor.  Both  of  these  ancient 
contraptions  lifted  the  anchor  up  to  its  bed  on  the  bill  board, 
where  it  was  secured,  as  stated  before,  by  ring  stopper  (to  cat 
head)  and  shank  painter  (to  bill  board). 

In  sailing  craft  on  deep  water 
voyages,  it  is  the  fashion  to  im- 
shackle  the  chains  and  bring  them 
in  to  the  windlass,  after  the  vessel 
is  well  off  soimdings.  The  anchors 
are  roused  in  by  deck  tackles  and 
securely  lashed. 
On  the  Great  Lakes  many  of  the 
An  anchor  pocket,  large  ore  and  grain  carriers  stow 

*  In  old  wooden  ships  an  iron-shod  board  that  protected  the  ship  from 
injury  by  the  bill  of  the  anchor. 

t  To  surge  a  chain  or  hawser  is  to  slack  it  off. 


their  anchors  in  anchor  pockets  or  stowing  boxes  as  shown  in 
the  sketch.  This  avoids  trouble  where  vessels  are  scarphed, 
bows  and  quarters  in  close  contact  alongside  of  wharves.  It 
also  is  useful  in  protecting  the  anchors  when  working  through 
narrow  canal  locks. 

vm 

To  Lay  Out  An  Anchor 

This  operation  is  seldom  necessary  in  the  merchant  service. 
In  men  of  war  it  is  practiced  frequently  when  ships  must  moor 
in  more  or  less  dangerous  groimd  and  in  places  unprovided  with 
permanent  moorings.     Naval  vessels  generally  carry  special  gear 

for  this  work. 

However  when  an  anchor  is  to  be  placed  some  distance  away 
from  the  vessel  the  occasion  is  liable  to  be  one  of  necessity  and 
the  work  must  be  done  with  dispatch.  Kedge  and  stream 
anchors  are  easily  handled  in  ship's  boats  having  a  square  stern, 
but  in  the  average  high-sided  double-ended  life  boat  great  care 
must  be  taken  in  slinging  the  anchor.  Large  stream  anchors  are 
best  handled  by  the  use  of  two  boats  securely  lashed  side  by 
side  with  stout  spars. 


Carrying  out  an  old-fashioned  anchor  with  two  boats.  A  stockless  anchor 
would  be  slung  with  flukes  horizontal,  close  under  boats,  and  anchor  shackle 
up  near  gunwales. 

When  a  bower  anchor  is  to  be  carried  out  use  two  boats  side 
by  side.  Sling  the  anchor  between  them  and  coil  five  fathoms  of 
the  wire  hawser  in  the  boats.  Making  certain  that  the  bight  of 
wire  leading  back  to  the  vessel  is  securely  lashed  with  strong 
new  ratline  stuff.    Have  an  axe  handy  to  cut  this  BEFORE 


iinri 


l) 


m 


i 


652 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


letting  go.    The  wire  is  payed  out  by  the  ship  when  bringing  the 
anchor  into  its  desired  place. 

At  best  an  anchor  cannot  be  carried  out  with  ship»s  boats 
unless  weather  and  sea  are  moderate,  and  then  every  precaution 
must  be  taken  to  avoid  accidents.  The  rails  of  life  boats  are 
not  strong  and  cross  spars  must  be  well  chocked  to  carry  the 
weight  down  into  the  bilge  of  the  boat. 


A  stocJdess  stream  or  hedge  slung  over  stern  of  boat. 

Cable  not  shown. 

Means  must  be  provided  for  slipping  the  anchor,  either  by 
the  use  of  a  pelican  hook  or  by  means  of  a  strong  toggle  and  a 
heavy  rope  strap.  If  the  anchor  is  a  large  one,  make  a  strap  of  a 
number  of  turns  of  light  flexible  wire  rope  and  use  a  strong  steel 
bar  for  the  toggle. 

An  anchor  layed  out  in  this  fashion  should  be  provided  with  a 
strong  trippling  line,  clove  hitched  and  stopped,  about  the  crown. 
When  a  stockless  anchor  is  used  be  careful  not  to  place  the 
tripping  Ime  so  that  it  will  interfere  with  or  jamb  the  motion  of  the 
arms. 

Keep  as  much  gear  ofif  of  the  anchor  as  possible. 

Keep  the  anchor  up  between  two  boats  with  shackle  in  sight 
until  ready  to  let  go.     This  is  the  most  certain  rig  for  all  purposes. 

K  only  one  boat  is  available  the  anchor  must  be  slung  under 
the  boat  by  a  bridle.  The  bridle  is  passed  around  the  belly 
of  the  boat  in  the  wake  of  extra  spreaders  and  chocks,  and  the 
anchor  is  slung  by  a  hanging  line  made  fast  to  the  bridle.    A 


GROUND  TACKLE 


653 


Ijiimiiiit "•■ 


Stream  anchor  carried  in  large  square  stern  boat.  A,  A,  Skids.  D, 
capstan  bar.  B,  Stock  lashing.  C,  Shank  lashing.  Cable  not  shown. 
Anchor  is  dropped  by  lifting  forward  ends  of  A  A. 

third  line  called  the  lowering  line  is  also  hooked  into  the  balancing 
band,  or  sling,  on  the  anchor  and  serves  to  lift  it  from  the  ship 

and  to  lower  it  down  under  the  boat 
until  the  bridle  and  hanging  line  take 
the  weight.  When  the  anchor  is  let  go 
in  this  way  considerable  gear  goes 
down  with  it. 

When  lajring  out  an  anchor  always 
attach  a  buoy  to  the  anchor.  When  a 
weighing  or  tripping  line  is  used  bend 
the  buoy  rope  to  this  line  at  a  point  far 
enough  from  the  anchor  so  that  the 
buoy  rope  will  bring  the  bight  of  the 
tripping  line  to  the  surface  at  high 
tide.  This  is  useful  when  about  to 
get  the  anchor. 

When  securing  a  rope  hawser  to 
an  anchor  use   a  clinch  as   shown 

An  inside  clinch.  ^^    t^®     sketch.       Some     prefer     a 

round  turn  and  two  half  hitches,  the 
end  secured  by  stout  seizings.   The  clinch,  however,  cannot  jam. 


»■ 


S 


! 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


655 


CHAPTER  18 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


Foreword 

We  have  now  come  to  the  part  of  seamanship  where  every- 
thing else  that  has  gone  before  has  been  in  preparation.  The 
actual  handling  of  large  vessels  comes  to  most  men  after  a  long 
apprenticeship.  But  in  late  years  many  youngsters  have  stepped 
up  very  fast  and  many  of  these  have  much  to  learn.  Formerly  a 
man  went  to  sea  for  twenty  years  before  getting  command,  now 
the  trick  is  often  done  in  one  fourth  of  the  time.  Youngsters 
are  not  four  times  as  clever;  we  are  simply  living  in  a  more  rapid 
age.  Opportimities  for  advancement  are  very  great,  and  the 
obligations  going  with  the  opportunities  have  increased  tenfold 
at  least. 

The  officers  on  the  bridge  and  the  Master  in  command  simply 
have  to  buckle  down  to  the  constant  study  of  their  great  work. 
Nowhere,  except  at  sea,  do  men  have  absolute  control  of  such 
vast  forces  as  we  find  on  board  ship.  A  vessel  of  the  largest 
class  combines  within  itself  a  concentration  of  power  utterly 
unknown  ashore.  When  afloat  there  is  no  such  thing  as  '*  shut- 
ting down  the  works,"  there  is  no  "  going  home  at  night "  and 
forgetting  things  until  the  next  day.  No  one  can  quit — quitting 
at  sea  is  mutiny. 

Sympathetic,  well-meaning  people  ashore  look  upon  many  of 
the  customs  at  sea  as  harsh  and  cruel.  The  fact  is  that  the  sea 
itself  is  absolutely  relentless  in  its  laws.  The  finest  vessel 
afloat  would  meet  with  disaster  and  possibly  the  loss  of  many 
lives,  if  the  men  on  board  did  not  hold  themselves  constantly 
responsive  to  the  great  dangers  that  always  surround  them. 

In  ship  handling  only  the  broadest  principles  can  be  set  down. 
Vessels  built  from  the  same  plans  differ  in  their  ways.  Every 
cargo  brings  with  it  alterations  in  the  trim  and  stability  of  the 

654 


same  vessel.  The  progress  of  the  voyage,  with  bunker  weights 
constantly  diminishing,  causes  further  alteration  in  the  qualities 
of  handling.  Wind  and  sea  conditions  are  always  changing,  and 
as  a  vessel  progresses  from  the  time  of  her  last  docking  her 
bottom  becomes  coated  with  marine  growths  and  her  maneuver- 
ing power  becomes  less  and  less.  This  condition  was  brought 
home  to  the  writer  with  great  force  during  the  first  voyage  of  the 
S.  S.  American^  Captain  George  McDonald,  on  her  two  passages 
through  the  Magellan  Straits.  Outward  bound  we  were  clean, 
going  to  the  westward,  and  made  all  anchorages.  Homeward 
botmd  a  foot  of  grass  trailed  from  her  plates  and  all  anchorages 
were  missed,  often  by  a  small  fraction  of  an  hour.  Only  the 
finest  seamanship  prevented  the  vessel  from  meeting  with  dis- 
aster while  afloat  off  Field's  Anchorage  during  a  night  of  constant 
snow  and  willa  waws. 

The  varying  quality  of  fuel  also  has  much  to  do  with  the 
handling  of  vessels. 

Certain  hull  appendages  are  found  on  the  wetted  bottom  of 
merchant  vessels  and  effect  the  handling.  These  are  rudder 
and  rudder  post,  shaft  struts  or  bossing  (sometimes  called 
spectacle  frames),  the  bilge  keels^  and  in  rare  cases  bar  keels. 

The  changing  elements  make  ship  handling  an3rthing  but  a 
precise  business.  Also,  no  two  men  will  do  a  similar  piece  of 
work  in  the  same  way.  They  may  follow  general  principles  but 
each  individual  will  have  many  ideas  and  wrinkles  of  his  own. 
Also,  no  shipmaster  worth  his  salt  imagines  he  knows  it  all  and 
every  one  of  them  learns  new  things,  and  is  on  the  lookout  for 
them,  on  every  voyage. 

n 

Anchoring 

Before  coming  to  an  anchorage,  if  time  permits,  ascertain  all 
facts  available  about  the  conditions  that  exist.  The  seasonal  char- 
acteristics, storms,  tides,  bores  (look  out  for  these  in  the  large 
river  anchorages),  the  character  of  bottom,  depths,  room  to  swing, 
bearings,  ranges,  lights,  etc.,  are  a  part  of  the  art  of  piloting  and 
have  a  direct  bearing  upon  the  selection  of  an  anchorage. 

When  coming  into  an  anchorage  during  the  high  stage  of  the 
tide  be  specially  careful  not  to  touch.    Have  leadsmen  in  both 


656 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


657 


'I  I 


I  I 


stands,  sounding  as  you  go  in,  and  anchors  always  ready.  It  is 
also  a  good  precaution  to  have  a  lead  line  in  the  running  boat, 
or  motor  launch.  Where  there  is  any  doubt  send  a  boat  ahead  of 
the  ship  and  sound  as  you  go  in,  keeping  the  boat  so  far  ahead 
that  you  can  easily  stop  if  the  water  shoals. 

Such  precautions  are  looked  upon  with  great  favor  by  the 
underwriters  who  have  to  foot  all  bills  for  carelessness.  No  one 
will  criticize  a  master  for  seamanUke  precaution.  When  he  gets 
his  ship  into  trouble,  however,  a  thousand  critics  stand  ready  to 
tell  him  what  he  should  have  done.  The  Standard  Seamanship 
does  this  for  him  in  advance. 

Many  harbors  are  effected  by  currents  during  different  stages 
of  the  tide.  Your  vessel  may  be  going  over  the  ground  at  a  good 
rate  of  speed,  even  though  she  has  very  little  way  upon  her 
through  the  water.  Watch  bearings  ashore  and  pick  up  natural 
ranges  where  possible. 

Having  selected  an  anchorage,  be  certain  that  the  vessel  has 
sufficient  room  to  swing.  Anchoring  in  a  crowded  harbor  calls 
for  great  judgment.  Note,  if  possible,  the  manner  of  anchoring 
of  other  vessels,  whether  riding  to  single  anchors  or  whether 
moored.  Figure  out  their  position  at  different  stages  of  the 
tide.     Note  whether  they  are  tide  rode  or  wind  rode,* 

The  navy  has  developed  the  use  of  the  mooring  boards  but 
this  method  of  plotting  the  moorings  of  vessels  with  relation  to 
each  other  is  a  refinement  hardly  necessary  for  merchant  craft. 
It  is  a  good  plan,  however,  to  strike  off  a  circle  on  the  chart 
about  the  point  of  dropping  anchor ^  using  the  scope  of  chain  as 
radius.  This  will  show  the  limits  of  swing  at  all  stages  of  the 
tide. 

Riding  at  Single  Anchor 

A  vessel  riding  at  single  anchor  should  have  as  much  cable 
out  as  is  necessary.  Never  ride  to  a  short  scope  xmless  com- 
pelled to  do  so  because  of  lack  of  room.  Have  at  least  five  times 
as  much  chain  out  as  there  is  depth.  Remember  that  it  is  always 
better  to  veer  chain  as  the  weather  makes  up  before  the  anchor 
begins  to  drag. 

*  Tide  rode  swinging  to  the  tide.  Wind  rode  swinging  to  the  wind.  Often 
a  vessel  will  be  both  tide  rode  and  wind  rode  at  the  same  time. 


Riding  to  port 
bower.  Sheer 
with  port  helm. 


A  vessel  at  single  anchor  should  normally  ride  with  a  sheer 
away  from  her  anchor.  That  is,  if  the  port  anchor  is  down  give 
the  vessel  a  small  amount  of  port  helm.  This  steadies  the  vessel 
and  prevents  her  from  yawing  about.  Under 
severe  conditions  of  wind  and  sea  a  vessel  at 
anchor  should  be  steered,  giving  her  a  small 
sheer. 

As  the  tide  slacks  and  the  wind  makes  up, 
perhaps  from  a  different  quarter,  a  vessel  may 
break  her  sheer.  That  is,  she  will  swing  off 
before  the  new  forces  and  may  carry  a  long 
bight  of  loose  chain  with  her.  A  vessel  riding 
to  a  weather  tide  may  be  taken  by  the  wind 
and  carried  across  her  anchor  at  slack  water, 
tripping  or  fouling  it. 

Tending  ship  at  anchor  is  an  art  somewhat 
neglected  on  steamers.   The  sailer  must  tend  ship.    The  steamer 
may  almost  always  avoid  serious  trouble  by  use  of  the  engines. 

When  a  vessel  is  about  to  break  her  sheer,  it  may  be  advisable 
to  heave  in,  if  riding  to  a  long  scope,  and  then  veer  chain  again 
on  the  making  up  of  the  new  tide. 

An  officer  should  always  be  on  deck  at  the  turn  of  the  tide. 
As  this  time  is  known  he  can  easily  be  called  before  she  begins 
to  swing.  In  heavy  weather  many  Masters  insist  upon  an  officer's 
anchor  watch.  This  is  reasonable,  as  the  conditions  are  gen- 
erally such  that  quick  action  is  necessary  by  someone  who  has 
been  awake  and  knows  how  the  vessel  is  riding. 

A  drift  lead  should  always  be  over  the  side  in  heavy  weather 
or  tide. 

Where  a  vessel  lies  to  an  anchor  for  long  periods,  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  heave  in  at  slack  water  and  sight  the  anchor  at  frequent 
intervals. 

Also,  note  the  way  in  which  the  vessel  turns  at  each  tide  by 
recording  the^  headings  in  the  log  book.  This  will  give  some 
idea  of  what  is  happening  to  the  anchor  and  the  chain. 


P. 


1;!,. 


658  STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 

m 

Backing  an  Anchor 

When  riding  to  a  single  anchor,  weather  making  up,  it  may 
sometimes  be  necessary  to  add  to  the  holding  power  of  the 
anchor  that  is  down  by  backing  it  with  a  second  anchor.  This 
however  is  an  extreme  case  and  might  only  be  resorted  to  after 
both  anchors  had  failed  to  hold  the  vessel  and  engines  were 
either  out  of  order  or  unable  to  stem  the  storm. 

A  spare  bower  or  stream  anchor  would  be  got  up,  a  length  of 
the  heaviest  wire  in  the  ship  rove  through  one  of  the  anchor 
shackles  outside  of  the  hawse  pipe,  and  carried  inboard  to  the 
anchor.  Lower  the  anchor  and  heave  in  on  the  wire.  Then 
lash  or  shackle  the  anchor  to  the  cable.  If  sufficient  wire  cable 
is  available  veer  this  overboard  from  the  bow  chock  as  the  cable 
with  the  backing  anchor  is  veered.  Vessels  are  often  blown 
ashore  when  hurricanes  and  other  great  storms  sweep  over  them. 
With  three  anchors  down,  one  of  them  a  backing  anchor,  and 
steam  up,  engines  going  ahead,  almost  any  storm  can  be  weath- 
ered. It  is  a  good  plan  to  consider  such  possible  work  in  advance 
and  have  the  gear  ready  for  use.  It  may  never  be  used — ^but 
you  never  can  tell. 

IV 

Mooring 

Mooring  is  often  necessary  in  congested  anchorages  and  in 
such  narrow  anchorages  as  Port  Churruca  and  others  in  the 
Magellan  Straits.  In  coming  to  a  mooring  it  is  well  to  put  down 
the  anchors  in  a  line  with  the  main  strength  of  the  tide,  and  if 
possible  have  one  anchor  laid  out  in  the  direction  from  which 
the  most  severe  storms  are  expected.  Often,  however,  these 
things  are  uncertain  and  the  best  all  'round  arrangement  is 
resorted  to. 

The  method  of  mooring  is  to  come  up  to  the  point  of  dropping 
the  first  anchor,  to  let  go  and  ride  along,  veering  chain  in  the 
meanwhile  until  the  point  of  dropping  the  second  anchor  is 
reached.  This  is  then  let  go  and  as  the  second  cable  is  veered, 
the  first  is  hove  in  until  the  vessel  rides  on  a  span  one  anchor 
ahead  and  one  astern. 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


659 


When  the  tide  or  wind  swings  her  across  the  lines  of  the 
mooring  she  will  brmg  a  great  stress  on  the  anchors  (see  composi- 
tion of  forces)  and  it  is  often  neces- 
sary to  veer  chain.    Sometimes  it 
is  possible  to  veer  chain  on  one  an- 
chor and  ride  from  the  other. 

The  reader  will  see  at  once  that 
many  combinations  of  mooring 
anchors  and  buoys  are  possible. 

Where  a  vessel  is  to  ride  to  a 
mooring  for  some  time  it  is  advis- 
able to  place  a  mooring  shackle 
outside  of  the  hawse  to  take  care 
of  possible  turns. 

Clearing  hawse  where  a  vessel 
gets  turns  in  her  cables   is  an        Mooring.-l,  Riding  to  port  an^ 

^.        ^-     ^  ^     -  -        chor,    2,  Riding  to  both  anchors, 

operation  that  cannot  always  be    3,  Slacking  off  port  cable  and  rid- 
avoided.     One   chain    (the    cable    ,-;w7  to  starboard  anchor.    Cables 
with  the  least  stress  upon  it)  is    clear. 
secured  below  the  turn  by  a  clear 

hawse  pendant  brought  in  over  the  bow  chock  to  the  forecastle 
head  capstan  or  the  gypsie  head  of  the  windlass.    This  is  hove 

taut,  and  the  chain  is  imshackled 
on  board,  passed  out  through  the 
hawse  pipe,  after  hooking  or 
shackling  it  to  a  hawser  that  has 
been  passed  down  through  the 
pipe  and  dipped  arotmd  the 
standing  cable.  This  hawser 
(dipped  in  the  opposite  direction 
of  the  turns  in  the  cable)  is  hove 
upon  and  takes  the  loose  end  of 
the  second  cable  clear  of  the  rid- 
ing cable  and  hauls  it  on  board. 
All  of  this  in  one  operation 
chor,  (Port  cable  slacked  off,)  aided  by  a  lot  of  intelligent  pur- 
Half  turn  in  cables,  A  half  turn  suasion, 
in  cables  is  also  called  an "  elbow,**        tm.     t!     x    1       •    x    x     j  1- 

The  best  plan  is  to  tend  hawse 
and  never  let  the  cable  get  more  than  a  half  turn,  or  elbow, 
before  taking  it  out  at  the  following  swing  of  the  tide. 


Mooring.  —  1,  Riding  to  port 
anchor,  2,  Riding  to  both  an- 
chors,   3,  Riding  to  starboard  an- 


660 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


661 


A  flying  moor  is  a  fancy  stunt  that  youngsters  look  upon  as 
smart.  The  vessel  slams  up  to  her  mooring  at  a  fair  speed, 
drops  her  hook  and  lets  the  cable  go  out  with  a  shower  of  rust 
and  sparks,  snubbing  the  ship  with  the  windlass  brakes.  As  she 
comes  to  a  rest,  drop  the  second  anchor,  veer  chain  on  this,  and 
heave  in  on  the  first.  The  method  is  the  same  as  a  regular  moor 
but  the  vessel  may  be  going  four  or  five  knots  when  the  first 
anchor  is  dropped.  The  scope  of  chain  to  let  run  before  checking 
the  speed  of  the  ship  with  the  windlass  is  a  matter  of  judgment 
and  the  amount  of  swinging  room  available. 

The  flying  moor  is  hard  on  all  parts  of  the  ground  tackle  and 
should  not  be  used  unless  necessary. 


Coming  Alongside 

This  evolution  is  performed  very  frequently  by  merchant 
seamen  and  presents  no  special  difficulty  on  smooth-sided 
vessels  with  ample  power.  Only  where  the  vessel  is  large  and 
tide  or  wind  conditions  are  severe  and  tugs  are  not  available,  is 
there  much  danger. 

The  best  ship  handlers  always  make  it  a  point  to  know  exactly 
what  conditions  are  to  be  expected  at  all  stages  of  the  tide  and 
they  choose  their  time  for  docking  accordingly.  In  the  harbor 
of  New  York  many  men  dock  at  any  stage  of  the  tide,  meeting 
conditions  as  they  exist.  The  main  thing  to  have  in  mind  is  to 
know  what  conditions  will  prevail  during  the  period  of  docking. 

The  following  practical  notes  have  been  written  for  Standard 
Seamanship  by  Captain  Robert  A.  Bartlett  of  the  Army.  Trans- 
port Service.  These  notes  relate  to  the  method  of  docking  large 
liners  at  the  Army  Transport  Base  in  Hoboken. 

Have  slip  clear  of  all  lighters  on  both  sides. 

If  pier  is  covered  have  five  or  six  camels  or  floats  secured  along 
the  dock,  to  keep  the  vessel  away  from  the  string  piece  and  to 
permit  discharge  water  to  go  overboard  clear  of  the  dock. 

Hoist  a  signal  at  the  end  of  the  dock  to  be  used.  A  red  flag  is 
convenient  and  warns  oflf  other  vessels  also,  preventing  any 
misunderstanding  as  to  which  dock  and  which  side  is  to  be  used. 

At  the  comer  cluster  piles  have  a  large  paunch  mat  fender 


securely  lashed  to  the  piles.  The  piles  should  be  secure.  When 
the  cluster  piles  at  the  dock  end  are  not  suitable  use  a  strong 
camel  lying  at  the  corner  of  the  dock  and  well  secured  against 
sUpping  by  wire  springs.  The  dock  corner  will  act  as  a  turning 
point  for  the  vessel  when  she  springs  around  into  the  slip. 

The  best  time  to  dock  at  the  Hoboken  piers  is  at  slack  water 
high,  just  before  the  beginning  of  the  ebb  tide. 

Place  the  vessel  heading  up  stream  bringing  her  to  a  stop  about 
one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  out  from  the  bulkhead  line,  the 
bow  a  little  beyond  the  middle  of  the  slip,  the  docking  pier  on  the 
port  hand.  Vessel  to  be  put  alongside  on  the  north  side  of  the 
pier,  that  is  on  the  side  against  which  the  tide  will  presently  be 
running. 

A  tug  is  sent  to  the  port  bow  and  takes  two  12-inch  manila 
lines,  running  them  half  way  up  the  dock.  The  Docking  Master 
has  his  crew  ready  to  place  these  lines  on  posts  and  to  shift 
them  ahead  as  required.  These  lines  are  referred  to  as  No.  1 
and  No.  2.    They  lead  to  capstans  on  the  forecastle. 


m  vN 


r 

'■"II.,,  o    ,7, 

I'll, 11. 

M...      •    .. 

,li.ll>'" 

H 

I 

c 

_j 

i 

Types  of  roller  chocks. 

The  tug  then  takes  a  third  line'from  the  port  bow  as  a  tow 
line.  If  the  tide  or  wind  is  strong  a  second  tug  is  put  on  the 
port  bow  with  a  towline. 

The  tugs,  and  lines  1  and  2,  cant  the  bow  into  the  slip  and  the 
vessel's  side  against  the  camel  or  fender. 

From  eight  to  ten  tugs  take  hold  against  the  port  quarter  and 
start  working  her  up  against  the  beginning  of  the  ebb.  The 
ship  is  worked  ahead  very  slowly  with  the  engines.  As  she 
works  mto  the  slip  and  the  tide  makes  up  stronger  the  forward 
tugs  on  the  port  quarter  drop  off  and  stand  by  to  take  lines  from 
the  starboard  quarter  if  needed. 

Springs  are  put  over  as  she  works  into  the  slip  and  if  a  heavy 
wind  is  blowing  from  the  north  a  12-inch  line  is  sent  from  the 
starboard  quarter  to  the  comer  of  the  pier  to  the  north. 


i! 


662 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


663 


The  whole  operation  is  simple  and  depends  upon  everyone 
understanding  the  method  and  attending  strictly  to  business. 
The  Captain  and  the  Dock  Master  are  the  only  ones  giving  orders. 


Docking  a  large  liners  North  Rivera  N.  Y. 

Use  docking  telegraphs  fore  and  aft  on  the  vessel,  and  signals  to 
the  dock.    The  Chief  Mate,  on  orders  from  the  bridge,  shifts  the 

bow  lines. 

Docking  with  a  flood  tide  bring  the  vessel  up  the  river  and 
turn  her  with  the  aid  of  tugs.  This  should  be  done  just  before 
the  tide  begins  to  run  strong,  or  just  before  slack  water  high,  if 
there  is  not  too  much  water  in  the  slip  at  low  tide. 

The  principle  is  to  always  have  the  tide  make  against  the  side 


A  roller  head 
fair  lead. 


of  the  dock  to  which  the  vessel  is  to  lie.  It  is  very  difficult  to 
hold  a  vessel  against  a  dock  with  the  tide  running  in  tmder  the 
dock  at  its  outer  end  and  pushing  her  off. 

The  vessel  should  always  stem  the  tide. 

With  a  heavy  wind  and  a  high  light  vessel  the 
wind  may  take  hold  and  modify  the  effect  of  the 
tide. 

Always  come  alongside  slowly. 

Use  heaving  lines  in  leading  out  warps  and 
springs  from  the  quarter  chocks.  Never  send  the 
line  until  all  is  ready,  as  the  lines  may  easily  foul  the  propellers. 

Large  vessels  can  leave  the  piers  at  any  stage  of  the  tide.  The 
stern  is  held  up  against  the  tide  by  tugs,  either  pushing  or  pulling, 
or  both.  When  the  tide  is  setting  the  vessel  away  from  her 
berth  great  care  must  be  taken  to  have  two  or  three  powerful 
tugs  on  the  up-tide  quarter  already  taking  a  pull  as  the  vessel 
backs  out.  If  being  set  down  against  the  pier  the  vessel  will 
not  pivot  so  fast  on  the  corner  piles  or  the  camel,  and  the  pushing 
tugs  come  in  and  take  hold  as  she  leaves  the  slip.  Be  certain 
that  the  tugs  are  ready  at  their  station  at  the  bulkhead  before 
backing  out  into  the  stream. 

Long  liners  must  be  turned  by  tugs  as  the  North  River  is  not 
wide  enough  for  them  to  swing  alone. 

From  ten  to  twelve  tugs  are  needed  to  dock  a  large  vessel 
under  the  above  conditions. 

Captain  Bartlett  has  outlined  the  conditions  under  which  the 
longest*  ships  are  handled  in  one  of  the  worst  docking  ports  of 
the  world.  Where  vessels  enter  a  tideless  basin,  or  one  without 
current,  the  problem  of  handling  is  greatly  simplified. 

The  spring  is  the  most  useful  means  of  handling  a  vessel 
along  side  of  a  dock.  Spring  lines  lead  at  a  slight  angle  with 
the  keel  and  are  used  to  "  spring  in  "  or  "  spring  out "  the  bow 
or  stern,  or  where  two  spring  lines  are  used  at  the  same  time 

*  Among  merchant  ships,  the  Leviathan^  950  feet  long,  is  the  longest,  with 
the  Imperator  and  the  Aquitania^  each  900  feet  long,  coming  next.  Among 
warships,  are  the  Renown^  and  her  sister,  the  Repulse^  each  being  789  feet. 
The  longest  of  all  is  the  British  battle-cruiser  Hood^  which  is  900  feet  in 
length  and  about  42,000  tons  full  load  displacement.  Our  Navy  has  building 
six  battle-cruisers  875  feet  in  length.     See  page  7. 


664 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


}  TideorWincf 


Fender 


Wind 


Slow  Ahead 


A,  Working  stern  clear  with  en- 
gines. B,  Tide  and  wind  send  bow  ou  t. 
C,  Springing  off  parallel  to  dock.  D, 
Winding  around  corner  of  dock.  S, 
Spring  lines. 

ing  lines  of  vessels  alongside  of  a 


the  vessel  can  be  bodily 
moved  in  or  out  or  pivoted 
depending  upon  the  direction 
of  the  springs  and  the  motion 
given  the  vessel  with  the  en- 
gines. Diagrams  of  the  ac- 
tion of  the  spring  are  not 
very  satisfactory,  but  at  least 
they  serve  to  show  some  of 
its  uses.  Surging  and  Rend- 
ering are  terms  used  by  sea- 
men when  slacking  off  heavy 
lines  under  stress,  to  prevent 
lines  from  parting  or  to  assist 
in  maneuvering.  Be  careful 
that  wet  Hues  do  not  get  out 
of  hand. 

Springs  are  always  used  in 
t3dng  up  at  a  dock  and  these, 
in  conjunction  with  breast 
lines  J  and  bow  and  stern  lines 
constitute  the  regular  moor- 
dock  or  wharf. 


Tying  up  a  large  vessel— A,  Bow  lines.  B,  Stern  lines.  C,  Breast  lines. 
D,  Springs.    E,  Cross  springs.    F,  Camels  or  fender  logs. 

Fire  Warp 

Many  officers  when  placing  their  ships  alongside  of  a  wooden 
shed,  or  one  filled  with  combustible  materials,  make  it  a  practice 
to  lead  a  fire  warp  from  the  inshore  end  of  the  vessel  to  a  corner 
of  the  wharf.  This  is  held  in  beckets  just  below  the  rail,  or  may 
simply  rest  on  the  string  piece  of  the  wharf.  It  is  led  to  the 
forward  capstan  if  bow  in,  or  to  an  after  capstan  or  winch,  if 
stem  in. 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


665 


Should  a  fire  start  ashore,  engines  probably  being  out  of  com- 
mission, or  boilers  cold,  the  fire  warp  will  throw  the  vessel  clear 
of  the  slip,  all  other  lines  being  cast  off.  The  vessel  can  then 
drift  clear  and  anchor,  or  be  picked  up  by  a  tug. 

VI 
Going  Alongside  Another  Vessel 

The  art  of  placing  a  fairly  large  craft  alongside  of  another 
vessel  while  in  a  tideway  is  not  generally  tmderstood  by  seamen. 
The  fact  that  merchant  vessels  as  a  rule  do  not  have  to  perform 
this  evolution,  except  on  rare  occasions,  leaves  the  matter  very 
much  in  doubt  in  the  minds  of  many.  One  branch  of  the  navy, 
the  Naval  Auxiliary  Service,  has  long  been  a  fine  school  for  ship 
handlers.  Here  the  colliers  and  supply  vessels  are  ordered 
about  by  some  crusty  old  admiral"  and  the  young  skippers  just 
go  where  they  are  told.  The  excellent  training  received  by  the 
collier  masters  has  been  reflected  in  their  records  during  the 
World  War. 

Commander  E.  V.  W.  Keen,  of  the  Naval  Reserve  Force 
has  written  a  most  interesting  and  valuable  set  of  notes  for 
Standard  Seamanship,  covering  the  handling  of  a  collier,  single 
screw,  and  bringing  her  alongside  of  a  battleship.  Of  course  his 
instructions  are  applicable  to  the  bringing  alongside  of  any  two 
vessels.  Commander  Keen  has  translated  his  helm  instructions 
into  merchant  service  practice. 

General  Remarks 

No  definite  rules  can  be  made  for  the  successful  handling 
of  a  steamer  while  going  alongside  another  ship,  wharf,  or  in 
mooring  to  a  buoy,  which  will  not  bear  adverse  criticism.  Opin- 
ions among  seamen  differ  very  much  in  this  respect.  Some 
advocate  one  procedure,  and  some,  another.  It  is  a  known 
fact  that  different  steamers,  under  similar  conditions,  act  differ- 
ently. Therefore  the  following  suggestions,  the  result  of  prac- 
tical experience,  are  to  be  taken  accordingly. 

Going  alongside  another  ship  at  anchor  in  a  harbor,  river  or 
narrow  channel  is  one  of  the  difficult  jobs  a  shipmaster  has  to 
do  now  and  again.  In  the  Naval  Auxiliary  Service,  it  becomes 
more  or  less  easy,  as  you  are  continually  called  upon  to  perform 
this  duty  at  all  hours,  imder  favorable  and  unfavorable  condi- 
tions, and  practise  in  this,  tends  to  perfection. 


' 


666 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


The  type  or  class,  of  vessel  discussed  here  is  the  average 
cargo  vessel  of  low  power,  about  7000  tons  displacement,  length 
410  feet,  draft,  loaded  24  feet,  speed  9V2  knots,  horsepower  1400, 
with  right-handed  screw  propeller.  It  is  surprising  how  far  a 
vessel  of  the  above  type  will  travel  before  coming  to  a  standstill, 
even  with  little  headway  and  engine  going  full  astern.  The 
distance  required  by  the  steamer,  mentioned  above,  running 
half  speed,  5  knots  ahead  in  slack  water,  to  come  to  a  standstill, 
with  engine  full  astern  is  about  1100  to  1300  feet  or  over  three 
times  the  vesseVs  length.  Running  at  full  speed  10  knots, 
between  six  and  seven  times  the  vessel's  length. 

Caution 

When  you  have  a  narrow  channel,  or  congested  harbor  to 
navigate,  which  is  usually  the  condition  under  which  you  will 
go  alongside  another  ship,  keep  as  little  headway  on  as  possible. 
Bear  in  mind,  that  should  your  order  for  half,  or  full  speed  ahead, 
not  be  answered  as  soon  as  reasonably  expected  by  you  (due  no 
doubt  to  some  hitch  which  may  arise  while  handling  the  engine) 
no  serious  damage  may  result.  But  the  result  may  be  quite 
different  if  you  have  a  fair  amount  of  headway  on  and  there  is 
some  unexpected  delay  in  answering  your  signal  for  half  or  full 

astern. 

Turning  Effect— Rudder  and  Screw 

Most  single  screw  steamers  are  fitted  with  what  is  termed,  a 
right-handed  propeller,  meaning  that  while  in  motion  ahead, 
it  turns  from  port  to  starboard,  or  like  the  hands  of  a  watch. 
A  right-handed  screw,  turning  over  slowly  ahead,  with  rudder 
amidships,  and  other  influences  eliminated,  such  as  wind,  tide, 
etc.,  has  a  tendency  to  cause  the  ship's  stern  to  travel  to  star- 
board and  bow  to  port.  As  the  speed  is  increased  this  tendency 
to  cause  the  ships  stern  to  travel  to  starboard  is  diminished. 
The  screw  going  ahead  has  its  greatest  turning  effect  upon  how 
and  stern  while  turning  over  slowly.  In  backing,  this  condition 
is  reversed,  the  screw  turning  counter-clockwise.  The  ship's 
stern  will  travel  to  port,  bow  to  starboard,  and  as  the  speed  is 
increased  the  bow  and  stern  will  travel  to  starboard  and  port  that 
much  faster.  The  screw  in  going  astern  has  its  greatest  effect, 
upon  bow  and  stern  while  turning  at  full  speed,* 

Backmg— Rudder  Has  Little  Effect 

The  greatest  turning  effect  on  the  ship's  head  is  that  of  the 
rudder,  when  the  screw  is  going  full  speed  ahead.    When  the 

*  Note  this— Greatest  turning  effect  of  screw. 

Going  ahead — slow. 

Going  astern — fast. 

Author 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


667 


Ship  going 

ahead  Screw 
backing 


screw  is  going  full  speed  astern,  the  rudder  has  little  effect. 
This  effect  can  be  changed  slightly  by  varied  conditions  of  draft 
and,  too,  there  are  times  when  it  is  possible  to  back  your  ship 
in  a  straight  line  due  to  wind,  sea  and  tide.  But  in  the  majority 
of  cases  you  will  invariably  find  that  the  rudder  has  little  effect 
in  backing  and  that  your  bow,  irrespective  of  rudder,  will  swing 
fast  to  the  starboard  and  stern  to  port. 

Effect  of  Wind  and  Tide 

Vessel  going  ahead  slowly,  engine  full  astern, 
ship's  head  will  go  to  starboard  from  30°  to  50° 
(angle  S.)  while  traveling  400  to  600  feet,  helm 
hard  astarboard.  If  it  is  possible  first  go  to  port 
by  putting  the  helm  hard  astarboard  full  ahead 
until  she  starts  to  swing  and  then  stop  her.  In 
backing  the  propeller  will  swing  bow  to  star- 
board and  straighten  her  out. 

Wind,  sea  and  tide  effect  all  maneuvers.  The 
latter  has  the  greatest  effect  upon  a  vessel  fully 
laden.  In  maneuvering,  or  entering  a  narrow 
channel,  it  is  advisable  to  stem  rather  than  travel  with  it.  There 
are  times  when  a  sea  may  have  a  great  effect  upon  a  light  ship, 
this  when  in  open  water. 

Wind  has  its  greatest  effect  upon  a  light  vessel  and  it  is  sur- 
prising how  quickly  a  steamer  (light  draSt),  having  no  headway, 
will  fall  off  from  the  wind.  If  on  even  draft,  fore  and  aft,  exposed 
surfaces  equal,  she  will  bring  the  wind  abeam.  If  down  by  the 
stern,  say  8  or  9  feet,  she  will  bring  the  wind  abaft  the  beam. 
If  in  open  water  the  engine  be  reversed  while  the  vessel  has 
little  headway  with  head  to  wind,  she  will,  in  a  short  time,  turn 
stern  to  wind  by  falling  off  to  starboard.  A  vessel  fully  loaded 
or  light,  no  wind,  in  a  fair  sea  and  stopped  she  will  gradually  seek 

her  own  position  and  in  most 
cases  it  will  be  the  trough  of 
the  sea,  and  when  in  this  po- 
sition, by  reversing  engine  her 
stern  will  sooner  or  later  head 
into  the  sea. 

Backing  and  Filling  (Steamer) 
To  turn  a  vessel  in  a  limited 
space  slack  water,  endeavor 
to  get  all  the  way  you  possibly 
can  off  the  vessel  before  you 
put  your  helm  over.  Assum- 
ing the  vessel  is  nearly 
stopped,  put  your  helm  hard 
a  port  and  go  full  speed  ahead. 


w 


668 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


(1)  When  she  starts  to  swing,  and  before  she  gets  much 
headway,  stop  her  and  let  her  run  as  far  as  prudent  (if  in  a 
strange  harbor,  be  sure  to  study  the  chart  well,  noting  all  imme- 
diate danger).  (2)  Keep  your  lead  going  and  have  both  anchors 
ready  for  letting  go,  then  go  full  astern  helm  amidships.  When 
she  has  lost  her  headway,  put  helm  hard  a  starboard.  After 
backing  as  far  as  you  may  go,  put  your  helm  hard  a  port  and  go 
full  speed  ahead.  (3)  Repeat  this  maneuver  till  the  vessel  turns 
completely  aroimd,  which  usually  is  after  two  or  three  backings 
and  fillings. 

The  reason  for  going  full  speed  ahead,  and  then  astern,  is 
because  a  vessel  under  these  conditions  swings  much  faster, 
due  to  the  action  of  the  water  from  the  propeller  on  the  rudder. 
It  has  its  greatest  effect  in  deep  water. 

To  Turn  to  Port — Right-hand  Screw — Using  Port  Anchors 

It  would  be  qtiite  difficult,  under  the  above  conditions,  to 
make  the  turn  to  the  port,  that  is  going  ahead  on  a  starboard 
helm,  as  the  angle  gained  in  going  ahead  would  be  practically 
lost  in  backing.  It  would,  however,  be  the  way  to  turn  if  your 
vessel  were  fitted  with  a  left-handed  propeller.  Of  course, 
there  are  times  when  one  is  compelled  to  swing  to  the  port  and 
make  the  turn.  If  this  is  the  case  proceed  as  above  with  your 
helm  hard  a  starboard  and  having  run  as  far  as  prudent  let  go  the 
port  anchor  veer  10  to  15  fathoms  of  chain  (perhaps  less,  no 
definite  amount  can  be  stated  you  must  be  guided  by  the  amount 
of  water  and  kind  of  bottom),  then  go  full  astern. 

In  veering  chain,  you  will  note  that  it  leads  well  astern  and 
that  the  stern  is  swinging  fast  to  starboard.  When  the  vessel 
brings  up  on  the  chain,  it  may  drag  the  anchor,  if  you  have  a  clear 
bottom,  no  cables  to  hook  on  to  and  plenty  of  room  astern,  let 
her  drag  until  she  is  straightened  out,  then  stop,  heave  in  and 
proceed  on  your  way. 

Turning  Against  Tide 

If  at  anchor,  strong  tide  running,  and  you  want  to  turn  around, 
heave  up  anchor  and  steam  over  to  port  or  left  side  of  channel. 
Arriving  there  and  stemming  the  tide,  put  your  helm  hard  a  port 
and  full  ahead  until  the  bow  starts  swinging  to  starboard,  then 
stop.  The  vessel  is  now  controlled  by  the  tide  and  will  turn 
dead  athwart  the  river.  When  the  vessel  has  run  as  far  as 
prudent,  go  full  astern  and  shift  your  helm  to  hard  a  starboard. 
This  will  have  a  tendency  to  hold  her  stern  up  against  the  tide, 
and  she  will  come  quickly  around,  more  so  than  if  you  had  gone 
over  on  the  other  shore  and  started  to  swing  her  to  the  left  or 
with  starboard  helm. 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


669 


Going  Alongside  of  Another  Vessel 

Suppose  you  are  entering  port,  and  as  you  pass  the  flagship 
you  receive  signals  to  go  alongside  the  U.  S.  S im- 
mediately.   Conditions  are  as  follows:    a  strong  spring  flood 

tide,  wind  light,  sea  smooth.    The  U.  S.  S is  two  miles 

further  up  the  river  and  wants  you  to  come  alongside  his  port 
side  and  is  ready  for  you.  Notify  the  First  Officer  and  Chief 
Engineer  of  your  instructions  to  go  alongside,  "  Our  starboard 
side  to  their  port  side."  The  First  Officer  will  have  all  hands  take 
stations.  See  that  anchors  are  ready  for  letting  go,  lines  up  and 
neatly  coiled  ready  for  use  both  fore  and  aft,  steam  on  capstan 
engine,  and  winches  turned  over,  fenders  in  position  over  the 
side.  Be  sure  and  have  a  large  fender  placed  at  the  break  of 
forecastle  and  well  down  on  your  starboard  side  as  in  all  prob- 
ability this  location  will  be  where  you  fetch  up.  Have  a  5-inch 
manila  line,  of  about  120  fathoms,  ready  as  a  running  line. 
Lead  this  out  through  your  forward  chock  to  the  foreshrouds, 
have  a  heaving  line  bent  on.  Have  fenders  ready  for  immediate 
use,  heaving  lines  up  and  in  charge  of  those  who  are  to  use  them. 
Be  certain  that  everything  is  ready. 


Proceed  as  follows:  Try  to  keep  in  the  center  of  river  and 
endeavor  to  get  most  of  the  headway  ofif  the  vessel  and  still 
have  her  manageable.     Continue  up  river  passing  the  U.  S.  S. 

on  her  starboard  side,  distance  of  about  500  ft.  (1). 

When  your  bow  is  abreast  of  her  bow  stop  your  engine  and  let 
the  tide  carry  you.  By  the  time  your  bridge  is  abreast  of  her 
stern  (if  previously  traveling  very  slowly)  it  wUl  be  noted  that 
your  headway  is  dead.  Remember  you  are  still  traveling  over 
the  ground  at  a  fair  speed  with  the  tide.  Assuming  that  the 
river  is  clear  ahead  or  that  you  have  at  least  3  or  4  ship  lengths 
of  clear  water,  put  your  helm  hard  aport  (2),  give  a  kick  ahead 
full  speed.  When  she  starts  to  swing,  go  full  astern,  let  go  your 
starboard  anchor  and  stop  your  engine  (3) .  Veer  chain  gradually 
to  8  or  10  fathoms  (in  6  fathoms  of  water.    At  this  stage  it  is 


670 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


not  your  intention  to  give  her  enough  chain  to  l^^ld  the  ship,  but 
iust  enough  to  break  her  around  so  as  to  head  the  tide.  Ihe 
greatest  stram  will  occur  when  your  ship  is  at  right  angles  to 
the  tide  (4)  and  diminishes  as  your  angle  is  reduced. 

Havhie  swung  almost  head  to  tide  and  when  the  tide  is  about 
2  or  3  points  on  your  starboard  bow  (5)  (ship  still  swmging)  you 
may  veer  Cham  and  gradually  bring  her  up.    This  may  require 
between  60  and  70  fathoms  of  chain.    If  you  feel  that  giving  her 
that  amount  of  chain  may  result  in  bringing  you  too  close  to  some 
object  astern  of  you,  or  the  tide  may  be  very  strong  and  the 
stram  on  anchor  engine  and  cham  too  great,  go  ahead  on  your 
engine.    Assuming  your  ship  has  stopped  and  you  have  swung 
S  to  tide,  put^our  helm  amidship  and  start  to  heave  up. 
Use  your  engine  to  take  strain  off  capstan  and  steer  your  ship 
so  as  to  f oUol  the  lead  of  your  anchor  chain     Get  anchor  away, 
and  up.    Head  up  for  the  stern  of  U.  S.  S.  .  •,••••••  ,  .yS!^ 

within  200  feet  of  his  stern,  port  your  helm  and  brmg  h^s  flag 
in  line  with  your  bridge  (6).  Then  straighten  her  uP  arid  run 
parallel,  keeping  about  30  feet  off,  and  watch  your  port  helm. 
^Donot  let  the  tide  catch  you  on  your  port  bow  and  carry  youiru 

Having  run  your  distance  put  helm  astarboard  and  go  full 
astern;  this  stops  you  and  casts  the  bow  to  starboard.  Get 
bow  ^d  stern  li^es  out;  then  forward  and  after  springs.  No 
deL^  rule  can  be  given  for  the  handling  of  Unes  as  it  depends 
greatly  upon  the  manner  of  approach  and  speed. 

Leaving  Ship's  Side 

Upon  leaving  the  ship's  side  I 
find  it  the  most  satisfactory  to  let 
go  all  lines  other  than  bow  line, 
stern  line  and  forward  spring,  slack 
bow  line  gently  until  ship  brings  up 
on  spring.  Hold  bow  line,  and 
stem  will  gradually  swing  off. 
When  off  far  enough  take  in  stern 
line.  Helm  is  amidship.  When 
all  clear  aft,  go  slow  ahead.  Let 
go  bow  line,  and  as  ship  comes 
ahead  haul  aboard  the  spring. 


-Ho/d 
•Slack 


Leaving  ship*s  side. 
Be  careful  not  to  get  spring  in  propellers. 

On  Heaving  Lines 

As  a  rule  there  are  few  seamen  who  can  handle  a  heaving  line 

with  any  degree  of  perfection.    As  a  successful  landmg,  under 

Xer^  conditions,  often  depends  upon  getting  a  heavmg  line 

on  board,  it  is  only  natural  that  some  instruction  should  be  given 


li 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


671 


to  those  who  are  to  use  them.  Take  a  few  coils  of  15  or  18 
thread  manila  and  cut  into  16  to  19  fathom  lengths,  and  limber  it 
up  so  that  it  is  quite  pliable.  At  one  end  seize  a  small  canvas 
bag  large  enough  to  hold  about  a  poimd  and  a  half  of  sand. 
(Write  the  ship's  name  on  a  piece  of  canvas,  place  this  in  the 
sand  when  sewing  up  the  bag — when  disputes  arise  over  the 
ownership  of  heaving  lines,  rip  open  bag  and  claim  your  own.) 

Set  aside  a  half  hour  each  day  for  practice  in  heaving.  Create 
some  rivalry,  have  a  heaving  line  match  once  a  week  granting 
some  inducement  for  perfection.  With  a  few  weeks  of  this 
practice  we  found  that  we  could  cut  our  heaving  lines  into 
twenty-five  fathom  lengths.  Some  men  prefer  a  heavier  sand 
bag  with  the  longer  length  of  line. 

Single  Screw  Vessels 

Commander  Keen  has  shown  very  clearly  what  may  be  ex- 
pected in  the  handling  of  a  single  screw,  right-handed  propeller, 
vessel  of  average  tonnage  under  various  conditions. 

The  action  of  a  vessel  with  right-handed  screw  under  a 
variety  of  circumstances  is  best  illustrated  by  reference  to  the 
following  table  adapted  from  Applied  Naval  Architecture  by 
W.  J.  Lovett. 

Of  course  a  left-handed  screw  will  give  opposite  results  under 
similar  conditions. 

But  no  matter  how  a  screw  will  work  in  theory,  the  only  safe 
guide  is  the  study  of  the  particular  vessel  under  consideration. 

The  most  unsatisfactory  conditions  may  arise  when  a  vessel  is 
compelled  to  back  due  to  wind  or  current  and  the  lessened  effect 
of  the  rudder.  In  going  astern  a  vessel  will  give  a  tendency  to 
back  up  into  the  wind,  regardless  of  the  helm  even  in  a  slight 
breeze. 

Careful  study  of  the  above  table  and  a  comparison  with  the 
actual  conditions  found  upon  your  ship  will  result  in  valuable 
data. 

Know  what  the  vessel  will  do  under  certain  conditions,  then 
be  careful  not  to  try  and  make  her  do  something  else.  Handling 
a  ship,  or  a  woman,  the  same  rules  seem  to  apply. 

Study  of  the  rules  set  down  will  help  toward  gaining  an  under- 
standing of  the  action  of  vessels,  but  too  much  stress  cannot  be 
given  to  the  fact  that  all  vessels  differ  and  each  one  must  be 
mastered  by  actual  practice. 


24 


1 


672 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


673 


PropeUer  going  asfern   •*-% — 

Ship  going  ahead 

slow    ► 


Propeller  going  ahead  — 9 — ► 
fasi^^ 


Asiern 


sIow-*r 


Change  of  Direction  of  Ship's  Head  Indicate/  — J  "^    — /  Efc. 


I 


Speed  and  Direcfion  of  Ship  and 
Screw  Indicated  by  Arrows 


-^-> 


■*♦ 


•S5 


8 


U-% —      -^ 


d 


■<-^     ^ 


10 


II 


/z 


*-      -* 


12 


Remarks 


Resultant 

Direction  of 

Vessel's  Hcod 


Vessel    going    ahead 
screw  suddenly  reversed 


As  above  buf  wifh  rudder puffo port 


As  I    buf  wifh  rudder  puf  io  sfarbd. 


As  2  buf  vessel  now  has  slowed  down 
under fhe  acfion  offhe  reversed  screw 


As  3   buf  vessel  sfill  slowing  down 
under  fhe  acfion  offhe  reversed  screw 


As  2  buf  vessel  now  has  begun  fo  go 
asfern  under  fhe  acfion  of  reversed  screw 


As  3   buf  vessel  sfill  going  asfern 
under  fhe  acfion  offhe  reversed  screw 


As  2  buf  vessel  has  now affained 
good  speed  asfern 


As  3  buf  vessel  has  now  affained 
good  speed  asfern 


Propeller  now  puf  ahead  reducing 
asfern  speed  ship 


As   10    buf  rudder  puf  fo  port 


As  10    buf  rudder  puf  fo  sfarb'd 


Maneuvering  table,  single  screw  right-handed. 


^ 


1 


"I 


^ 


"^ 


< 


1 


( 


J 


vn 

Twin  Screw  Vessels 

A  twin  or  triple  screw  vessel  has  many  advantages  over  the 
single  screw  in  the  matter  of  maneuvering.  Going  astern  the 
screws,  turning  in  opposite  directions,  have  less  effect  in  deaden- 
ing the  steering  power  of  the  rudder. 

Twin  screws  may  be  placed  in  two  ways.  The  starboard 
screw  may  be  right  handed  and  the  port  screw  left  handed. 
Then  the  upper  blades  turn  away  from  each  other. 

Or,  the  right  and  left-handed  screws  may  be  shifted  and  we 
have  the  upper  blades  turning  toward  each  other. 

The  first  method  of  fitting  twin  screws  is  the  most  common. 
It  is  the  best  arrangement  for  maneuvering,  seeming  to  give  more 
effect  to  the  rudder  than  when  the  screws  are  inboard  turning. 

The  turning  effect  of  the  blades  of  a  screw  in  the  lower  half 
of  the  circle  of  their  rotation  is  through  denser  water  and  the 
blade  meets  with  greater  resistance.  This  resistance  is  trans- 
ferred to  the  end  of  the  shaft  and,  in  turn,  to  the  hull  itself.  It  is 
for  this  reason  that  a  right-handed  screw,  turning  backward, 
throws  the  ship's  stem  to  port,  and  head  to  starboard. 

In  a  twin  screw  vessel  when  going  ahead,  the  ship  will  pivot 
rapidly  when  the  outboard  screw  on  the  turning  circle  goes  full 
ahead  and  the  inboard  screw  is  stopped,  or  reversed.  The 
greater  the  distance  between  the  shafts  the  more  pronounced 
the  turning  effect. 

The  action  of  twin  screws  in  turning  is  so  simple  that  not  much 
thought  is  needed  to  understand  the  effects  due  to  different 
combinations  of  their  action  with  the  rudder  and  the  forward  or 
sternward  motion  of  the  vessel. 

Steering,  The  steering  of  a  vessel  by  twin  screws  has  been 
accomplished  on  a  number  of  occasions  and  is  managed  by  con- 
trolling the  revolutions  of  the  engines. 

Steering  by  rudder  on  a  twin  screw  vessel  is  often  effected 
by  the  rolling  of  the  vessel.  First  one  screw  is  low  and  shoves 
with  more  power,  then  the  other  is  in  the  low  position  and  gets  in 
an  extra  push.  This  combined  with  the  natural  yawing  of  the 
ship  will  often  cause  her  to  steer  badly.  The  writer  remembers 
the  very  marked  effect  of  the  rolling  of  the  old  St,  Louis,  her 


w 


674 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


screws  kicking  her  from  one  side  to  another,  making  it  very 
difficult  with  a  quartering  sea  to  steer  a  course  within  two  or 
three  degrees  on  each  side. 

Backing.  In  backing  the  effect  of  the  rudder  is  less  than  when 
going  ahead  but  ample  turning  power  rests  in  a  manipulation  of 
the  relative  speed  of  the  screws,  or  in  stopping  one  and  going 
astern  on  the  other. 

Turning  from  a  stop.  Here  it  is  necessary  to  work  the  vessel 
around  with  her  screws,  backing  on  one  and  going  ahead  on  the 
other.  As  the  backing  screw  is  less  effective  than  the  going 
ahead  screw,  it  is  well  to  turn  over  the  ahead  screw  at  a  slower 
speed.  Also,  the  effect  of  wind,  trim,  tide,  and  depth  of  wa- 
ter must  be  considered  when  performing  this  maneuver.  In 
making  such  a  turn  with  the  screws  the  rudder  should  be  held 

amidship. 

Turning,  going  ahead.  The  helm  is  used  as  with  a  single 
screw  vessel,  while  the  screw,  on  the  inside  of  the  turn,  is  stopped 

or  reversed. 

Stopping.  Twin  screws  are  much  more  effective  in  stopping 
than  single  screws.  A  full-powered  vessel  should  stop,  twin 
screws  going  full  speed  astern,  in  about  six  to  seven  lengths. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  of  interest  to  note  that  a  vessel 
660  feet  long,  23,500  tons  displacement,  35,000  I.H.P.,  with 
maximum  speed  of  23.5  knots  will  require  seventeen  and  a  half 
minutes  to  go  from  dead  stop  to  full  speed  and  will  travel  a 
distance  of  approxhnately  35,400  feet  while  working  up  to  top 
speed.  Reversing  her  engines  she  will  come  to  a  stop  from  ftill 
speed  in  a  fraction  over  four  minutes  and  will  travel  approx- 
imately 4,300  feet,  or  six  and  a  half  times  her  length. 

Roughly  a  vessel  can  be  stopped  from  full  speed,  with  engines 
reversed,  m  one  fourth  of  the  time  it  takes  to  work  her  up  to 

full  speed. 

The  average  results  also  show  that  she  will  run  over  six  times 
her  length  unless  a  heavy  head  wind  or  sea  knock  down  her 

speed. 

Triple  screw  vessels  handle  like  twin  screws. 

Quadruple  screw  vessels  handle  like  twin  screws. 

Turbine  vessels  having  multiple  screws  are  fitted  with  special 
backing  turbines  on  the  maneuvering  screws. 


i 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


675 


Cavitation  is  caused  by  a  propeller  revolving  so  fast  that  the 
head  of  water  pressure  cannot  supply  solid  water  for  it  to  work 
in  and  the  blades  cut  across  the  suction  colunm  of  the  propeller 
instead  of  working  in  it.  This  produces  heavy  vibrations  and 
consumes  additional  power  without  effective  thrust. 

A  somewhat  similar  condition  prevails  when  a  propeller  re- 
volves in  still  water,  that  is  the  vessel  is  so  deeply  laden,  or 
burdened  by  a  tow,  that  the  propeller  spins  around  without  a 
corresponding  forward  movement  into  solid  water.  This  is  often 
seen  on  tug  boats,  it  is  called  "  dispersal  of  the  thrust  column  " 
and  of  course  results  in  vibration  and  loss  of  efficiency. 

Many  steamers  shift  berth,  and  in  fact  some  make  con- 
siderable passages  with  the  propeller  two  thirds  submerged. 
This  effects  their  handling  to  a  considerable  extent.  Usu- 
ally tramp  steamers  of  moderate  tonnage  are  sent  out  in  this 
condition. 

Horse  Power 

Before  leaving  this  question  of  maneuvering  it  may  be  well 
to  say  a  word  about  horsepower.  To  the  average  man  there 
seem  to  be  as  many  kinds  of  horsepower  as  there  are  breeds  of 
this  almost  extinct  domestic  animal. 

The  following  short  definitions  may  help  to  clear  up  the 
matter. 

A  horsepower,  by  the  way,  is  33,000  foot-pounds  of  work  per- 
formed per  minute.  That  is,  33,000  pounds  lifted  one  foot  in  a 
minute.  Or  550  pounds  one  foot  in  a  second.  Or  one  pound 
33,000  feet  in  a  minute,  and  all  proportions  in  between. 

Indicated  Horsepower  is  the  power  developed  in  the  cylinders 
of  an  engine.  It  is  measured  by  an  indicator  device,  the  pressure 
during  the  stroke  being  traced  on  a  card.  This  calculation 
neglects  all  losses  arising  from  friction  in  the  machinery. 

Shaft  Horsepower  is  the  brake  horsepower  measured  on  the 
shaft.  It  is  the  actual  amount  of  twist  given  the  shaft  in  imits 
of  foot-poimds  and  time. 

Effective  Horsepower  is  the  kctual  power  expended  in  moving 
the  hull  through  the  water.  It  is  the  tow-rope  power,  the  final 
power  applied  after  all  losses  in  engine  and  shaft  and  slip  of 
propeller. 


I 


i 


676 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


677 


Notes  on  Docking 

No  nile  can  be  given  as  to  the  number  of  hawsers  to  be  used 
in  coming  alongside.  A  moderate-sized  vessel  should  have  at 
least  five  lines  at  each  end  ranging  from  seven  inch  to  ten  inch. 
The  largest  vessels  use  twelve-inch  manila  handling  hawsers. 

Wire  hawsers  may  be  used  at  times  but  as  a  rule  are  not  put 
out  until  the  vessel  is  to  be  tied  up. 

When  the  end  of  one  line  is  on  a  bollard  a  second  one  can 
readily  be  placed  so  that  either  line  may  be  let  go  first.  Take  the 
eye  of  the  second  line  up  through  the  eye  of  the  first  and  over  the 
head  of  the  bollard.  If  you  have  never  seen  this  done  just  figure 
it  out  for  yourself. 

Where  possible  pass  the  eye  of  the  working  lines  out  through 
the  chocks  and  up  on  the  rail.  Bend  on  heaving  lines  and  have 
all  ready  for  use.  Most  men  bend  the  heaving  line  on  the  eye. 
It  is  better  to  bend  it  on  just  inside  of  the  splice  so  the  line  can  be 
lifted  over  a  post  and  the  heaving  line  unbent  without  trouble. 

A  vessel  coming  into  a  berth  alongside  of  a  dock  or  wharf  will 
always  try  to  get  her  bow  line  ashore  first.  It  is  well  to  also  get 
a  stem  line  out  by  passing  the  heaving  line  forward.  If  a  long 
ship,  bend  two  heaving  lines  together.  This  is  safer  than  to  put  a 
long  stern  line  out — this  might  fall  overboard  and  drift  aft  into 
the  propeller. 

Docking  telegraphs  and  docking  bridges  keep  the  Second 
Mate,  stationed  aft,  in  touch  with  the  bridge.  On  a  small  ves- 
sel he  should  take  a  station  where  he  can  see  the  bridge  at 
all  times. 

Entering  a  vessel  in  a  dock  slip  bow  first  is  comparatively 
simple.  Getting  a  vessel  alongside  of  a  dock  with  wind  or  tide 
holding  her  off,  lead  forward  and  after  springs  aft,  go  slow  ahead 
on  engines  for  a  few  turns;  this  will  cause  her  to  come  in  side- 
ways. Shorten  in  on  bow  and  stern  lines  and  get  out  breasts  to 
hold  her  close. 

To  back  into  a  slip  is  often  a  more  serious  job,  depending 
upon  conditions.  Take  advantage  of  all  forces  rather  than  to 
work  against  them.  Get  stern  line  out  and  up  the  slip  and  to 
after  capstan  or  warping  winch  as  soon  as  possible.  It  is  often 
possible  to  first  put  a  vessel  alongside  of  the  bulkhead,  stem 


pointing  across  the  slip,  and  to  wind  her  around  the  comer  of  the 
dock  by  means  of  a  strong  spring  leading  forward,  engines  slow 
astern,  and  by  heaving  in  on  the  stern  line.  Be  certain  to  have  a 
bow  line  out  and  a  check  spring  leading  forward.  Never  kick  the 
engines  too  hard  astern.  The  rudder,  in  this  maneuver,  is  prac- 
tically useless.    It  is  assumed  that  no  tugs  are  available. 

Off  shore  breasts  are  often  of  great  use  when  the  vessel  is 
going  into  a  sUp  where  they  can  be  used. 

Where  there  is  no  great  amoxmt  of  tide  and  wind,  there  is 
very  little  need  of  doing  more  than  just  having  the  slightest  way 
on  the  vessel.  Drift  her  into  her  berth  slowly.  Have  cork  or 
basket  fenders  handy. 

In  cold  weather  when  lines  refuse  to  hold  on  the  drum  of  a 
capstan  a  little  sand  will  help  them  grip.  When  a  line  rides  down 
on  the  barrel,  slack  or  surge  it  to  bring  it  up.  If  there  is  a  heavy 
pull  on  the  line  use  great  care  in  surging.  Work  the  turns 
aroimd  by  hand  a  little  at  a  time.  Many  lines  are  parted  by 
starting  the  loose  turns  too  far  and  then  holding  them  suddenly 
when  the  hawser  surges.  Always  keep  clear  of  a  hawser  working 
imder  heavy  stress ;  many  a  leg  has  been  broken  by  neglecting 
this  precaution.  Always  have  an  able  seaman  tending  hawsers 
under  stress. 

In  making  fast  lines  have  the  bight  slightly  more  taut  than 
the  standing  part  where  an  end  and  a  bight  lead  to  a  dock 
bollard. 

Parcel  all  lines  with  strips  of  old  canvas  where  they  work  over 
the  edges  of  docks,  etc.    Marl  this  down  with  spim  yam. 

Camels  are  heavy  fender  floats  usually  consisting  of  four 
squared  logs  bolted  together. 

Spur  shores  are  heavy  spars  resting  against  the  side  of  a 
vessel,  the  ends  usually  fitted  into  wooden  saucers.  The  ends 
are  held  up  by  one  or  more  lanyards  made  fast  to  the  deck  or  rail. 
The  shore  end  of  spur  shores  are  usually  fitted  with  rollers  to 
accommodate  the  shore  end  to  different  stages  of  the  tide.  Two 
breast  tackles  lead  from  the  heel  of  the  spur  shore  to  the  string 
piece  of  the  wharf.  These  are  used  to  haul  the  shore  hard 
against  the  side  of  the  vessel.  Two  or  more  are  usually  em- 
ployed when  a  vessel  is  to  lie  so  that  she  will  have  room  for  coal 
or  other  lighters  between  her  and  the  wharf. 


I 


678 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


679 


Dolphins  are  clusters  of  mooring  piles  driven  in  mooring  basins 
and  used  for  the  purpose  of  tying  up  vessels.  Lines  of  dolphins 
are  found  to  be  very  convenient  in  congested  basins.  They 
admit  of  easy  and  stationary  mooring.  Oil  pipe  lines  are  some- 
times led  out  to  dolphins  and  vessels  taking  aboard  fuel  oil  can 
do  so  in  this  manner. 

In  docking  and  handling  ship  two  requisites  should  never  be 
neglected.  All  officers  should  be  provided  with  whistles,  all 
sailors  should  carry  sharp  knives. 

Tending  lines  alongside  of  a  dock  is  most  important.  Where 
the  range  of  tide  is  considerable  this  is  necessary.  The  safety 
of  the  vessel  may  depend  upon  the  faithful  performance  of  this 
duty. 

Where  a  vessel  discharges  or  loads  rapidly  this  duty  should 
be  constantly  in  mind.  When  taking  in  bunker  coal  under 
chutes,  watch  the  lines.  Where  the  vessel  has  to  be  shifted  to 
aid  in  trimming  under  the  chutes,  special  springs  should  be  fitted 
and  led  to  deck  winches.  Always  watch  the  gangway  while 
shifting  and  have  some  on  watch,  especially  at  night. 

The  "  KEEP  CLEAR  OF  PROPELLERS  "  signs  should  always 
be  put  out  on  a  twin  screw  vessel.  Where  lighters  are  liable  to 
be  knocking  about  near  the  quarter  at  night  have  these  signs 
fitted  with  a  deck  portable  light  hung  over  them. 

Rat  guards  should  always  be  put  out  where  required.  Some- 
times this  is  of  great  importance  where  the  shore  is  infested  with 
the  pests,  or  local  quarantine  regulations  demand  it. 

vni 

Towing 

In  deep  sea  towing  operations  with  a  ship's  own  gear  these 
important  points  are  to  be  observed. 

First  the  line  to  be  used.  This  must  be  amply  strong  to 
withstand  sudden  jerks  when  the  towing  vessel  and  the  vessel  in 
tow  bring  upon  the  cable  suddenly  through  the  motion  of  the  sea 
and  the  momentum  of  one  of  the  vessels  as  against  the  lack  of 
movement  of  the  other.  It  must  be  understood  that  these 
stresses  are  liable  to  be  excessive — more  than  any  taut  chain 
or  wire,  or  fiber  rope  can  stand.    The  art  of  towing  successfully 


depends  upon  a  careful  regard  for  this  and  in  adopting  every 
means  at  hand  to  overcome,  or  to  lessen,  the  sudden  stresses  due 
to  the  heavy  forces  involved. 

The  chain  cable  makes  an  ideal  towline  because  of  its  weight 
and  because  of  the  degree  of  control  over  its  length  by  the  wind- 
lass of  the  vessel  in  tow.  Where  the  windlass  is  in  good  order 
and  the  vessel  to  be  towed  can  unshackle  one  anchor  (after  first 
getting  it  on  board),  the  towing  craft  can  haul  on  board  this  chain 
and  secure  it  with  suitable  lashings. 

A  chain  cable  hanging  between  two  objects  forms  a  curve 
known  to  mathematicians  as  a  catenary.  On  a  long  tow  this 
curve  will  sag  or  flatten,  depending  upon  the  distance  between 
the  ends,  and  as  this  distance  is  dependent  upon  the  pull  at  the 
ends  of  the  heavy  chain  we  have  an  ideal  method  of  equalizing 
sudden  stresses  between  the  two  vessels. 

Towing  by  chain  cable  presents  certain  difficulties  to  the 
towing  vessel.  Getting  the  chain  slung  over  the  counter  of  the 
towing  ship  is  not  so  easy.  Towing  by  a  bridle  is  desirable 
making  certain  that  the  connection  of  the  bridle  to  the  chain  cable 
will  not  part.  To  make  this  connection  leave  the  anchor  shackle 
on  the  end  of  the  cable  and  pass  as  many  turns  of  new  flexible 
wide  as  possible  forming  a  large  towing  eye  pass  the  parts  of  the 
bridle  through  this  eye.  The  bridle  should  be  long  to  prevent 
excessive  stress  due  to  the  angle  of  pull.  The  bridle  referred 
to  here  is  on  the  towing  vessel. 

The  towing  eye  and  bridle  should  be  held  at  the  center  of  the 
span  by  means  of  two  bights,  one  from  each  quarter.  When 
dropping  the  tow  these  are  cast  off  and  then  the  span  itself  is 
let  go.  All  stanchions  and  other  obstructions  must  be  removed, 
and  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  short  nips  and  chafe.  The  ends 
of  the  bridle  should  lead  as  far  forward  as  possible,  generally  to 
the  quarter  bitts,  and  after  a  turn  arotmd  these  to  the  bitts  next 
forward. 

Leading  a  towing  line  through  a  central  chock  on  the  taffrail 
may  make  steering  difficult. 

Where  a  vessel  is  to  be  towed  by  wire  cable,  or  manila  hawser, 
a  shot  or  two  of  chain  cable  in  the  middle  of  the  tow  lines  adds 
the  necessary  sag  to  give  spring  to  the  line.  This  is  specially  so 
with  wire  hawsers. 


II 


680 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


The  length  of  tow  lines  should  be  regulated  by  the  conditions 
prevailing.  By  slacking  out  or  hauling  in  the  length  of  sea 
running  may  be  taken  advantage  of  and  both  vessel  will  find 
themselves  retarded  or  accelerated  at  the  same  time  in  that  way 
saving  stress  upon  the  tow  line. 

In  a  general  way,  of  course,  the  longer  the  line  the  easier  the 
tow,  but  the  limit  to  this  is  evident  when  actually  handling  a  tow. 

Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  tow  a  vessel  without  using  her 
bower  chain.  It  may  be  desirable  to  keep  both  anchors  ready  for 
letting  go. 

In  this  case  pass  a  new  flexible  wire  through  both  chain  pipes, 
lowering  the  anchors  (stockless)  to  do  this.  Pass  as  many 
turns  as  possible  without  interfering  with  the  run  of  the  chains. 
Frap  the  turns  outside  of  the  hawse  pipes,  form  a  long  bridle, 
bring  this  up  on  the  forecastle  head  and  shackle  or  bend  the 
towing  line  into  this.  Then  drop  over  forward  and  secure  the 
anchors  with  a  stout  tackle  fitted  on  each  side  with  a  slip  toggle 
or  with  a  strong  manila  strap  that  can  be  cut  away  when  they 
have  to  be  lowered.  The  anchor  shackles  can  be  snug  against 
the  hawse  pipes  and  the  tackles,  leading  up  and  aft,  will  prevent 
swaying  of  the  anchors. 

The  above  observations  are  only  general.  Special  conditions 
impose  different  methods.  In  matters  of  this  kind  the  seaman 
proves  his  skill  by  adapting  the  most  simple  and  secure  measures 
with  the  means  he  has  at  hand. 

Mr.  Spencer  Miller,  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Lidgerwood  Com- 
pany, has  prepared  the  following  valuable  data  on  towing  and  the 
use  and  utility  of  the  Miller-Lidgerwood  Automatic  Tension 
Engine.  These  notes  are  given  here  through  the  courtesy  of  the 
above  company. 

The  Automatic  Tension  Engine  for  Deep  Sea  Towing 
Deep  sea  towing,  even  with  many  types  of  steam  towing 
machines,  is  towing  by  jerks.  The  hawser  stresses  vary  500 
to  600  per  cent.  Hawsers  must  be  of  enormous  strength  to 
withstand  the  maximum  stresses  incident  to  towing  by  jerks, 
and  of  great  length  to  minimize  the  jerking. 

The  Automatic  Tension  Engine  maintains  a  uniform  tension  or 
stress  in  the  hawser  (within  ten  per  cent)  and  light  short  hawsers 
are  used.  The  ships  can  be  towed  within  800  to  1000  feet  even 
in  a  heavy  seaway.  This  gives  to  a  towed  barge  the  practical 
equivalent  of  a  propeller  of  its  own. 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


681 


In  this  steam  towing  apparatus  the  stress  in  the  towing  hawser 
is  maintained  practically  uniform.  The  towing  hawser  cannot 
be  over-strained  whatever  be  the  sea  conditions. 

The  13"  X  13"  engine  will  require  a  1"  diameter  steel  hawser 
through  which  it  will  transmit  a  constant  stress  of  18,000  pounds 
to  the  towed  ship.    It  need  not  exceed  1000  feet  in  length. 


The  automatic  tension  engine. 

Under  no  possible  combination  of  sea,  weather  and  towing 
speed  can  the  hawser  stress  exceed  18,000  pounds. 

Any  jerk  exceeding  18,000  pounds  will  instantly  lower  the 
steam  pressure  and  caus'e  the  engine  to  pay  out  hawser.  Surges 
on  hawsers  seldom  last  over  3  seconds,  and  are  followed  by  a 
slackening  of  hawser.  The  instant  the  hawser  stress  falls  (to 
about  17,000  pounds)  the  steam  pressure  is  raised  and  the 
hawser  wound  upon  the  drmn  until  the  stress  is  again  (about) 
18,000  pounds. 

The  hawser  stress  can  be  reduced  at  will  by  a  turn  of  the  regu- 
lating hand  wheel.  In  practice  the  attendant  adjusts  the  working 
stress  to  harmonize  with  the  towing  speed.  If  too  much  hawser 
is  being  wound  upon  the  drum  the  hand  wheel  is  turned  one  way 
to  reduce  the  towing  stress,  and  conversely,  if  the  drum  is  seen 
to  be  losing  hawser,  the  wheel  is  turned  in  the  other  way  to 
increase  the  stress.  If  the  towmg  ship  slackens  its  speed  the 
attendant  reduces  the  hawser  stress.  Any  man  of  the  grade 
of  oiler  can  be  taught  to  operate  the  Automatic  Tension  Engine 
in  a  few  moments. 


•>l 


682 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


!( 


What  a  Pull  of  18,000  Pounds  Has  Done  and  Will  Do 
With  an  18,000  pound  hawser  stress,  the  U.  S.  Battleship 

Wyoming  (26,000  tons)  was  towed  at  41/3  knots  with  a  1"  (dia.) 

steel  hawser,  using  the  automatic  tension  engine. 
With  an  18,000  pound  hawser  stress,  the  U.  S.  Destroyer 

O'Brien  (1,174  tons)  was  towed  QVi  knots  with  a  1"  (dia.)  steel 

hawser,  using  the  automatic  tension  engine. 


//•/wvwy  Ce/rmf.Mf  HVvret 

C 


Srg-yf/r 


Diagram  of  automatic  tension  engine  working  parts. 

An  18,000  pound  hawser  stress  is  enough  to  tow: 

S.  S,  Colon 5,667  gross  tons*. 6Vi  knots 

S.  S.  Panama 5,667  gross  tons 7      knots 

S.  S.  Allianca 4,000  gross  tons 71/^  knots 

U.  S.  S,  Maumee  . .  .  14,500  tons  (without  propeller) .  .8     knots 
Oil  Barge  Navahoe .  .  7,718  gross  tons .6      knots 

Manila  vs.  Wire  Hawser 

It  is  well  known  that  manila  hawsers  are  far  superior  to  steel 
wire  hawsers  in  the  point  of  elasticity.  Steel  wire  hawsers  are 
cheaper  for  same  strength,  they  last  longer,  are  lighter,  less 
bulky,  easier  to  handle — all  factors  of  importance  on  shipboard. 
Nevertheless,  largely  because  of  the  greater  elasticity,  manila 
hawsers  hold  their  own  in  well-earned  popularity.  Elasticity 
is  recognized  as  a  factor  of  prime  importance. 
1^,  For  deep  sea  towing  of  large  vessels  long  steel^wire  hawsers 
are  practicable  only  in  connection  with  means  to  overcome  their 
deficiency  in  elsticity. 


683 


^ 


Use  of  Anchor  Chain 

Frequently  steamship  captains  couple  steel  hawsers  to  the 
anchor  chains  of  the  towed  ship.  This  greatly  increases  the 
sag  or  dip,  and  supplies  a  substitute  for  the  elasticity  of  a  manila 
hawser. 

This  is  objected  to  as  greatly  increasing  the  resistance  to 
towing  and  the  wearing  of  the  links.  Anchor  chains  should  not 
be  used  except  in  an  emergency — such  as  a  big  ocean  liner 
towing  a  disabled  vessel.  Success  in  towing  at  present  then 
depends  almost  entirely  upon  the  exercise  of  good  Judgment 
and  careful  seamanship. 


FT 


V.  S.  S.  Tennessee  {later  U.  S.  S.  Memphis)  Towing  U.  S.  S.  Preble. 

Towing  line  180  ft.— ly^"  anchor  chain wt.  24S0  lbs, 

780  ft.— 10"  circ.  manila  rope wt.  2540  lbs. 

960  ft. 
Hawser  stress,  18,000  lbs. — Normal  sag,  35  ft. 
Towing  line  failed  at  10  knots. 


wt.  4990  lbs. 


Experiments  in  towing.  In  1908  certain  towing  experiments 
were  made  in  the  Pacific  from  San  Francisco  to  San  Diego,  the 
sea  was  smooth  one-half  the  time  and  a  moderate  following  sea 
the  other  half.  Three  cruisers  towed  three  destroyers  of  592 
tons  full  load,  one  of  these  was  the  Perry. 

130  fathoms  of  10"  manila  hawser  were  used,  shackled  to  30 
fathoms  of  anchor  chain.  These  tow  lines  failed  at  10  knot 
speed.  Elements  estimated  to  possess  an  ultimate  strength  of 
50,000  lbs.  broke. 

The  report  says,  "  chain  should  not  be  used  at  all."  "  The 
great  weight  of  chain  carries  the  hawser  way  down  in  the  water, 
and  increases  the  resistance." 

The  accepted  plan  for  towing  gear  for  battleships  employs 
anchor  chains  coupled  to  wire  hawsers.  This  plan  (wholly 
justified  because  T)f  military  reasons)  undoubtedly  provides  an 
increased  range  of  elastic  extension  in  the  hawser.  It  is  fre- 
quently used,  sometimes  failing  which  indicates  that  it  does  not 
furnish  an  adequate  range  of  elastic  extension.  Even  used  in 
connection  with  manila  hawsers,  whose  elasticity  is  perhaps  ten 
times  that  of  wire,  it  has  repeatedly  failed  in  practice.  In  fact, 
whenever  it  has  succeeded  superior  seamanship  was  exercised 
in  handling  the  towing  ship,  the  speed  of  towing  very  low,  or  else 
sea  and  weather  conditions  were  favorable. 


R 


684 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


The  Conventional  Steam  Towing  Machine 


S.  S.  Iroquois 

Towing  the  Barge  Navahoe,  2700  Foot  Tow  Line. 

Length  of  Hawser  2700  Feet. 

Hawser 

Span, 

Sag  or 

Stress  Lbs. 

Air  Line 

Dip 

10,000 

2380  ft. 

.     S14ft. 

30,000 

2650  ft. 

205ft. 

50,000 

2660  ft. 

124ft. 

80,000 

2670  ft. 

78ft. 

The  conventional  steam  towing  machine  as  a  contribution  to 
the  art  of  deep  sea  towing  is  well  illustrated  by  the  Standard  Oil 
Tanker  Iroquois  regularly  towing  the  Standard  Oil  Barge 
Navahoe  and  indicates  that  there  remains  much  to  be  desired. 

The  Iroquois  has  a  gross  tonnage  of  9201  tons,  2500  indicated 
horsepower,  and  a  maximum  speed  (alone)  of  12.79  knots. 
The  Barge  Navahoe  has  a  gross  tonnage  of  7718  tons  and  is 
equipped  with  sail  power. 

Both  the  Iroquois  and  Navahoe  have  commercial  steam  towing 
machines,  near  the  stem  of  the  former  and  the  bow  of  the 
latter.  Towing  is  done  with  two  parallel  7"  (circ.)  steel  wire 
hawsers  of  (about)  342,000  lbs.  ultimate  strength. 

These  towing  machines  have  two  18''  x  20''  steam  cylinders 
and  a  winding  drum  to  hold  500  fathoms  (3000  feet)  of  2^4" 
(diameter)  or  7"  (circ.)  steel  hawser.  This  hawser  weighs  about 
13  tons  alone.    Each  towing  machine  weighs  about  27  tons. 

In  rough  water  these  hawsers  are  paid  out  to  450  fathoms 
(2700  ft.)  and  the  speed  of  towing  is  only  5  to  6  knots. 

To  tow  the  Barge  Navahoe  6  knots  in  smooth  seas,  should  not 
require  stress  in  both  hawsers  of  more  than  18,000  lbs.,  that  is 
to  say,  9000  lbs.  stress  per  hawser,  but  this  assumes  that  the 
hawser  itself  was  not  dragging  through  the  water. 

Calculating  the  sag  or  dip  of  each  7"  (circ.)  hawser  at  10,000 
lbs.  stress  shows  the  hawser  sagging  down  below  the  water  300 
to  500  feet.  The  sag  of  these  two  hawsers  produces  an  increased 
resistance  to  towing  estimated  at  12,000  pounds  which  is  wholly 
wasted.  Such  a  sag  or  dip  could  not  be  thought  of  along  the 
Grand  Banks  of  Newfoundland  nor  along  most  of  our  own 
coasts.  It  cannot  be  accepted  as  a  solution  of  the  problem  of 
deep  sea  towing. 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


685 


With  10,000  lbs.  stress  in  hawser  and  342,000  lbs.  ultimate 
strength,  we  have  a  factor  of  safety  of  34,  indicating  that  the 
hawser  gets  some  serious  overstrains  even  though  two  steam 
towing  machines  are  used. 


Towing  a  Barge  with  the  Automatic  Tension  Engine. 

The  Theory  of  the  Conventional  Steam  Towing  Machine. 
There  is  a  great  deal  of  misconception  respecting  the  conven- 
tional steam  towing  machine ;  one  is  that  it  maintains  a  uniform 
tension  in  the  hawser,  paying  out  rope  under  an  increased  stress 
and  winding  it  in  under  diminished  stresses.  Nothing  is  further 
from  the  truth,  for  according  to  the  statements  of  the  manu- 
facturers the  variation  in  stress  may  be  500  per  cent  or  even 
600  per  cent. 

In  the  usual  steam  towing  machines,  the  operations  follow  in 
rapid  sequence,  as  follows: 

A  heavy  wave  strikes  the  towed  barge  (steam  pressure  10  to 
20  lbs.  on  the  towing  machine).  An  extra  stress  is  produced  in 
the  hawser.  This  overhauls  the  towing  engine  and  its  drum; 
this  in  turn  by  suitable  mechanical  connection  opens  the  steam 
valve.  This  is  followed  by  a  great  increase  in  the  flow  and 
pressure  of  the  steam  in  the  cylinders  (up  to  125  lbs.  at  times) 
which  greatly  increases  the  hawser  stress.  The  purpose  and 
intent  of  the  design  is  to  build  up  the  stream  pressure  (and 
consequently  the  hawser  stress)  to  prevent  paying  out  too  much 
hawser. 

The  theory  of  the  automatic  tension  engine  is  that  the  ship 
cannot  be  restrained  by  the  hawser  to  an  appreciable  degree, 
hence  it  is  more  practicable  to  give  it  the  hawser  it  demands 
and  not  permit  the  hawser  stress  to  increase.  This  and  this 
alone  permits  the  use  of  small  short  towing  hawsers. 

An  examination  of  indicator  cards  taken  by  Mr.  Wilkie,  Chief 
Engineer  of  the.  Iroquois  and  printed  in  Mr.  Eemble's  paper 
(Naval  Architects  &  Marine  Engineers,  Jime  1909),  shows  that 
the  steam  pressure  in  the  cylinders  of  the  towing  machines 
varied  from  a  minimum  of  10  lbs.  to  a  maximum  of  125  lbs. — 
quite  sufficient  to  show  that  with  the  conventional  steam  towing 
machine  the  hawser  stress  varies  all  of  600  per  cent.  This  is 
towing  by  jerks. 
Big  Hawsers 

The  usual  steam  towing  machine  demands  a  hawser  of  the 
same  weight,  same  strength,  and  practically  the  same  length  as 


I 


I 


686 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


I 


before.  The  hawser  that  towed  the  U.  S,  S.  Maumee  (14,500 
tons)  eight  knots  was  2V4"  in  diameter,  its  ultimate  strength  was 
342,000  lbs.  The  normal  stress  to  tow  the  U,  S.  S,  Maumee 
eight  knots  would  be  about  18,000  lbs.  The  ultimate  strength 
of  this  hawser  is  19  times  as  great  as  the  normal  stress.  All  of 
this  excess  strength  is  supplied  to  absorb  the  extraordinary 
shocks  on  the  hawser.  This  hawser  is  calculated  to  receive  a 
stress  of  85,000  lbs.  at  times— a  factor  of  safety  of  4.  Such  a 
hawser  used  with  ships  towing  at  850  feet  apart  would  weigh 
6800  pounds  and  have  a  normal  sag  of  40  feet  when  towing 
18,000  lbs.  Frequently  the  distance  between  ships  is  increased 
suflBicient  to  drag  the  hawser  on  the  shallow  bottoms  of  much  of 
the  waters  along  our  coast.  This  explains  why  many  hawsers 
give  out  near  the  middle  of  their  length. 

A  light  hawser  l^i"  in  diameter  with  an  automatic  tension 
engine  under  the  same  conditions  would  sag  only  12  feet  and  in 
the  case  of  the  U.  S,  S.  Prometheus  and  U,  S.  S.  Maumee  would 
be  wholly  out  of  the  water  at  all  times.  It  would  never  slacken 
enough  to  strike  the  water,  because  the  automatic  tension  engine 
has  an  available  speed  of  take-up  exceeding  the  speed  with 
which  hawser  may  slacken. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  hawser  on  the  commercial  steam 
towing  machine  does  not  fail  at  the  drum,  but  at  some  other 
point.    This  may  be  accounted  for  in  three  ways : 

1.  Dragging  on  bottom 

2.  Chafing  on  rollers  and  chocks 

3.  Bending  on  small  drums 

The  rope  winding  on  the  drum,  and  paying  off  from  the  drum, 
is  alternately  bent  (bending  stress  about  20  tons)  and  straight- 
ened, this  rapidly  weakening  the  wires  of  the  hawser.  When  a 
surge  comes  on  the  hawser,  the  steam  towing  machine  starts  to 
pay  out  (under  reduced  steam)  easily,  the  stress  being  perhaps 
20,000  lbs.  The  steam  pressure  builds  up  rapidly,  after  some 
of  the  hawser  has  been  paid  out,  to  the  strain  of  perhaps  100,000 
lbs.  It  is,  therefore,  clear  that  the  part  of  the  hawser,  partly 
destroyed  by  the  bending,  is  off  the  drum  at  the  time  the  max- 
mum  stress  occurs.  This  is  one  fact,  but  we  have  another 
serious  difficulty  incidental  to  big  heavy  hawsers  sliding  on 
chocks,  rails,  guards,  etc.  It  is  the  great  weight  of  the  big 
hawsers  that  is  responsible  for  the  serious  chafing  and  accounts 
for  a  large  part  of  the  wear.  Bending  and  chafing  cause  the 
destruction— and  that  part  of  the  rope  off  the  drum  is  chafed 
worse  than  the  part  that  is  on,  and  hence  is  the  first  to  give 
way. 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


Towing  with  the  Automatic  Tension  Engine 


687 


U.  S.  S.  Cyclops  Towing  U.  S.  S.  Wyoming — Using  Automatic  Tension  Engine 
Towing  line — 400  ft. — 3''  circ.  wire  rope — wt.,  2520  lbs. 
Hawser  stress — 18,000  lbs. — normal  sag — 2  ft. 
Towing  speed — ^V^  knots. 

The  automatic  tension  engine  on  the  U.  S.  Collier  Cyclops 
towed  the  battleship  Wyoming  (26,000  tons)  at  a  speed  of  ^y^ 
knots,  using  only  100  fathoms  of  I"  diameter  steel  hawser. 
The  calculated  tow  line  pull  for  this  speed  is  9,000  pounds  plus 
the  resistance  due  to  the  drag  of  the  propellers.  The  hawser 
stress  was  never  greater  than  18,000  lbs. 

September  9th,  1915,  the  turbine  propelled  destroyer  O^Brien 
1174  tons  (full  load),  was  towed  9^2  knots  by  the  U.  S.  Collier 
Cyclops  using  the  same  automatic  tension  engine  and  a  1" 
diameter  wire  rope.  The  test  lasted  four  hours,  tension  in  line 
17,000  to  18,000  pounds. 


400  ^^-M 


V.  S.  S.  Cyclops  Towing  U.  S.  S.  0*Brien — Using  Automatic  Tension  Engine. 
Towing  line,  400 ft. — 3"  circ.  wire  rope — wt.,  2520  lbs. 
Hawser  stress,  18,000  lbs. — normal  sag,  2  ft. 
Towing  speed,  91/2  knots. 

This  might  be  contrasted  with  the  failure  in  towing  of  the 
Perry  (one  half  of  the  weight  of  the  O^Brien)  practically  at  the 
same  speed,  using  130  fathoms  of  10''  manila  hawser,  coupled 
with  30  fathoms  of  anchor  chain. 

Again  the  U.  S^  S.  Vermont ^  16,000  tons,  was  towed  by  the 
U.  S.  S.  Delaware  using  300  fathoms  of  2''  diameter  steel  hawser 
and  45  fathoms  of  chain,  3Vi  to  5  knots;  contrast  this  with  the 
U.  S.  S.  Wyoming^  26,000  tons,  towed  by  the  Cyclops  41/3  knots 
using  less  than  100  fathoms  of  I"  diameters  steel  hawser  and 
the  automatic  tension  engine. 

If  the  Cy clops y  with  its  present  equipment,  was  at  sea  with  a 
disabled  ship  of  the  size  of  the  Vermont y  the  Cyclops  could 
easily  tow  it  to  safety  at  a  speed  of  5  to  6  knots.  The  hawser 
could  be  short  for  the  required  range  of  elastic  extension  resides 


I 


688 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


III 


!| 


in  the  engine.  As  the  automatic  tension  engine  pays  out  hawser 
for  every  stress  exceeding  18,000  pounds  and  takes  it  up  with 
less  than  (say)  17,000  lbs.,  there  would  be  no  possibility  of  the 
hawser  parting. 

The  stress  in  hawser  is  practically  constant.    It  pulls  every 
instant — whether  pitching,  'scending  or  rising. 


v.  S.  S.  Delaware  Towing  U.  S.  S.  Vermont. 
Towing  line    270  ft.— zy^"  anchor  chain wt.  14230  lbs. 

1800  ft.— 6"  circ.  wire  rope wt.  lOSOO  lbs. 

2070  ft.  14730  lbs. 

Hawser  stress — 18,000  lbs. — normal  sag — 200  ft. 
Towing  speed — 5  knots  {Maximum), 

Neither  the  automatic  tension  engine  nor  its  1"  diameter  steel- 
hawser  (as''  rope)  has  ever  failed  in  any  sea.    It  is  jerk-proof. 

Taking  a  Vessel  in  Tow 

The  circumstances  under  which  a  vessel  may  take  another  in 
tow  are  so  various  that  no  definite  rules  can  be  laid  down.  The 
rule  that  the  vessel  to  do  the  towing  take  the  initiative,  her 
Master  giving  orders  to  the  vessel  to  be  towed,  seems  soimd. 
Still,  even  here  it  may  at  times  be  necessary  for  the  other  Master 
to  asstmie  charge. 

Before  attempting  to  take  another  vessel  in  tow  be  certain 
that  both  Masters  tmderstand  what  is  to  be  done  and  prepare 
for  the  operation  before  actually  attempting  to  put  a  line  across 
and  connect  by  chain  cable  or  otherwise. 

Where  both  vessels  are  fitted  with  radio  the  plan  of  procedure 
can  easily  be  agreed  upon. 

To  get  a  line  across,  either  use  the  Lyle  gim,  or  drift  a  buoy 
down  on  the  helpless  vessel  if  the  other  craft  can  get  to  the 
weather  side.  Of  course  under  moderate  weather  conditions  a 
boat  would  be  put  overboard  and  communication  made  in  that 
way. 

A  strong  manila  hawser  should  be  put  across  after  both 
vessels  are  ready  with  their  bridles  or  other  towing  gear,  and 
know  just  what  is  to  be  done. 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


689 


When  the  tow  line  is  finally  across  and  all  is  ready,  the  general 
opinion  is  that  the  vessel  to  do  the  towing  should  point  four  or 
five  points  away  from  the  tow  and  bring  the  stress  on  the  line 
straightening  out  the  two  vessels  and  starting  the  tow.  This 
brings  the  tow  line  into  action  without  giving  it  a  direct  load  at 
once,  the  pull  being  expended  in  turning  the  tow  and  starting  her 
through  the  water  at  the  same  time. 

Stowage  of  Wire  Lines 

Wire  towing  and  handling  lines  are  generally  kept  on  reels. 
Experience  has  demonstrated  the  danger  of  kinks  and  the  un- 
satisfactory stiffness  of  wire  when  handling  by  hand.  When 
not  on  reels  the  wire  should  be  ranged  along  the  deck,  prefer- 
ably fore  and  aft,  in  long  clear  fakes.  Have  chain  stoppers 
fitted  at  the  bitts  where  the  wire  is  to  belay. 

Coiling  of  Manila  Hawsers 

The  point  to  be  remembered  here  is  the  quite  general  abuse 
of  manila  hawsers.  Long  lengths  of  hawser  are  coiled  down 
close  to  the  chocks  or  pipes  through  which  it  is  to  be  payed  out. 
Often  the  hawser  is  flemished  down^  that  is,  coiled  flat  and 
close  together.  A  second  tier  of  the  same  rope  may  be  flem- 
ished on  top  of  the  bottom  coil,  riding  between  the  lower  rings 
of  the  coil.  The  close  coil  may  often  be  necessary  and  the 
flemish  coil  looks  nice,  but  when  a  hawser  is  payed  out  from  a 
coil  of  this  kind  the  end  should  be  free.  When  the  end  is  made 
fast,  as  to  a  tug,  for  instance,  the  line  will  either  be  filled  with 
extra  turns,  as  it  goes  out,  or  it  will  loosen  up.  In  this  connec- 
tion it  must  be  remembered  that  in  taking  tturns  out  of  the  line, 
estra  twist  is  put  into  the  strands.  Both  conditions  cause  kinks, 
and  do  damage  to  the  rope.     Remember — Kinks  Kill  Ropes. 

Manila  hawsers  should  be  carried  on  upright  reels,  where  pos- 
sible, these  being  fitted  with  canvas  covers.  This  keeps  the  lines 
handy,  prevents  turns,  and  protects  them  from  damp  and  dust. 

When  getting  ready  to  pay  out  a  hawser,  coil  down  in  large 
figure-of-eight  coil,  or  if  necessary,  fake  down,  lapping  the  coils 
to  avoid  fouling.  Pass  out  the  hawser  on  a  heaving  line  which 
will  allow  the  end  to  revolve  and  take  out  the  turns. 

Th&  figure-of-eight  coil  allows  the  hawser  to  run  out  without 
tiuns. 

Casting  Off  A  Tow 

Where  this  is  done  without  compulsion,  the  vessel  towing 
slows  down  and  as  both  vessels  lose  way  the  cable  or  hawser  is 
rounded  or  hove  in  on  the  vessel  being  towed  and  when  the  two 
craft  are  reasonably  close  (do  not  get  dangerously  close),  the 


II 


690 


I 


Mi! 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


line  is  cast  off.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  cast  ofif  a  long  tow- 
line  that  may  foul  the  propeller.  A  manila  line  may  easily  drift 
into  the  screw  even  though  it  is  not  turning  over. 

Abandoning  a  Tow 
There  is  a  well-recognized  rule  which  warrants  the  master 
of  a  vessel  in  abandonmg  a  tow,  but  it  is  a  prime  requisite  that 
the  peril  must  be  extreme  and  that  there  must  be  sound  reason 
for  belief  that  to  holdfast  to  the  tow  would  only  cause  the  loss 
of  both.  Above  this  is  the  ethical  law  that  human  resource  and 
ingenuity  shall  first  have  been  invoked  to  the  utmost  to  transfer 
the  crew  of  the  abandoned  vessel. 

Wire  Towing  Hawsers 
The  American  Bureau  of  Shipping  has  set  the  following  re- 
quirements for  the  strength  of  towmg  and  warping  hawsers 
made  of  wire.    These  required  wires  are  often  referred  to  as 
the  insurance  lines. 


Circum- 
ference of 
Steel  Wire 
Rope 

Breaking 
Test  in  Lbs. 

Circum- 
ference of 
Steel  Wire 
Rope 

Breaking 
Test  in  Lbs. 

Circum- 
ference of 
Steel  Wire 
Rope 

Breaking 
Test  in  Lbs. 

Circum- 
ference of 
Steel  Wire 
Rope 

Breaking 
Test  in  Lbs. 

1" 

11/4" 
IV2" 

IW 

2" 
21/8" 

21/4- 
2%" 

6,000 
10,000 
14,500 
15,600 
17,800 
18,800 
21,200 
24,000 
26,700 

2V2" 
2%" 
27/8" 

3" 

31/4" 

31/2'' 
33/4- 

4" 

41/4- 

29,500 
32,700 
39,200 
42,700 
50,100 
58,200 
66,700 
76,100 
85,700 

41/2" 

43/4" 

5" 
51/4" 
51/2" 
53/4- 

6" 

6I/4- 
61/2'' 

96,100 
107,000 
118,720 
131,000 
143,600 
157,000 
170,900 
185,500 
200,700 

63/4" 

7" 

71/4" 

71/2" 

73/4" 

8" 

8I/4" 

8V2" 

83/4^' 

216,400 
232,700 
249,800 
267,200 
285,300 
303,900 
327,000 
347,200 
367,300 

The  use  of  special  flexible  steel  wire  rope  will  be  approved  pro- 
vided it  is  of  not  less  strength  than  the  ordinary  steel  wire  rope. 

Towing  Regulations 

Towing  of  barges  has  become  an  increasingly  important 
method  of  transportation  and  certain  rules  are  set  down  for  the 
regulation  of  this  busmess.  Under  some  conditions  these  long 
tows  are  a  danger  as  well  as  a  nuisance.  Tows  in  inland  waters 
are  limited  to  four  vessels  including  the  tug  or  towing  vessel. 
This  of  course  also  limits  deep  sea  towing  as  the  tow  must 
traverse  inland  waters  first.    The  regulations  follow. 

1.  Tows  of  seagoing  barges  navigating  the  mland  waters  of  the 
United  States  are  limited  in  length  to  four  vessels,  including  the 
towing  vessel  or  vessels. 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


691 


2.  Hawsers  are  limited  in  length  to  75  fathoms,  measured  from 
the  stern  of  one  vessel  to  the  bow  of  the  following  vessel;  and 
should  in  all  cases  be  as  much  shorter  as  the  weather  or  sea  will 
permit. 

3.  In  cases  where  the  prescribed  length  of  hawser  is,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  master  of  the  towing  vessel,  dangerous  on  account 
of  the  state  of  weather  or  sea,  hawsers  need  not  be  shortened  to 
that  length  until  reaching  the  localities  named  below: 

(a)  Tows  bound  for  Hampton  Roads  or  beyond,  before  passing 
Thimble  Light. 

{b)  Tows  bound  up  the  Chesapeake,  to  the  northward  of 
Baltimore  Light. 

(c)  Tows  bound  up  the  Delaware,  between  Fourteen  Foot 
Bank  and  Cross  Ledge  lighthouses. 

Hawsers  may  also  be  lengthened  in  the  same  places,  under  the 
same  circumstances,  when  tows  are  bound  out. 

4.  In  case  of  necessity,  on  account  of  wind  or  weather,  hawsers 
of  vessels  navigating  between  Race  Rock  and  Gay  Head  may 
be  lengthened  out  in  the  discretion  of  the  master  of  the  towing 
vessel;  but  this  paragraph  shall  not  apply  to  Narragansett  Bay 
north  of  Beavertail  Light. 

5.  In  all  cases  where  tows  can  be  bunched  it  should  be  done. 
(a)  Tows  navigating  in  the  North  and  East  Rivers  of  New 

York  must  be  bunched  above  a  line  drawn  between  the  Statue 
of  Liberty  and  the  entrance  to  Erie  Basin.  When  tows  are 
entering  Long  Island  Sound  from  the  westward,  the  lines  may 
be  lengthened  out  to  the  prescribed  length  after  passing  Fort 
Schuyler;  and  when  bound  for  New  York  from  Long  Island 
Sound  tows  must  be  bunched  before  passing  Whitestone  Point. 
(&)  Tows  must  be  bunched  above  the  mouth  of  the  Schuylkill 
River,  Pa. 

6.  Section  15  of  the  act  approved  May  28,  1908,  provides: 

That  the  master  of  the  towing  vessel  shall  be  liable  to  the  suspension  or 
revocation  of  his  license  for  any  willful  violation  of  regulations  issued  pursuant 
to  section  14  in  the  manner  now  prescribed  for  incompetency,  misconduct,  or 
unskillfulness. 

7.  Any  violation  of  these  regtdations  shall  be  reported  in 
writing  as  soon  as  practicable  to  the  Board  of  Local  Inspectors  of 
Steam  Vessels  most  convenient  to  the  officer  or  other  person  who 
may  witness  the  violation. 

The  use  of  oil  when  towing  is  illustrated  imder  the  subject  of 
Handling  a  Steamer  in  Heavy  Weather.* 

*  In  order  to  get  an  equipment  rating  from  the  American  Bureau  of  Shipping 
vessels  must  carry  towline  ranging  from  ninety  fathoms  in  length  for  a 
thousand-ton  vessel  (equipment  tonnage),  150  fatiioms  in  length  for  a  17,700 
ton  vessel  and  over.     The  size  and  kind  of  towline  is  also  specified.    From 


692 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


i  ; 


Running  Short  of  Bunker  Fuel 

The  subject  of  towing  brings  to  mind  that  nightmare  of  bad 
luck,  or  poor  management,  known  to  steamer-sailors  as  fuel 
fever.  The  author  recalls  a  passage  from  Hilo  toward  Coronel, 
later  on  directed  toward  Callao,  when  the  S.  S.  American ^ 
bucking  head  winds  and  current,  and  with  grass  trailing  from 
her  bottom,  struggled  toward  the  South  American  shore.  She 
arrived  at  the  Peruvian  port  with  swept  bimkers.  In  this  in- 
stance good  seamanship,  and  judgment,  overcame  adverse  condi- 
tions. Had  she  held  a  day  longer  on  the  route  to  Coronel  she 
never  would  have  fetched  Callao  by  burning  coal. 

Captain  E.  L.  Yates  writes  as  follows  in  the  Oracle  of  the 
Oriental  Navigation  Co. — 

"  Most  men  will,  at  some  time  in  their  experience,  have  been 
up  against  the  gruelling  anxiety  of  fuel  shortage.  Before  the 
war,  if  a  shipmaster  or  chief  engineer  arrived  at  a  home  port 
with  more  than  two  or  three  days*  fuel  left  in  his  bunkers,  he 
was  either  keel-hauled  or  sacked  by  his  owners  for  having 
bought  too  much  expensive  fuel  abroad  in  comparison  with  the 
prices  ruling  for  same  at  the  home  ports.  As  a  consequence  of 
the  fears  of  losing  their  berth  through  this  cause,  many  chances 
were  taken  which  would  otherwise  be  avoided  if  a  little  more 
latitude  were  allowed  them. 

"A  famous  passage  or  run  where  fuel  fever  has  dragged  the 
sweat  out  of  the  bodies  of  masters  and  chief  engineers  is  that 
from  Cape  Verde  Islands  to  Grand  Canary.  The  distance  is 
only  a  matter  of  850  miles,  but  vessels  on  a  voyage  from  the 
River  Plate  to  Europe  usually  go  carefully  into  the  question  of 
bunkers  on  board  the  day  previous  to  passing  Cape  Verde,  and  if 
the  quantity  remaining  is  too  bare  to  make  the  850  miles,  they 
usually  put  into  St.  Vincent,  Cape  Verde,  for  an  extra  day's  fuel. 

"These  islands  lie  in  the  direct  track  of  the  North-East  Trade 
winds,  and  often  enough  the  winds  have  appeared  comparatively 
moderate  when  the  vessel  is  in  the  vicinity  of  St.  Vincent  and 
many  a  man  has  figured  on  such  conditions  continuing  as  far  as 
Grand  Canary,  but  probably  after  clearing  north  of  the  Cape 
Verde  you  run  into  a  half  gale  of  head  winds  and  heavy  sea  with 
the  ship  bobbing  three  times  in  the  same  hole,  and  many  a  ship 

1,000  to  10,300  tons  the  sizes  run  as  follows:  Hemp  (manila)  from  10 inch  to 
17  inch  and  from  90  fathoms  to  140  fathoms.  Wire  3 14  inch  to  6^/2  inch.  The 
vessel  may  be  equipped  with  either  one.  From  11,200  tons  to  26,500  tons 
the  hawser  must  be  of  steel  wire  running  from  61/2  inch  to  83/4  inch  and  in 
length  from  140  fathoms  to  150  fathoms. 

Sailing  craft  are  required  to  have  similar  towing  lines.  The  largest  sailing 
craft,  about  5,000  equipment  tons  will  carry  a  towline  120  fathoms  long  and 
either  of  I3V2  inch  manila  or  4V2  inch  steel  wire. 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


693 


has  done  one  third  of  the  distance  against  these  conditions  and 
found  he  has  just  enough  fuel  left  to  run  back.  If  he  nms  back 
he  gets  the  sack  and  if  he  foolishly  tries  to  push  on,  hoping  for 
better  weather  ahead,  he  nms  out  of  fuel  short  of  his  coaling 
port  and  is  towed  in  by  one  of  the  fortimates  who  have  plenty 
of  fuel  and  are  always  hoping  for  a  salvage  tow  with  its  conse- 
quent prize  awards." 

Captain  Lecky  in  Wrinkles  in  Practical  Navigation  (pages 
675-6)  gives  several  examples  on  the  relation  between  coal 
consumption,  speed,  and  distance. 

The  courts  have  held  a  vessel  unseaworthy  which  did  not 
bunker  25  per  cent  more  fuel  than  her  anticipated  requirements 

IX 

Coaling  at  Sea 

Under  certain  conditions  it  may  be  necessary  to  transfer  coal 
from  one  vessel  to  another  while  under  way  at  sea.  The  fol- 
lowing illustrations  supplied  through  the  courtesy  of  the  Lidger- 
wood  Company  serve  to  make  clear  the  general  method  of 
procedure. 

The  Marine 
Cableway 

This  apparatus, 
the  first  marine 
cableway,  was  in- 
stalled on  the  U.  S. 
Collier  Marcellus, 
and  tested  during 
the  fall  of  1899y  de- 
livering coal  to  U,  S. 
S,     Massachusetts. 

It  was  designed 
to  transfer  from  col- 
lier to  warship  (300 
feet  between  ships) 
15  tons  of  coal  per 
hour  in  moderate 
sea  and  weather.  It 
actually  transferred 
over    22    tons    per 

hour,  in  a  sea  heav-  Collier  Marcellus  rising  on  a  sea. 


m 


M 


694 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


ier  than  moderate, 
with  400  feet  be- 
tween ships. 

In  the  rough  sea 
test  with  the  ships 
head-on  to  the  sea, 
the  forecastle  of  the 
Massachusetts  be- 
ing washed  at  every 
plunge,  a  little  over 
20  tons  were  han- 
dled in  an  hour. 
When  the  course 
was  changed,  quar- 
tering on  the  sea, 
the  results  were  the 
same.  With  the 
ships  steered  in  the 
trough  of  the  sea 
the  rolling  did  not 
Collier  Marcellus  plunging.  affect  the   working. 

The  towing  speed  was  five  to  six  knots,  load,  840  pounds ;  con- 
veyor speed,  1200  feet  per  minute ;  actual  capacity,  22  tons  per 
hour. 

The  first  picture  shows  the  Collier  Marcellus  rising  on  a 
sea.  The  second  one  shows  her  plunging.  Note  the  equal  ten- 
sion on  towline  and  cableway  under  both  conditions. 

The  Cyclops — South  Carolina  Trials 

This  test  was  made  on  April  12, 1913.  The  contract  called  for  a 
delivery  of  480  tons  of  coal  in  a  period  of  eight  hours.  The 
mechanism  was  operated  for  six  hours  under  most  unfavorable 
conditions  of  weather  and  was  pronounced  a  success.  The 
maximum  amount  of  fuel  transferred  within  an  hour  was  83  tons. 
The  test  was  conducted  for  four  hours,  or  long  enough  to  con- 
vince the  naval  board  that  the  system  would  answer  all  the 
purposes  of  the  service.  The  transfer  of  coal  from  the  Cyclops 
to  the  South  Carolina  at  sea  in  a  driving  rain  with  the  collier 
rolling  20  degrees  was  preceded  by  a  dock  trial. 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


695 


Under  this  improved  system  of  coaling  at  sea  all  of  the  gear  is 
installed  on  the  collier. 

It  will  be  noted  that  in  this  trial  the  collier  had  the  battleship 
in  tow,  or  at  least  with  a  nominal  tension  on  the  towing  cable. 


The  plant  includes  an  automatic  tension  engine,  which  main- 
tains a  tension  on  the  main  cable  sufficient  for  centymg  the  load 
from  ship  to  ship.  There  are  two  conveying  engines  for  hauling 
the  load,  and  even  the  mast  necessary  to  erect  on  the  coal- 
receiving  ship  is  carried,  when  not  in  use,  on  board  the  collier. 

The  regular  winches  and  regular  gear  of  the  battleship  are 
used  to  lower  the  bags  to  the  battleship's  deck,  making  it  possible 
for  a  collier  to  tie  up  to  any  battleship  and  coal.    The  fuel  is 


i 


696 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


delivered  at  the  rate  of  five  or  six  bags,  carrying  700  to  800 
pounds  on  each  trip,  or  a  total  delivery  of  3,500  or  4,000  pounds. 
The  rate  of  delivery  is  from  50  to  60  seconds  in  a  distance  of  500 
feet  between  the  collier  and  the  battleship,  which  in  the  recent 
test  were  steaming  at  the  rate  of  from  7  to  8  knots. 

More  coal  was  transferred  than  ever  before,  and  justified  the 
opinion,  freely  expressed  by  naval  observers  who  witnessed  the 
test,  that  the  cableway  as  easily  capable  of  a  delivery  of  100  tons 
per  hour.  It  was  also  observed  that  the  best  record  was  in  the 
last  hour  of  the  test,  which  showed  that  the  machine  did  not  have 
a  fatiguing  effect  upon  the  men. 

In  the  test,  the  tension  of  the  engine  was  17,000  to  18,000 
pounds  and  never  showed  the  slightest  disposition  to  slacken 
nor  imduly  tauten  the  main  cable. 

On  the  warship  end  a  "  let-down  system  "  is  employed.  The 
warship  end  of  the  main  cable  is  attached  to  a  bridle,  the  ends 
of  which  bridle  are  attached  to  the  deck  of  the  battleship,  well 
aft.  A  block  and  fall  raises  the  end  of  the  main  cable,  as  well 
as  the  joining  point  of  the  bridle.  By  this  means  the  carriage 
and  cable  are  raised  and  lowered  at  the  warship  end. 

X 

Bunkering  Fuel  Oil  at  Sea 

In  bunkering  fuel  oil  to  a  battleship  at  sea  the  battleship  is 
taken  in  tow  by  the  fuel  ship.  A  short  "  A  "  frame  is  mounted 
near  the  bow  of  the  battleship,  guyed  back  and  well  secured. 
One  end  of  a  supporting  cable  for  the  oil  hose  is  anchored  to 
this  **  A "  frame.  The  other  end  of  the  supporting  cable  is 
woimd  on  the  drum  of  the  tension  engine  on  the  fuel  ship.  It  is 
desirable  to  carry  the  supporting  sheave  for  this  cable  on  the 
fuel  ship  well  forward,  and  consequently  quite  high.  The  oil 
hose  is  then  passed  across  from  the  fuel  ship,  being  supported 
from  the  cable  by  hangers  properly  spaced.  The  supporting 
cable  being  well  above  the  deck  of  the  fuel  ship  a  clear  lead  for 
the  oil  hose  can  readily  be  obtained  to  the  oil  pump.  The  last 
supporting  hanger  will  be  about  over  the  bow  of  the  battleship, 
the  oil  hose  dropping  from  there  to  the  deck,  and  running  to  the 
bunker  coupling. 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


697 


A  steel  supporting  cable  of  1"  diameter,  at  a  tension  of  about 
18,000  lbs.  will  support  above  the  sea  a  5"  hose,  with  the  ships  a 
distance  of  400  feet  apart.  While  the  automatic  tension  engine 
is  used  to  pay  out  and  take  in  the  hose  supporting  cable,  its  most 
important  function  is  to  maintain  a  uniform  tension  in  this  sup- 
porting cable,  and  prevent  any  lashing  of  the  hose  in  moderate 
or  rough  seas. 

In  any  seaway  sufficient  to  cause  pitching  of  the  vessels  the 
distance  between  them  continually  increases  and  decreases.  If 
both  ends  of  the  supporting  cable  were  fixed  or  if  the  conven- 


m 


U.  ,S.   Collier  Cyclops  Transferring  Fuel  Oil  to  Battleship  in   Tow. 


tional  steam  towing  machine  were  used  this  action  of  the  ships 
would  produce-  repeated  variations  in  the  tension  of  the  sup- 
porting cable,  which  would  in  turn  cause  corresponding  changes 
in  the  deflection.  The  result  would  be  a  continual  lashing  up 
and  down  of  the  oil  hose,  greatly  impeding  the  flow  of  oil,  re- 
ducing the  hourly  capacity,  with  a  strong  probability  of  parting 
both  the  hose  and  the  supporting  cable. 

The  automatic  tension  engine  absolutely  prevents  any  vari- 
ations of  the  tension  in  the  supporting  cable,  and  consequently 
keeps  the  deflection  constant  and  eliminates  the  lashing  of  the 
oil  hose.    The  engine  is  adjusted  to  maintain  uniformly  what- 


698 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


ever  tension  is  necessary  in  the  supporting  cable.    If  the  pitching 
of  the  ships  increases  the  distance  between  them  the  tension 
engine  automatically  pays  out  more  supporting  cable,  if  the 
distance   decreases,  it  auto- 
matically takes  in  cable,  no 
change  of  tension  is  permitted 
in  the  cable,  and  therefore 
there  is  no  variation  in  the 
deflection,  and  no  lashing  of 
the  oil  hose. 

The  illustrations  show  a 
test  made  of  this  apparatus 
between  the  U,  S,  S,  Wyom- 
ing and  the  U.  S.  Collier 
Cyclops  at  sea,  August  26th, 
1915.  The  hose  was  passed 
from  ship  to  ship  along  the 
supporting  cable,  coupled  up, 
and  oil  was  flowing  in  eight 
minutes.  At  no  time  did  the 
hose  touch  the  intervening 
water. 

To  sum  up  its  uses  the 
automatic  tension  engine  is 
the  essential  element  in  the 
marine  cableway  for 

Coaling  Warships  in  a  Seaway,  whether  installed  on  battle- 
ships or  colliers. 

The  automatic  tension  engine  is  useful  as  a  heavy  boat  hoisting 
machine.  It  will  hoist  boats  without  the  shocks  commonly 
incident  to  the  use  of  the  ordinary  hoisting  machine. 

Supporting  an  Oil  Hose  between  two  ships  fuel  bunkering  at 
sea.  The  desirability  in  a  heavy  sea  of  this  engine  to  maintain  a 
imiform  tension  in  the  hose  supporting  line,  to  prevent  the  hose 
from  lashing  up  and  down  in  a  seaway,  will  be  readily  appreciated. 
Life  Saving  at  Sea,  The  addition  of  the  automatic  tension 
engine  to  a  ship  carrying  the  ordinary  breeches  buoy  apparatus 
enables  passengers  to  be  rescued  from  wrecks  in  seas  far  too 
heavy  to  permit  the  use  of  life  boats. 


Receiving  Oil  Hose  on  Board 
Battleship. 


i 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


699 


Towing  at  Sea.  The  automatic  tension  engine  is  ideal  for 
towing.    See  section  on  towing.    Pages  680  to  688. 

Salvage  Work.  The  difficulty  of  raising  sunken  ships  when 
the  sea  is  rough  is  well  recognized.  The  ability  to  compensate 
for  the  motion  of  the  salvage  ship  in  a  heavy  sea  by  automatically 
controlling  the  tension  in  the  lines  attached  to  the  sunken  vessel 
gives  to  the  automatic  tension  engine  special  usefulness. 

Handling  Guns  and  Supplies.  The  automatic  tension  engine 
on  a  ship  can  maintain  a  line  in  suspension  between  the  ship  and 
shores  to  which  vessel  cannot  approach  closely,  and  where  boat 
landings  are  difficult.  Guns,  ammunition  and  supplies  can  be 
landed  by  a  trolley  carriage  running  over  this  line. 

Warping  Ship.  The  automatic  tension  engine  used  as  a 
warping  winch  absolutely  regulates  and  controls  the  tension  in 
the  warping  lines.  The  danger  of  parting  the  lines  is  reduced 
and  far  smaller  lines  can  be  used. 

Commander  H.  C.  Dinger,  U.S.N.,  in  a  valuable  paper  printed 
in  the  Proceedings  of  the  U.  S.  Naval  Institute  of  September, 
1919,  advocates  fueling  at  sea  by  towing  abreast  rather  than 
astern. 

We  quote  from  this  paper  as  follows : 

"It  is  a  comparatively  easy  operation  to  take  a  vessel  in 
tow  and  maintain  her  position — a  steady  almost  exact  position 
— well  clear  of  the  side.  With  a  vessel  maintained  in  this 
position,  coal  can  be  transferred  by  bags  from  boom  ends,  or 
by  means  of  movable  pipes  from  fuel  vessels  fitted  with  coaling 
towers. 

"  As  far  as  is  known,  the  first  actual  oiling  of  vessels  at  sea  in 
rough  weather  was  done  by  the  U.  S.  S.  Maumee  in  May,  1917, 
when  a  division  of  destroyers  was  oiled  on  the  way  across  the 
Atlantic. 

"  The  gear  used  was  as  follows : 

"  A  10-inch  manila  line  was  led  from  the  bow  of  the  fuel  vessel, 
taken  outboard  and  stopped  along  the  rail;  a  2-inch  messenger 
was  bent  on  the  end.  Two  6-inch  breast  lines  were  provided 
with  heaving  lines.  Two  3-inch  lines  of  oil  hose  were  connected 
to  the  oil  line,  and  were  supported  on  a  wooden  carrier  suspended 
from  boom  end,  the  line  supporting  this  carrier  being  led  to  a 
winch,  and  tended  by  winch  man. 

"  The  manner  of  coming  alongside,  taking  lines,  etc.,  is  indi- 
cated in  the  instructions  prepared  for  the  occasion,  quoted  as 
follows : 


ir 


II 


700 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


701 


I 


lio 


I! 


"  Prepared  on  U.  S.  S.  Maumee  for  Guidance  of  Destroyers  Oiling  at  Sea 
"  1.  Gear.    All  supplied  by  fuel  ship. 

**  10-Inch  Bow  Spring.  This  line  is  led  from  the  bow  of  the  fuel  ship  and 
stopped  along  the  rail;  a  2-inch  messenger  is  bent  on  about  50  feet  from 
end  and  stopped  along  to  end.  This  line  should  be  taken  in  on  destroyer 
bow  through  bitts  just  forward  of  bridge.  Take  messenger  to  capstan  and 
assist  handling  by  hand;  cut  stops  as  they  come  to  bitts.  Take  turn  around 
base  of  gim  mount  as  indicated  on  sketch  and  secure  end  to  bitts  on  opposite 
side.  Be  sure  that  hawser  is  sectu-e  around  base  so  that  it  will  not  ride  up 
on  mount.  As  soon  as  end  is  secured  notify  fuel  ship,  which  will  then  heave 
in  to  place  destroyer  in  proper  position.  Put  lashings  arotmd  and  over  bitts 
to  prevent  hawser  jumping. 

"2.  Breast  Lines,  6-Inch.  Forward,  take  in  through  bitts  forward  of 
forward  gim,  then  to  bitts  forward  of  capstan.  Do  not  secure  to  capstan 
as  it  may  be  damaged.  This  line  must  be  securely  fastened  as  a  very  heavy 
strain  may  come  on  it. 

"  3.  After  Line.  Take  through  bitts  in  wake  of  deck  house,  secure,  and 
stand  by  to  tend. 

"  4.  Hose.  The  hose,  two  lines,  are  led  together  through  a  wooden  carrier 
supported  from  boom.  Near  end  of  hose,  there  is  a  wooden  yoke  to  which 
is  attached  a  handling  line.  The  hose  should  be  handled  on  board  destroyer 
with  this  line,  not  with  end  of  hose.  Rail  should  be  broken  down  and  clear 
where  hose  is  taken  on  board.  Get  ends  of  hose  and  hose  yoke  on  destroyer, 
secure  yoke  and  then  put  ends  of  hose  in  tanks.  Pumping  will  start  as  soon 
as  destroyer  reports  ready. 

"  5.  Handling  of  Destroyer.  Come  along  on  parallel  course,  speed  about 
8  knots,  distance  about  50  feet  from  fuel  ship;  slow  down  to  keep  abreast 
fuel  ship,  ease  in  or  out  as  necessary,  but  do  not  drop  aft  too  far  and  get 
under  counter.  When  10-inch  spring  is  fast,  drop  down  on  it  slightly  and 
let  fuel  vessel  take  in  on  breast  lines  till  desired  position  is  reached,  about 
40  feet  from  side,  then  maintain  about  4  knots,  just  keeping  slight  or  occa- 
sional strain  on  10-inch  spring.  Destroyer  will  then  ride  to  10-inch  spring 
and  forward  breast.  Do  not  head  out  suddenly  as  this  will  break  away  the 
forward  breast.  Speed  up  if  necessary  to  take  strain  off  10-inch  spring  and 
keep  from  swinging  in  too  close. 

"  The  breast  lines  keep  the  destroyer  in  and  prevent  hose  being  carried 
away.  Destroyers  can  come  abreast  and  make  connections  in  moderate  sea 
without  danger  if  precautions  mentioned  are  adhered  to.  The  principal 
danger  is  coming  too  close  and  throwing  stem  in.  There  is  a  suction  under 
counter  and  destroyer  should  keep  out  of  this.  A  speed  of  about  5  knots  is 
maintained  by  fuel  ship.  This  is  necessary  in  order  to  steady  fuel  vessel  and 
enable  her  to  steer  a  straight  course.  The  fuel  vessel  must  steer  a  straight 
course;  rolling  is  not  objectionable,  but  yawing  is,— hence  sea  should  be 
abeam  or  slightly  forward  of  beam. 

"  6.  Before  coming  alongside  destroyer  should  have  her  forecastle  clear, 
rail  clear  for  hose,  have  lashings  ready,  capstan  ready  and  men  instructed 
where  the  lines  are  to  be  led.    Lines  must  be  very  securely  fastened. 

"  In  smooth  weather  one  destroyer  can  be  taken  on  each  side,  and  in  calm, 
destroyers  can  make  fast  and  receive  oil  as  in  port. 

"  The  first  time  that  this  was  tried  was  in  a  moderate  sea,  as 
the  attached  photograph  will  indicate.  The  destroyers  were  each 
oiled  in  about  two  hours,  and  oil  was  delivered  at  from  30,000  to 
40,000  gallons  an  hour.  In  some  cases  destroyers  were  con- 
nected up  and  oil  being  pumped  on  board  in  15  minutes  from  the 
time  the  destroyer  passed  the  stern  of  fuel  vessel,  this  being  done 
with  a  vessel  that  had  never  previously  gone  through  the  oper- 


ation. With  practice,  a  destroyer  could  no  doubt  connect  up 
in  10  minutes. 

"  In  rough  sea  the  fuel  vessel  makes  a  lea,  taking  sea  a  little 
forward  of  beam.  In  smooth  weather  a  destroyer  can  be  taken 
on  each  side  while  steaming  8  to  10  knots,  one  vessel  connecting 
up  while  the  other  is  having  oil  delivered.  When  towing  abreast, 
both  vessels  are  entirely  and  instantly  under  full  control  of  their 
engines  and  helm.  Lines  can  be  cast  adrift  without  danger  of 
fouling  screws.  The  whole  operation  can  be  viewed  by  the 
captain  from  the  bridge  of  each  vessel,  and  the  two  vessels  are 
in  direct  verbal  communication  all  of  the  time  that  they  are  close 
to  each  other.  In  towing  astern  or  from  the  quarter,  this  is  not 
the  case,  and  unless  the  officer  in  control  of  either  vessel  can 
see  fully  what  the  other  is  doing,  difficulties  are  likely  to  be 
presented. 

"  With  fuel  vessels  thus  arranged  as  mentioned  above,  a  fleet 
can  maintain  the  sea  indefinitely.  Fueling  cannot  be  attempted 
in  very  rough  weather,  but  a  fairly  smooth  sea  can  usually  be 
found  in  the  course  of  several  days,  except  in  specially  tem- 
pestuous waters. 

"The  method  employed  with  destroyers  can  be  used  for 
much  larger  vessels,  though  perhaps  it  could  not  be  done  in  as 
rough  a  sea." 

XI 

Handling  a  Steamer  or  Motor  Vessel  in  Heavy  Weather 

A  vessel  with  power  presents  no  special  difficulty  in  heavy 
weather  unless  cargo  has  shifted,  or  she  is  loaded  too  deep,  or  is 
unseaworthy  because  of  other  defects. 

The  usual  precautions  should  be  taken  on  the  approach  of 
heavy  weather.  Look  after  all  hatch  covers,  ventilator  openings, 
lashings,  boats,  and  loose  gear.  On  the  approach  of  extra  heavy 
weather,  stays  and  shrouds  should  be  examined  and  booms 
securely  lashed  to  their  beds.  If  cargo  gear  is  rove  off,  either 
send  it  down  or  lash  it  securely  to  the  masts. 

See  that  oil  tanks  are  working  and  that  they  are  filled.  Have 
oil  bags  ready  on  the  bridge  with  a  supply  of  oil  for  immediate  use. 

See  that  steering  gear  is  in  order,  that  relieving  gear,  if  fitted, 
is  ready  to  be  thrown  in. 

See  that  anchors  are  secure,  and  that  all  openings  to  chain 
locker  are  water  tight. 

Sound  all  tanks  and  bilges.  Know  the  condition  of  trim  of 
the  vessel.    Avoid  half  empty  or  swash  tanks. 


702 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


703 


;< 


w 


•il-- 


I'i 


^ 


m 


i 


If  just  leaving  port  make  certain  that  no  loose  skids,  or  spars 
are  about  the  decks.  The  well  decks  will  fill  up  and  such  heavy 
gear,  washing  about,  may  be  very  dangerous.    Rig  life  lines. 

Awnings,  if  bent,  should  be  imbent,  or  at  lease  secured  by 
extra  gasgets.  Sails,  if  bent  should  be  fitted  with  preventer 
gear  and  securely  furled,  but  ready  for  use  if  needed. 

See  that  all  ports  are  sectirely  closed,  in  the  forecastle  and 
poop  as  well  as  in  the  deck  cabins. 

Where  heavy  steel  doors  are  fitted  to  the  forward  and  after 
ends  of  the  superstructure  have  these  closed  and  securely 
fastened. 

Have  fiddley  tarpaulins  ready  and  batten  down  in  the  event  of 
extra  heavy  weather. 

A  water  spout  breaking  over  the  ship  might  flood  the  engine 
and  fire  rooms. 

Most  of  these  precautions  pertain  to  extra  heavy  weather, 
to  tjTphoons  in  the  China  and  Indian  Seas,  or  to  hurricanes  off 
the  West  Indies. 

Even  a  vessel  of  second  rate  ability,  if  properly  handled,  will 
ride  through  the  worst  weather  that  is  liable  to  come  along.  Do 
not  be  afraid  to  take  precautions. 

Heaving  To 

The  method  of  procedure  during  extra  heavy  weather,  when  a 
vessel  cannot  make  way  against  the  wind  and  sea  without 
shipping  dangerous  quantities  of  water,  admits  of  two  general 
divisions. 

Heaving  to,  head  toward  the  sea  and  steaming  slowly  against 
the  storm,  or  at  least  making  way  enough  to  keep  steerage  on  the 
vessel. 

Heaving  to  with  the  quarter  toward  the  wind  and  slowly  moving 
away  from  the  storm. 

Very  often  the  method  of  heaving  to  must  be  determined  by 
the  position  of  the  vessel  with  regard  to  the  storm  center.  She 
will  then  be  headed  with  the  wind  on  the  bow  or  quarter  so  as  to 
soonest  avoid  contact  with  the  center.* 

Other  conditions  may  prevail.  It  may  be  necessary  to  head 
in  a  certain  direction,  regardless  of  storm  center  or  the  easy 
riding  of  the  vessel.  A  course  may  have  to  be  made  to  avoid 
dangerous  shoals  or  the  land. 

*See  Chapter  20 — ^Weather  at  Sea. 


Some  vessels  will  lie  best  with  the  wind  on  the  bow,  others 
seem  to  make  better  weather  of  it  with  the  wind  on  the  quarter. 
Short  vessels  as  a  rule  take  more  kindly  to  a  heavy  sea.  They 
dip  and  roll  with  the  sea  but  ship  less  water  than  long  craft  that 
cut  into  the  crests  or  sink  into  them  depending  upon  how  they 

are  riding. 

In  most  long  vessels  the  favorable  position  for  extra  heavy 
weather  is  found  by  brmging  the  sea  aft  and  stopping  engines, 
or  only  turning  them  over  sloWly,  and  by  streaming  oil  in  the 
wake.    Backing  the  engines  slowly  has  also  been  tried  with 

success. 

Engines  Disabled.    Sea  Anchors 

A  vessel  slowly  steaming  before  a  storm  may  maintain  her 
position  when  engines  are  disabled  by  the  drag  of  the  propellers, 
and  if  need  be  by  putting  a  sea  anchor  over  the  stern.  A  storm 
staysail  rigged  on  the  foremast  serves  as  an  extra  precaution 
against  broaching  to. 


Fore 
\SneeT   /  a\>  ,\»' 


Sail  is  still  very  useful  at  times, 
25 


A  similar  rig  is  fitted  on  mainmast. 


m 


i» 


i 


704 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


With  head  to  the  sea,  the  usual  practice  is  to  improvise  a  drag 
or  sea  anchor.  Formerly  an  iron  ring  and  canvas  cone  was 
carried  but  this  rig  is  no  longer  required.  A  sea  anchor  can 
easily  be  constructed  by  any  experienced  seaman.  Spare  cargo 
booms,  a  few  lengths  of  stream  chain  and  a  spare  storm  staysail, 
or  a  stout  tarpaulin,  folded  and  stopped  across  in  the  form  of  a 


A  sea  anchor. 

r 

riangle.  The  sail  of  course  is  best.  The  illustration  shows 
this  rig  and  the  method  of  attaching  the  tow  rope  and  the  bridle. 
Some  seamen  fit  a  tripping  line  to  the  anchor,  but  this  is  unneces- 
sary. When  the  weather  moderates  enough  to  make  it  desirable 
to  take  in  the  anchor,  and  the  engines  are  working  again,  steam 
up  to  the  anchor  and  hoist  it  on  board  by  a  tackle  to  a  forward 
cargo  boom. 

A  sea  anchor  specially  constructed  for  a  ten  thousand  ton 
steamer  consisted  of  a  cone  of  No.  00  canvas  laced  to  a  steel 
ring  of  1-inch  rod  iron,  18  feet  in  diameter.  The  cone  was  25 
feet  deep  and  fitted  with  a  stout  eye  and  tripping  line  at  its 
point.  A  chain  bridle  was  shackeled  into  eyes  in  the  ring. 
This  had  four  legs. 

Oil  should  be  distributed  from  a  point  well  forward  on  the 
tow  rope  of  a  sea  anchor  as  shown  in  the  drawings  to  follow. 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


705 


Rigging  a  Jury  Rudder 
Every  now  and  then  the  seaman  has  to  rig  a  jury  rudder  and 
by  "  the  seaman  "  we  mean  engineers  and  all.  The  old  paddle 
arrangement,  such  as  the  rudder  rigged  a  number  of  years  ago 
on  the  S.  S.  Ramsdal  (1,535  gross  tons),  Capt.  O.  A.  Hirsch, 
worked  very  well  for  a  small  craft.  With  the  big  ten  thousand 
tonner,  and  over,  a  more  substantial  rig  is  needed.  With  drills 
and  cutting  tools  available  and  steel  booms,  a  very  substantial 
jury  rudder  can  usually  be  devised.  The  sketch  is  an  ima^ary 
rig  shown  for  the  purpose  of  guiding  the  seaman  in  making  a 
rough  design  should  his  rudder  let  go  in  mid-ocean.  At  least 
he  should  make  every  effort  to  provide  a  strong  and  workable  rig. 

A — is  a  steel  cargo  boom  cut 
to  the  required  length.  (Con- 
sult the  blue  prints  for  dimen- 
sions.) B— cargo  hatch  covers, 
or  metal  doors.  C — length 
of  boom,  or  other  stout  metal 
fitting,  such  as  a  strongback. 
D — upper  bearings  made  to 
size  by  improvising  pipe  or 
other  large  round  fittings. 
Bolted  through  holes  cut  in 
transom,  and  reinforced  by 
wire  lashings — E.  F — a  lash- 
ing, or  pendant,  to  take  the 
weight  of  the  rudder.  G — 
Heel  lashing,  of  wire  rope. 
A  figure-of-eight  lashing  pass- 
ed by  sending  down  a  man  on 
a  bowline,  and  heaving  taut 
with  a  handy  billy  from  the  deck,  after  each  turn  is  passed.  H — 
steering  tackles  to  deck  winches.  I — Rudder  head  lashing  to 
reinforce  the  bolts  and  bands  connecting  the  tiller  C  to  the  rudder 
stock  A. 

The  work  of  preparing  a  jury  rudder  should  be  carefully 
plaxmed.  To  bring  a  vessel  in  from  mid-ocean  under  such  a 
rig,  without  paying  some  other  craft  a  fortune  in  salvage,  would 
just  about  make  the  reputation  of  the  Master  and  Chief  Engineer 
who  did  the  trick. 


i 


706 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


xn 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


707 


■k  ' 


Use  of  Oil  to  Calm  the  Sea* 

Sea  Waves,  Sometimes  there  are  three  or  four  distinct  series 
of  waves  existing  on  the  sea  within  the  same  area  at  the  same 
time,  each  series  having  a  different  direction  from  the  others. 
Frequently  the  slopes  of  two  or  more  happen  to  end  at  the  same 
place  and  they  unite  to  form  a  larger  wave. 

After  the  prolonged  action  of  the  wind,  when  the  waves  rise  to  a 
considerable  height  and  become  sharper  and  sharper,  the 
passage  of  the  air  over  them  with  high  velocity  bends  the  crests 
forward;  the  front  of  each  wave  becomes  steeper  than  the  back, 
and  the  crest  seems  to  advance  faster  than  the  trough  until,  at 
length,  the  top  of  the  wave  curls  over  and  breaks. 

Large  sea  waves  seem  to  be  the  result  of  a  building-up  process 
caused  by  the  union  of  the  smaller  with  the  larger  waves.  If,  by 
any  reason,  there  be  one  wave  larger  than  those  around  it,  its 
size  will  be  continually  increased  at  the  expense  of  the  smaller 
ones.  For  these  smaller  waves,  in  passing  over  the  crest  of  the 
larger,  offer  increased  obstruction  to  the  wind  and  become  dart- 
shaped  at  the  top.  The  force  of  the  wind  easily  breaks  these 
sharp-edged  waves  mto  fragments  which  go  to  increase  the  size 
of  the  larger  waves,  leaving  the  small  ones  yet  smaller.  So  they 
continue  to  enlarge  their  dimensions  and  the  depth  to  which 
they  cause  disturbance  of  the  water  until,  with  their  foaming 
crests  and  irregular  movements,  they  produce  the  confusion  of  a 
stormy  sea. 

Objects  floating  on  the  surface  of  such  a  sea  are  not  carried 
along  by  the  waves,  except  when  they  are  struck  by  the  loose 
masses  of  water  from  the  breaking  crests.  A  ship,  one  moment 
in  the  hollow  of  a  large  wave,  is  the  next  riding  on  its  crest,  and 
wave  after  wave  rushes  under  her  without  driving  her  out  of  her 
course.  In  tidal  estuaries,  with  the  waves  rolling  in  from  the 
sea  against  the  current  of  ebb  tide,  all  mariners  have  often 
noticed  floating  objects  continuing  to  pass  out  to  sea  against  the 
inward  passage  of  the  waves. 

So  that  these  waves  at  sea,  rushing  along  with  a  speed  of  many 
miles  per  hour,  do  not  carry  the  water  along  with  them.    In  fact 

♦  Adapted  from  the  bulletins' of, the  U.  S.  Hydrographic  Office. 


the  wave  is  the  advancement  of  a  mere  form,  and  the  motion  of 
the  particles  of  water  is  very  different  from  the  wave  motion. 
Imagine  a  case  in  which  the  water  has  been  suddenly  heaped  up 
by  a  gust  of  wind.  The  weight  of  the  particles  of  water  in  the 
heap  causes  them  to  push  forward  the  particles  in  front  of  them 
to  a  place  farther  on  and  there  they  come  to  rest,  but  the  process 
of  displacement  continues  from  one  to  another  successive  mass 
of  water  until  the  displacing  force  is  spent.  As  the  particles  of 
water  crowd  upon  one  another  in  going  out  of  their  old  places 
mto  the  new  the  crowd  forms  a  temporary  heap  on  the  surface 
of  the  water,  and,  as  each  successive  mass  is  displacing  the  mass 
in  front  of  it,  there  is  always  one  such  heap  moving  along  at  the 
place  where  the  displacement  is  going  on,  and  made  up  always 
of  another  and  another  set  of  traveling  particles.  This  moving 
crowd  constitutes  a  true  wave.  The  velocity  of  the  wave  is  the 
velocity  with  which  the  heap  is  seen  to  move.  Its  form  is  the 
form  of  the  heap.  Its  length  is  the  distance  from  crest  to  crest, 
and  its  height  is  the  distance  from  the  level  of  the  crest  to  the 
level  of  the  hollow. 

The  tendency  of  the  moving  air  to  draw  the  water  along  when 
wind  blows  over  the  sea  is  much  stronger  than  casual  observa- 
tion would  suggest.  There  is  no  such  condition  as  friction 
between  air  and  water.  So  great  is  the  adhesion  between  the 
two,  that,  when  wind  blows  over  water,  the  lowest  layer  of  air 
remains  in  contact  with  the  water,  and  it  is  to  the  tendency  of 
the  upper  layers  of  air  to  draw  this  lowest  one  along  that  the 
effect  of  the  wind  to  draw  the  surface  of  the  water  along  is  mainly 
due.  A  storm  wind  will  exert  a  force  of  51  grams  per  square 
meter  upon  the  surface  of  the  sea,  and,  when  we  consider  that 
the  particles'  in  this  surface  are  moving  in  their  orbits,  in  the 
direction  in  which  the  force  is  exerted,  with  a  velocity  of  about 
1  meter  per  second,  it  will  be  apparent  how  powerful  an  effect  the 
wind  must  have  in  causing  the  distortion  of  the  crests  of  the 
waves. 

To  sum  up,  then,  with  a  view  of  seeing  what  should  be  done  to 
calm  the  violence  of  waves  at  sea,  it  is  to  be  noted,  first,  that 
capillary  waves,  whose  size  and  height  depend  upon  the  surface 
tension  of  the  water,  are  the  forerunners  and  upbuilders  of 
regular  sea  waves;   and,  secondly,  that  as  long  as  the  wave 


H^ 


708 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


709 


•i 


m 


III    .  i' 


:  . 


mechanism  is  not  disordered,  that  is,  as  long  as  the  particles  of 
water  are  allowed  to  move  in  their  imdisturbed  orbits  or  paths, 
there  is  no  breaking  of  the  waves  and  vessels  ride  from  hollow 
to  crest  without  shocks  and  without  shipping  any  water.  There- 
fore, a  substance,  m  order  to  be  of  use  in  subduing  the  violence 
of  waves,  should  be  capable  (1)  of  spreading  rapidly  over  the 
surface  of  the  sea,  (2)  of  making  the  tension  of  the  exposed 
surface  less  than  the  surface-tension  of  water  by  as  great  an 
amount  as  possible,  and  (3)  of  forming,  as  a  shield  to  the  wave 
mechanism,  a  continuous  surface  film,  whose  particles  are  dis- 
tinct from  the  particles  of  water  and  therefore  do  not  share  their 
orbital  motion. 

When  a  film  of  oil  is  spread  over  the  surface  of  the  water  the 
heaping-up  action,  which,  in  the  case  of  the  water  film,  results  in 
the  formation  of  ripples,  can  not  take  place. 

In  the  following  table  of  surface  tensions,  given  in  grams  per 
linear  meter  at  20°  C,  the  liquids  are  named  in  that  order  which 
corresponds  to  the  quickness  with  which  they  spread  on  the 
surface  of  a  body  of  water: 


Liquid 


Soapsuds 

Sperm  oU 

Oa  of  turpentine 
Rapeseed  oil .  .  . 

Linseed  oil 

Benzoin 

Ricinus  oil 

Oil  of  almonds .  . 

Oil  of  olives 

Petroleum 

Water 


Specific 
Gravity 


0.887 


.914 

.798 

l.OOO 


Tension  of  the 
Surface  Separat- 
ing the  Liquid 
from 

Sum 

Air 

Water 

2.68 

0.00 

2.68 

3.39 

.79 

4.18 

3.03 

1.18 

4.21 

3.35 

1.56 

4.91 

3.34 

1.70 

5.04 

3.12 

1.97 

5.09 

3.83 

1.62 

5.45 

3.52 

2.07 

5.59 

3.76 

2.10 

5.86 

3.23 

3.83 

7.06 

8.25 

.00 

The  Excess  of  the 
Tension  Separat- 
ing Air  from 
Water  over  the 
Sum  Stated  in 
Column  5,  or  the 
Relative  Spread- 
ing Force 


5.57 
4.07 
4.04 
3.34 
3.21 
3.16 
2.80 
'2.66 
2.39 
1.19 


Of  the  substances  named,  petroleum  spreads  less  rapidly  than 
any  of  the  others,  its  tendency  to  spread  being  only  about  one- 
half  that  of  olive  oil,  one-third  that  of  linseed  oil,  one-fourth  that 
of  sperm  oil,  and  one-fifth  that  of  soapsuds.  This  explains,  in 
large  part,  why  seamen  have  found  it  inferior  to  the  other  oils, 


especially  those  of  animal  and  vegetable  origin,  for  calming  the 

sea. 

According  to  theory,  of  all  the  liquids  named,  soap  water  is 
the  best  agent  for  preventing  the  growth  of  waves,  both  on  ac- 
coimt  of  its  superior  spreading  power  and  the  reduction  of  the 
surface  tension  that  it  brings  about. 

With  respect  to  the  oils,  the  table  indicates  that  oil  of  turpen- 
tine is  the  best  for  spreading  and  reducing  the  tendency  of  the 
wind  to  form  waves  and  increase  their  size.  Moreover,  oil 
appears  to  have  a  great  advantage  over  soap  water,  since  it 
weighs  less  than  water  and  does  not  mix  with  it.  These  qualities 
enable  it,  when  spread  over  the  surface  of  water  traversed  by 
waves,  to  maintain  itself  as  a  distinct  layer  whose  particles  do 
not  take  up  the  orbital  motion  that  the  particles  of  water  have  in 
sea  waves.  Much  of  the  efficacy  of  oil  is  due  to  the  formation  of 
this  distinct  layer  with  a  definite  surface  cohesion  between  the 
particles  of  oil,  for,  as  already  pointed  out,  the  wave  mechanism 
is  then  to  some  extent  protected  from  derangement,  since  in  a 
sea  wave  the  particles  of  water  in  the  crest  are  moving  forward 
in  their  orbits,  or  in  the  direction  in  which  the  wind  is  blowing 
when  they  reach  the  surface,  and  the  tractive  effect  of  the  wind 
being  brought  to  bear  upon  them  at  this  point,  causes  the  break- 
ing of  the  crests  and  the  consequent  danger  that  is  experienced 
in  a  stormy  sea.  • 

Brief  Rules  for  the  Use  of  Oil  to  Protect  Vessels  in 

Stormy  Waters 

[From  the  prize  essay  submitted  to  the  Hamburg 
Nautical  Union  by  Capt.  R.  Karlowa  of  the  Ham- 
burg-American Steamship  Company.  In  the  illus- 
trative figures,  the  flowing  lines  represent  the 
spreading  oil  and  the  arrows  denote  the  direction 
of  the  wind  and  sea.] 

Scudding  before  a  gale,  figure  A,  distrib- 
ute oil  from  the  bow  by  means  of  oil  bags 
or  through  waste  pipes.  It  will  thus  spread 
aft  and  give  protection  both  from  quartering 
and  following  seas. 

If  only  distributed  astern,  figure  B,  there  will  be  no  protection 
from  the  quartering  sea. 


() 


r 


1 

■ 

l^li 

T''  9 

m 
\i\\ 

1 1 

> "' '' 

'!;.•■  ^ 

'i^f 

1 

% 

1 

II 

Hi 


710 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Running  before  a  gale,  yaw- 
ing badly,  and  threatening  to 
broach-to,  figures  C  and  D, 
oil  should  be  distributed  from 
the  bow  and  from  both  sides, 
abaft,  the  beam. 

In  figure  C,  for  instance, 
where  it  is  only  distributed  at 
the  bow,  the  weather  quarter 
is  left  unprotected  when  the 
ship  yaws. 

In  figure  D,  however,  with  oil  bags  abaft  the  beam  as  well  as 
forward,  the  quarter  is  pro- 
tected. 

Ljring-to,  figure  E,  aves- 
sel  can  be  brought  closer  to 
the  wind  by  using  one  or 
two  oil  bags  forward,  to 
windward.  With  a  high 
beam  sea,  use  oil  bags  along 
the  weather  side  at  inter- 
vals of  40  or  50  feet. 

In  a  heavy  cross  sea,  fig- 
ure F,  as  in  the  center  of  a 
hurricane,  or  after  the  center  has  passed,  oil  bags  should  be 
hung  out  at  regular  intervals  along  both  sides. 

Drifting  in  the  trough  of  a 
heavy  sea,  figures  H  and  I, 
use  oil  from  waste  pipes  for- 
ward and  bags  on  weather 
side,  as  in  figure  I. 

These  answer  the  purpose 
very  much  better  than  one 
bag  at  weather  bow  and  one 
at  lee  quarter,  although  this 
has  been  tried  with  some  suc- 
cess, see  figure  H. 
Steaming  into  a  heavy  head  sea,  figure  G,  use  oil  through 
forward  closet  pipes.    Oil  bags  would  be.  tossed  back  on  deck. 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


711 


Lying-to,  to  tack  or  wear,  figure  J  use  oil  from  weather  bow. 
Cracking  on,  with  high  wind  abeam  and  heavy  sea,  figure  K, 

use  oil  from  waste  pipes, 

weather  bow.  1  J 

A  vessel  hove  to  for  a 

pilot,  figure  L,  should  dis- 
tribute    oil     from     the 

weather  side  and  lee  quar- 
ter.   The  pilot  boat  runs 

up  to  windward  and  lowers 

a  boat,  which  pulls  down 

to  leeward   and   around 

the  vessel's  stern.    The 

pilot  boat  runs  down  to 

leeward,  gets  out  oil  bags  to  windward  and  on  her  lee  quarter, 

and  the  boat  pulls  back 
aroimd  her  stem,  protected 
by  the  oil.  The  vessels  drift 
to  leeward  and  leave  an  oil- 
slick  to  windward  between 
the  two. 

Towing  another  vessel  in 
a  heavy  sea,  oil  is  of  the 
greatest  service,  and  may 
prevent  the  hawser  from 
breaking.  Distribute  oil  from 
the  towing  vessel  forward  and 
on  both  sides,  figture  M.  If 
only  used  aft,  the  tow  alone 
gets  the  benefit. 
At  anchor  in  an  open  roadstead  use  oil  in  bags  from  jibboom, 

or  haul  them  out  ahead  of  the  vessel  by  means  of  an  endless  rope 


I^^Fosifion 


PI  LOT  BOAT 


!■ 


v.-  — 


2""^ Position  "^ 


rove  through  a  tailblock  secured  to  the  anchor  chain,  figure  N. 


IH  ' 


t : 


l! 


712 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


In  addition  to  the  above,  there  are  other  cases  where  oil  may 
be  used  to  advantage,  such  as  lowering  and  hoisting  boats, 
riding  to  a  sea  anchor,  crossing  rollers  or  surf  on  a  bar,  and  from 
lifeboats  and  stranded  vessels. 


o 


Thick  and  heavy  oils  are  the  best.  Mineral  oils  are  not  so 
effective  as  animal  or  vegetable  oils.  Raw  petroleum  has  given 
favorable  results,  but  not  so  good  when  it  is  refined.  Certain 
oils,  like  cocoanut  oil  and  some  kinds  of  fish  oil,  congeal  in  cold 
weather,  and  therefore  are  useless,  but  may  be  mixed  with 
mineral  oils  to  advantage. 

The  simplest  method  of  distributing  oil  is  by  means  of  canvas 
bags  about  1  foot  long,  filled  with  oakum  and  oil,  pierced  with 
holes  by  means  of  a  coarse  sail  needle.     See  page  220. 
The  waste  pipes  forward  are  also  very  useful  for  this  purpose. 

The  Hydrographic  Office  will  be  glad  to  publish  short  accounts 
of  the  use  of  oil.  The  reports  should  always  describe  the  state 
and  direction  of  the  seas,  speed  of  the  ship,  kind  of  oil,  method 
and  place  of  appljdng  the  same,  amotmt  used,  and  what  effect  it 
had.    The  following  reports  were  made  to  the  H.  O. 

Maneuvering  before  a  Storm,  and  Use  of  Oil  to  Calm  Seas 

S.  S.  Monmouth,  Captain  Birchman — March  12  to  16,  from 
latitude  43°  57',  longitude  39°  23',  to  latitude  45°  30',  longitude 
20°  28',  while  running  before  a  heavy  westerly  gale  with  squalls 
of  hurricane  force  and  high  dangerous  sea  which  broke  on  board 
on  both  sides,  used  oil  with  good  effect  from  four  bags,  one  on 
each  side  forward  and  one  on  each  side  on  lower  bridge  sus- 
pended from  spars  extending  15  feet  from  the  vessel's  side.  Oil 
was  also  used  from  the  closet  pipes. 

Schooner  John  A,  Matheson,  Captain  Matheson— I  have  fre- 
quently used  oil  to  calm  the  sea  when  in  charge  of  fishing  vessels, 
fishing  for  cod.  Several  hogsheads  are  distributed  about  the 
deck,  into  which  cod  livers  are  thrown  and  in  heavy  weather 
holes  are  bored  in  the  hogsheads  and  the  oil  runs  out  through 
the  scuppers. 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


713 


S.  S.  Teeshridge,  Captain  Shaw,  from  Baltimore,  December 
21,  1905,  to  Hamburg,  January  9,  1906— While  runnmg  before  a 
southwest  gale,  with  seas  continually  breaking  over  the  vessel, 
used  fish  oil  for  sixteen  hours  from  the  forward  waste  pipes  with 
good  results,  as  no  more  water  came  aboard.  Used  about  iVi 
gallons  of  oil  an  hour. 

S.  S.  Ohio,  Captam  Oliver,  from  Rotterdam  to  Baltimore- 
January  10,  1906,  engines  stopped,  ship  hove  to,  with  winds  of 
hurricane  force  from  northwest;  used  oil  from  forward,  amid- 
ships, and  aft  on  each  side  for  twenty-four  hours  to  good  ad- 
vantage, and  believe  had  it  not  been  for  the  timely  use  of  oil 
seas  would  have  swept  the  decks. 

S.  S.  Sloterdyk,  Captain  Van  der  Heuvel,  from  Rotterdam  to 
New  York — Used  oil  for  three  hours  with  very  good  results,  as 
wherever  the  oil  reached  the  water  was  calm  and  smooth,  while 
in  the  distance  the  sea  was  angry  and  turbulent.  Always  carry 
oil  for  use  in  stormy  weather  and  use  an  oil  made  from  the  residue 
of  whales  and  codfish,  which  is  efficient  and  cheap.  No  special 
apparatus  is  used  for  distributing  the  oil,  but  use  the  following 
methods :  When  the  ship  can  be  kept  head  to  the  sea,  a  24-pound 
butter  can  with  oil  is  placed  in  the  bowl  of  each  forward  closet 
and  the  flushing  water  kept  rimning  freely.  K  the  sea  is  moder- 
ate, one  hole  is  pimctured  in  the  can  and  the  oil  allowed  to  drip; 
if  the  sea  increases,  two  or  three  holes  are  made.  K  the  ship 
falls  off  a  couple  of  points,  the  oil  is  distributed  from  the  forward 
bow  closets  and  from  a  closet  amidships.  This  method  is  fol- 
lowed when  the  wind  is  not  too  strong,  otherwise  the  oil  flies 
over  the  side  of  the  ship  and  does  not  reach  the  water  close 
enough  to  do  any  good.  When  the  ship's  head  continues  to  fall 
off,  headway  is  stopped  and  the  ship  permitted  to  drift;  then 
oil  is  distributed  on  both  sides  forward  and  amidships,  if  possible. 

Thomas  (United  States  Army  transport),  Capt.  E.  V.  Lynam— 
Left  Guam  April  24,  1905,  for  Manila;  weather  threatening. 
April  26,  at  3.40  p.  m.,  hove  to  in  the  trough  of  the  sea,  which  was 
very  heavy,  and  ran  fish  oil  from  water-closet  pipes  fore  and  aft. 
The  oil  streak  spread  to  windward  about  300  yards  and  no  seas 
broke  within  it,  though  they  did  so  ahead  and  astern.  Went 
ahead  slowly  on  course  at  midnight,  using  oil  forward  and  aft 
on  both  sides,  ship  riding  easily  and  taking  no  water.    Hove  to 


« 


714 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


715 


again  from  8  p.  m.  27th  to  4  a.  m.  28th,  and  experienced  tre- 
mendous seas,  but  only  some  light  spray  came  aboard.  The 
ship  rode  easily,  as  before,  while  hove  to  and  using  oil  on  weather 
side.  Very  heavy  rain  made  it  impossible  see  how  far  the  oil 
streak  extended.     [Report  by  Third  Officer  H.  M.  Davie.] 

Tugela  (British  steamship),  Capt.  J.  Marchbanks,  reports  as 
follows:  April  11,  1905,  bound  east,  in  latitude  46°  north,  longi- 
tude 41°  west,  experienced  a  fresh  northwest  gale.  Used  oil  to 
save  our  deck  load.  My  experience  is  that  with  the  sea  abaft 
the  beam  it  is  much  better  to  give  a  double  pressure  of  oil  from 
the  forward  closet  pipe  (weather  side)  and  use  bags  from  mid- 
ship section  of  steamer  and  also  one  at  the  break  of  the  poop. 
This  method  I  have  found  will  enable  me  to  run  much  longer 
and  with  less  danger  of  a  sea  breaking  aboard.  At  4.30  p.  m., 
wind  and  sea  increasing,  I  resolved  to  heave  steamer  to.  Oil 
was  freely  used  and  steamer's  speed  reduced,  with  the  result 
that  for  about  one-fourth  of  a  mile  around  the  sea  was  com- 
paratively smooth,  and  with  little  difficulty  the  vessel  was 
brought  to  the  wind.  The  average  speed  of  steamer  while 
running  was  9  knots.  The  oil  used  was  a  cheap  quality  of  colza 
thinned  down  with  about  30  per  cent  of  kerosene.  The  bags 
used  were  ordinary  canvas  bags  made  on  board,  with  small  holes 
pricked  in  the  bottom.  By  using  this  style  of  bag  the  flow  can 
much  more  easily  be  regulated.  The  amount  of  oil  expended 
while  running  before  the  gale  was  iVi  gallons  per  hour.  After 
heaving  to  I  foxmd  it  better  to  use  only  the  forward  closet  pipe, 
as  this  was  quite  sufficient  to  prevent  any  water  from  breaking 
aboard,  and  the  expenditure  of  oil  was  reduced  to  about  one-half 
gallon  per  hour.  This  method  was  very  efficient  in  smoothing  the 
seas  and  greatly  reduced  the  risk  of  losing  the  deck  cargo  or 
sustaining  any  other  serious  damage. 

Invermark  (British  bark).  Captain  Bolderston— September, 
1903,  to  the  westward  of  Tasmania,  got  a  succession  of  gales  with 
high  dangerous  seas.  On  the  first  rise  of  the  barometer  wanted 
to  put  the  vessel  on  the  port  tack,  but  was  afraid  she  would  be 
damaged,  as  that  would  have  brought  the  sea  on  the  port  beam. 
Filled  oil  bags  and  put  them  over  and  wore  ship.  Although  the 
vessel  lay  in  the  trough'of  the  sea  for  eighteen  hours  she  only  took 
a  little  lee  water.    There  was  a  smooth  oily  wake  for  200  yards 


to  windward,  notwithstanding  that  ahead  and  astern  the  sea  was 
breaking  heavily.  Arrived  in  port  without  damage  and  deck 
load  of  lumber  intact. 

American  (Dutch  steamship),  Capt.  E.  Marktschlaeger — 
March  5,  1905,  while  bound  east,  latitude  41°,  longitude  56°  54', 
during  a  northerly  gale  with  very  high  rolling  seas,  used  storm 
oil  through  forward  waste  pipe  with  good  effect.  March  7,  same, 
during  a  northwest  gale.  March  9  to  11,  during  a  gale  from 
southwest,  west,  and  northwest,  used  oil  on  both  bows  through 
waste  pipes  with  apparently  good  results.  At  8.30  p.  m.,  the 
11th,  latitude  47°  40'  north,  longitude  21°  15'  west,  with  a  whole 
gale  and  furious  high  sea,  we  had  to  stop  on  account  of  a  break 
in  the  engines  and  used  plenty  of  storm  oil  to  heave  to;  also 
while  Ijring  broadside  to  the  sea,  with  bags  forward,  amidships, 
and  aft,  causing  a  smooth  sea  a  safe  distance  from  the  ship. 
[Report  by  Chief  Officer  Sytor.] 

Mildred  (schooner).  Captain  Kindler — ^While  serving  on  board 
the  bark  William  Ritsoriy  that  vessel  was  caught  in  a  t3rphoon  in 
the  Indian  Ocean  and  was  on  her  beam  ends  for  twenty-four 
hoturs,  when  by  some  accident  a  tin  of  coal  oil  got  adrift  and  had  a 
hole  ptmched  in  it,  allowing  the  oil  to  rim  out  and  spread  on  the 
water.  As  soon  as  the  bark  drifted  to  leeward  of  the  oil  the 
water  began  to  act  on  the  rudder  and  the  vessel  came  up  to  the 
wind  and  righted.  After  that,  used  all  kinds  of  oil,  but  the  most 
satisfactory  was  cod-liver  oil,  which  was  used  drop  by  drop. 
The  use  of  oil  saved  the  bark. 

S.  S.  Sirrah  (Dutch),  Capt.  K.  Ru.  On  Oct.  2,  1920,  at  12.01 
a.  m.,  m  lat.  56°  10'  N.,  Ion.  22°  45'  W.,  wmd  NW.,  force  4, 
barometer  30.07.  At  2  a.  m.  the  wind  shifted  to  east,  force  0; 
barometer  falling  steadily.  Later  the  wind  shifted  to  southeast, 
increasing  in  force,  and  at  noon  its  force  was  7  and  the  barometer 
read  29.48.  Ship's  course,  65°.  The  clouds,  winds,  and 
barometer  indicated  stormy  weather.  At  2' p.  m.,  steering  more 
northerly  so  as  to  pass  to  the  northward  of  the  storm  center. 
The  wind  shifted  to  ESE.  with  heavy  seas;  barometer  falling; 
steering  with  full,  half,  and  then  slow  speed.  At  10  p.  m.,  wind 
force  9,  barometer  28.89 ;  heavy  rough  sea.  Ship  taking  much 
water  aboard,  became  unmanageable,  and  fell  in  the  trough  of 
the  sea.     Stopped  the  engines  and  spilled  oil  on  the  decks  in 


(t 


■f   1 

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IC'I: 


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three  places,  using  2  gallons  in  four  hours,  after  which  the  ship 
lay  with  the  wind  and  sea  three  points  abaft  the  starboard  beam, 
and  but  little  water  came  aboard  aft.  The  barometer  fell  until 
4  a.  m.  of  the  3d.  The  wind  shifted  slowly  to  eastward.  We 
drifted  until  noon,  when  the  wind  was  east  and  barometer  rising. 
Later  the  wind  shifted  to  N.E.,  force  1 ;  barometer  still  rising. 
Started  engines  at  slow,  then  half,  and  finally  full  speed.  The 
storm  center  passed  to  southward.  "  When  you  are  in  a  storm 
and  can  not  keep  head  on  to  the  sea,  stop  your  engines  and  use 
oil  from  the  weather  side  and  you  are  safe.  You  may  have  a 
little  water  on  the  after  part,  but  that  is  all,  as  the  seas  break  at  a 
distance  from  the  ship  and  not  aboard."  [Report  by  Chief 
Officer  N.  de  Herta.] 

Crossing  Bars 

Crossing  a  bar  with  a  flood  tide,  to  pour  oil  overboard  and 
allow  it  to  float  in  ahead  of  the  boat,  which  would  follow  with  a 
bag  towing  astern,  would  appear  to  be  the  best  plan.  As  before 
remarked,  under  these  circumstances  the  effect  can  not  be  so 
much  trusted. 

On  a  bar,  with  the  ebb  tide  running,  it  would  seem  to  be  useless 
to  try  oil  for  the  purpose  of  entering. 

Crossing  a  dangerous  bar  with  a  short  vessel  attempt  to  ride 
over  on  the  rest  of  the  sea.  When  a  long  vessel  must  cross  a 
bar,  or  is  being  driven  down  on  a  bar,  the  safest  maneuver 
seems  to  be  the  following : 

Just  before  getting  to  the  bar  bring  the  vessel  parallel  with  the 
bar  and  in  the  trough  of  the  sea.  This  can  be  done  with  a  sea 
anchor  over  the  bow.  The  sea  anchor  must  be  put  over  board 
in  plenty  of  time.  Have  an  extra  long  scope  of  the  best  towing 
hawser  bent  to  the  sea  anchor.  Put  this  over  and  check  with  a 
short  scope.  Work  the  vessel  into  the  trough.  As  the  anchor 
begins  to  haul  the  ship's  head  up  ease  off  on  the  tow  line.  This 
should  be  just  before  she  rides  over.  The  vessel  will  roll  over 
the  bar,  keel  parallel  to  the  bar. 

When  over  check  the  tow  lines  and  bring  the  vessel's  head  to 
the  wind.  Anchor  when  safely  inside,  or,  if  engines  are  working, 
proceed  to  a  safe  anchorage. 


The  maneuver  may,  of  course,  be  simplified  by  use  of  the 
engines  to  bring  the  vessel  parallel  to  the  bar. 

A  sailing  craft  may  execute  this  maneuver  by  use  of  an  after 
sail  to  bring  her  into  the  wind,  assuming  that  she  is  running  down 
onto  a  bar  under  shortened  canvas. 

K  the  vessel  has  no  way  upon  her  except  the  drift  to  leeward, 
toward  the  bar,  she  may  touch  lightly  on  the  outside  edge  of  the 
bar  but  the  next  sea  will  pick  her  up  and  lift  her  over.  All  of 
this  is  predicated  upon  a  heavy  swell  running  over  the  bar,  the 
absence  of  rocks,  and  favorable  wind.  And  the  absolute  need 
of  gomg  over,  or  of  bemg  driven  over. 

Storm  Oil 

On  and  after  January  1,  1915,  all  U.  S.  merchant  vessels  of 
more  than  200  gross  tons  propelled  by  machinery  and  navigating 
the  oceans  or  gulfs  shall  carry  a  supply  of  oil  for  the  purpose  of 
smoothing  the  sea  or  quelling  the  force  of  the  waves  in  case  of 
emergency  or  necessity  in  the  following  quantities : 

Vessels  of  over  200  and  not  over  1,000  gross  tons,  30  gallons. 

Vessels  of  oyer  1,000  and  not  over  3,000  gross  tons,  40  gallons. 

Vessels  of  over  3,000  and  not  over  5,000  gross  tons,  50  gallons. 

Vessels  of  over  5,000  gross  tons  shall  carry  at  least  100  gallons. 

This  oil  shall  be  accessible  and  available  at  all  times,  and  the 
location  of  the  supply  and  the  means  and  methods  of  its  distri- 
bution shall  be  determined  by  the  master  of  the  vessel. 

XIII 
Stability 

* 

The  question  of  stability,  the  power  a  vessel  has  of  righting 
herself  when  heeled  over  from  any  outside  cause,  is  generally 
considered  under  the  question  of  stowage.  On  the  other  hand 
stability  is  of  vital  importance  in  the  many  problems  arising  in 
the  handling  of  craft,  in  the  gradual  consumption  of  fuel  and  in 
the  filling  and  emptying  of  ballast  tanks. 

A  vessel  is  always  acted  upon  by  the  resultant  of  two  forces. 
The  force  of  her  own  weight,  that  is,  gravity^  and  the  flotation 
force  of  the  water  she  displaces,  that  is,  buoyancy.  The  two 
forces  may  conveniently  be  plotted  as  acting  through  two  centers. 
The  center  of  gravity  and  the  center  of  buoyancy. 


718 


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7^9 


^^n' 


In  a  submarine  the  center  of  gravity  will  lie  below  the  center 
of  buoyancy.  In  a  surface  vessel  of  average  build  and  loading 
the  center  of  buoyancy  will  lie  below  the  center  of  gravity. 

The  center  of  gravity  is  of  course  the  center  of  the  mass  of  the 
vessel.  The  center  of  buoyancy  is  the  center  of  the  submerged 
portion  of  the  vessel.  When  weights  are  not  shifted  to  produce 
heeling  the  center  of  gravity  remains  in  the  same  place,  but  as  a 
vessel  heels  over  the  shape  (not  the  volume)  of  her  submerged 
section  changes,  and  the  center  of  buoyancy  shifts  toward  the 
side  upon  which  she  is  lying. 

Gravity  acts  downward^  buoyancy  acts  upward. 


»  2  I 

C.G,  Centre  of  Gravity.     C.B,  Centre  of  Buoyancy.    M.C,  Meta  Centre, 

The  meta  center  is  a  point  on  the  center  line  of  the  vessel 
where  a  line  from  the  center  of  buoyancy,  passing  straight  up- 
ward, cuts  this  center  line.  The  meta  center  is  located  only 
when  the  vessel  heels  over  to  one  side  or  the  other  by  some 
external  force.  The  metacentric  height  is  the  distance  from 
C.G.  to  CM.* 

•  The  righting  moment^  tending  to  put  the  vessel  on  an  even 
keel  is  the  amount  of  the  buoyant  force,  acting  upward  times  the 
horizontal  distance  between  the  vertical  lines  passing  through 
the  center  of  gravity  and  the  center  of  buoyancy. 

The  figures  show  the  action  of  these  three  centers  and  explain 
all  we  need  to  know  about  the  mysterious  meta  center.  In  the 
first  figure  the  vessel  lies  on  an  even  keel  and  there  is  no  righting 

*  Elaborate  inclining  experiments  are  made  to  determine  the  position  of 
the  center  of  gravity,  metacentric  height,  etc.  Usually  carried  out  at  wet 
dock  in  shipyard.     See  Applied  Naval  Architecture,  by  W.  J.  Lovett. 


moment.  In  the  second  figure  she  is  heeled  over  to  starboard 
(we  will  assume  we  are  looking  forward)  and  the  center  of 
buoyancy  shifts  to  starboard  of  the  center  of  gravity.  The  two 
forces,  gravity  and  buoyancy,  form  a  couple  and  the  righting 
moment  is  readily  seen. 

In  the  third  figure  the  vessel  has  gone  over  so  far  that  the 
center  of  buoyancy  has  passed  to  port  of  the  center  of  gravity. 
The  meta  center  has  passed  down  below  the  center  of  gravity 
and  to  port  of  it,  and  we  no  longer  have  a  righting  moment,  but 
the  two  forces  now  act  as  an  upsetting  couple  and  over  she  goes. 

In  loading  or  ballasting,  when  the  weights  are  carried  very 
low,  we  have  a  greater  metacentric  height  for  any  draft,  and  a 
very  strong  righting  moment.  The  vessel  is  then  said  to  be 
stiff.  She  comes  back  from  a  roll  with  a  sharp  upward  jerk. 
She  is  hard  to  upset,  but  on  the  other  hand  she  is  liable  to  be 
very  hard  on  the  machinery  or  spars  or  cargo.  A  very  stiff  ship 
will  almost  snap  the  masts  out  of  herself  in  a  heavy  sea  running 
on  her  bow  or  quarter,  let  alone  her  beam. 

By  carr3ring  the  weights  up  and  reducing  the  extreme  righting 
moment  we  make  her  more  sea  kindly.  The  vessel  has  an 
easier  roll,  a  more  equable  motion.  On  the  other  hand  when  the 
weights  are  too  far  up  and  the  metacentric  height  is  reduced,  she 
becomes  tender  or  sluggish,  rolls  over  and  recovers  slowly,  and 
may  be  very  dangerous  in  a  seaway.  Water  shipped  on  the  well 
deck  may  carry  her  down  and  a  combination  of  a  heavy  sea  fore 
and  aft  and  a  third  one  breaking  over  her  when  she  is  down 
may  shift  the  cargo  or  actually  carry  her  beyond  her  righting 
power  and  capsize  her.    This  is  an  extreme  case,  of  course.* 

*  Of  late  years  there  has  developed  a  tendency  to  require  captains  to  know 
something  of  the  stability  of  their  ships.  In  some  cases  blue  prints  of  curves 
of  metacentric  heights  and  other  ship's  properties  have  been  furnished  cap- 
tains. In  one  case  a  captain  inquired,  "  What  am  I  to  do  with  this?  "  "  I 
don't  know,  but  be  sure  to  receipt  for  it,"  was  the  enlightening  reply. 

Recent  British  books  on  naval  architecture  assert  that  many  captains 
tmderstand  stability  and  suggest  that  a  captain,  being  supplied  with  the  heights 
of  the  metacenter,  should  be  able  to  determine  the  metacentric  height. 
Considering  that  the  metacentric  height  desirable  for  a  large  ship  is  about 
one  foot,  while  the  height  of  the  metacenter  from  the  keel  is  likely  to  be  25 
or  30  feet,  is  rather  a  rigid  requirement.  There  is  no  question  that  some 
captains  can  learn  to  figure  change  of  location  of  the  center  of  gravity  due  to 


I     '*] 


720 


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721 


r 


I 


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The  above  considerations  will  show  how  necessary  it  is  to  use 
great  care  in  proportioning  weights  when  loading  heavy  cargoes 
such  as  sugar.  Here  the  filling  completely  of  lower  holds  would 
make  a  vessel  crank.  By  carrying  weights  up  this  is  over  come, 
but  the  proportioning  must  be  such  that  weight  is  not  carried 
too  high. 

Seamen  who  have  the  loading  of  a  vessel  in  charge  are  usually 
men  of  some  experience.  Common  judgment  in  the  placing  of 
weights  and  the  distribution  of  measurement  cargo  is  all  that 
is  needed  in  the  modem  vessel.  Engines,  boilers  and  oil  or 
water  tanks  control  stability  and  trim  to  a  large  extent. 

Most  trouble  arises  in  light  voyages  where  ballast  is  not  taken 
in  sufficient  amount  for  reasons  of  economy. 

Vessel  of  good  beam  and  high  freeboard  are  often  designed 
with  small  metacentric  height  m  order  to  make  them  less  crank. 
Here  too,  other  methods  of  reducing  excessive  rolling  are  gen- 
erally employed. 

Rolling 

Rolling,  aside  from  its  discomforts  (to  passengers  especially) 
results  in  bad  steering,  reduced  efficiency  of  propellers,  espe- 
cially with  twin  screws,  one  screw  racing  and  the  other  slowed 
as  she  roUs  from  side  to  side.  Other  losses  such  as  increased 
skin  friction,  and  decreased  efficiency  of  the  fires  imder  boilers, 
water  swashing  in  boilers  and  tanks,  and  wear  and  tear  on  gear 
and  damage  to  cargo  and  vessel  are  all  directly  due  to  excessive 
rolling. 

Bilge  keels  are  generally  fitted,  these  being  shaped  to  the 
average  streamline  of  the  vessel  and  afifording  direct  outside 
resistance  against  rolling.    They  also,  of  course,  add  just  so 

loading  and  stowage,  and  perhaps  all  ought  to;  but  the  exact  determination 
of  metacentric  height  is  difficult  for  the  naval  architect,  and  an  error  of  half  a 
foot  might  occur  in  a  captain's  computation  without  much  blame  to  him. 

It  is  suggested  that  a  more  certain  and  a  fairer  way  is  to  require  the  naval 
architect  to  determine  the  metacentric  heights  for  aU  conditions  of  loading 
and  stowage  for  the  ship  in  ordinary  service,  and  to  give  this  information  to 
the  captain  in  the  form  of  directions  for  loading,  taking  account  of  weight  and 
bulk  of  cargo  and  locations  of  various  kinds  to  keep  within  proper  require- 
ments. In  case  the  captain  has  any  question  concerning  stability  it  would 
be  better  for  him  to  cable  information  and  ask  instructions. 

— Marine  Engineering, 


much  to  the  resistance  of  the  hull,  whether  rolling  takes  place 
or  not. 

The  use  of  anti-rolling  tanks ^  notably  those  of  Frahm,  have 
also  been  tried  with  moderate  success. 

The  gyro-stabilizer  developed  by  Mr.  Elmer  A.  Sperry  has 
proven  the  most  successful  wave-quenching  device  produced  up 
to  the  present  time.  Here  the  stabilizing  gyro  is  placed  in  the 
center  line  of  the  vessel  and  near  the  midship  point  of  her  length. 
Mr.  Robert  B.  Lea,  of  the  Sperry  Gjrroscope  Company  describes 

the  action  as  follows : 

• 

"  Many  gyroscopical  phenomena  are  the  result  of  the  opera- 
tion of  Newton's  First  Law  of  Motion,  which  states  that  all 
matter  is  pig-headed  by  saying  *  a  body  continues  or  perseveres 
in  a  state  of  rest,  or  of  uniSform  motion  in  a  straight  line  except 
in  so  far  as  it  may  be  deflected  therefrom  by  an  externally  ap- 
plied force.'  This  law,  when  applied  to  a  rotating  wheel,  may 
be  expressed  by  stating  that  the  wheel  tends  to  maintain  the 
direction  of  its  plane  of  rotation,  and  axis,  in  space. 


iME    ACI  lOX  OF  ■: 


:  ._  J 

The  sketch  above  shows  the  stabilizer  in  relative  position  and  size  on  a 
large  passenger  liner.  The  arrow  indicates  the  reaction  of  the  gyro  when 
neutralizing  wave  effort. 

"  The  theory  of  the  ship  stabilizer  calls  into  play  this  char- 
acteristic of  any  rapidly  revolving  gyroscope  or  wheel  to  main- 
tain its  axis  of  spin  or  plane  of  rotation  rigidly  in  any  direction. 


I 

ft 


722 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


So  persistent  and  powerful  are  the  inertia  forces  in  this  wheel 
that  it  opposes  with  great  effort  any  disturbing  forces,  resisting 
them  (up  to  the  limit  of  its  power)  with  an  equal  and  opposite 
magnitude.    In  a  ship  the  disturbing  forces  are  the  waves. 

"  The  revolving  gyroscope,  being  dislodged  from  its  vertical 
plane  of  rotation  by  the  action  of  the  waves  endeavoring  to  roll 
the  ship,  immediately  opposes  and  neutralizes  this  action  with 
an  equal  force  by  tilting  or  *  precessing '  in  the  proper  durec- 
tion,  fore  or  aft,  in  a  plane  at  right  angles  to  the  disturbance. 
Practically  all  the  power  to  stabilize  the  vessel  comes  directly 


A  gyro-stabilizer  in  place, 

frona  the  source  of  disturbance,  the  waves.  We,  therefore,  have 
the  interesting  phenomenon  of  stabilizing  a  vessel  by  the  force 
that  is  actually  endeavoring  to  roll  it.  The  stabilizer  really  does 
only  a  smaller  amount  of  work  on  the  vessel  than  each  wave, 
but  in  an  exactly  opposite  manner,  with  the  net  result  that  the 
effort  of  the  wave  is  neutralized  and  the  ship  does  not  roll. 

"  This  interesting  fact  means,  of  course,  that  with  the  spinning 
wheel,  no  greater  power  (with  the  exception  of  the  slightly 
increased  power  for  bearing  friction)  is  required  to  stabilize  the 
ship,  than  to  let  the  wheel  run  idle.  The  gyro  merely  performs 
the  function  of  passing  the  forces  *  around  the  comer  ';  that  is, 
taking  in  the  forces  on  one  side  and  passing  them  out  as  equal 
but  opposing  forces  at  right  angles.  In  opposing  the  roll  of  the 
ship,  the  gyro  is  oscillated,  or,  as  it  is  technically  known,  *  pre- 
cesses'  slowly  fore  and  aft  (the  reaction,  of  course,  being 
athwartship),  the  speed  being  governed  by  suitable  control 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


723 


apparatus,  so  that  the  gyro  will  make  just  one  complete  oscilla- 
tion while  the  tendency  of  the  ship  to  roll  persists. 

"  In  accomplishing  this  result  we  seize  hold  of  the  fact  that 
the  ever-changing  period  of  the  waves,  acting  upon  the  constant 
period  of  the  vessel  first,  builds  up  a  large  angle  of  roll  and  then 
as  the  waves  become  out  of  synchronism,  undoes  their  work  by 
opposing  and  crushing  out  the  roll.  Any  one  wave  can  impart 
only  a  very  slight  roll,  the  matter  of  stabilization,  therefore, 
becomes  more  one  of  proper  control  than  of  exerting  large  neu- 
tralizing forces;  our  problem  being  merely  that  of  installing  a 
small  wheel  capable  of  taking  care  of  the  few  degrees  roll  (three 
to  five  degrees)  which  any  one  wave  can  impart  to  the  vessel." 

Advantages  of  the  gyro  stabilizer  are  sunmied  up  as  follows.* 
Calculations  being  made  from  a  model  l/26th  the  size  of  the 
vessel.  Vessel:  Length  520  ft.,  beam  65  ft.,  draft  16  ft.  Dis- 
placement 11,000  tons. 

"  It  appears  that  at  a  speed  of  15  knots  the  effective  horse- 
power would  be  increased  from  3,000  to  3,300  when  the  ship  is 
rolling  through  an  arc  of  25  degrees,  and  to  3,600  when  rolling 
through  an  arc  of  45  degrees,  corresponding  to  an  increase  in 
effective  horsepower  of  10  per  cent  and  20  per  cent  respectively. 
It  is  to  be  noted  that  this  does  not  include  the  loss  of  power  due 
to  decrease  in  propeller  efficiency  for  a  twin  screw  ship,  when  the 
propellers  alternately  approach  the  surface,  if  not  actually 
coming  out  of  the  water. 

"  These  results  confirm  experience  at  sea  that  loss  of  speed 
is  foimd  to  occur  when  ships  are  rolling  heavily.  Under  these 
circumstances  it  appears  that  the  power  and  weight  devoted  to 
the  means  for  stabilizing  a  ship  are  more  than  amply  repaid  by 
the  saving  effected  in  the  power  required  to  drive  her." 

Much  more  might  be  written  about  this  very  interesting 
development'  in  modem  ship  handling.  The  amount  of  extra 
water  displaced  by  a  heavily  rolling  ship,  the  alternate  shifting 
of  the  buoyant  forces,  and  the  all  tend  to  added  economy  when 
eliminated  under  gyro  stabilization. 

In  the  Sperry  gyro-stabilizer  the  main  gyro  is  controlled  by  a 
small  control  or  pilot  gyro;  this  feels  the  beginning  of  a  roll 
instantly  and  sets  the  main  gyro  working  in  opposition  to  it  at 
once.    It  is  the  brains  of  the  mechanism.    The  pilot  gyro  closes 

*  From  a  paper  by  Commander  Wm.  McEntee,  C.C,  U.S.N,  on  comparative 
tests  of  bilge  keels  and  gyro-stabilizer,  read  before  the  American  Society  of 
Naval  Architects  and  Marine  Engineers. 


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a  contact  to  the  precession  control  unit,  this  releases  the  brake 
and  starts  the  precession  motor  geared  to  a  circular  rock  on  the 
gyro  case  in  the  proper  direction  to  tilt  the  main  gyro  on  its 
vertical  axis  and  thereby  bring  into  play  the  counter  force  that 
prevents  the  ship  from  rolling.  A  thirty  ton  gyro  wheel  was  used 
to  stabilize  the  10,000  ton  U.  S,  S.  Henderson. 

Sea  Waves 
The  period  of  a  wave  is  the  time,  in  seconds,  between  the 
passing  of  successive  crests,  taken  from  some  stationary  point. 
A  vessel  steaming  into  a  sea  will  apparently  cut  down  this 
period,  or  if  steaming  away  from  the  sea  will  lengthen  it.  This 
is  known  to  physicists  as  Doppler  Effect,  and  has  a  wide  useful- 
ness in  the  vast  field  of  wave-length  investigations.  It  is  simply 
mentioned  here  in  passing. 

The  period  of  roll  is  the  time  in  seconds  required  for  a  com- 
plete roll  from  the  extreme  angle  of  roll  on  one  side  to  the 
extreme  angle  of  roll  on  the  other.  The  double  period  is  the 
time  required  to  roll  from  extreme  starboard  (let  us  say)  back 
to  extreme  starboard. 

For  any  given  condition  of  stability  this  period  will  be  the 
same  no  matter  what  the  angle  of  roll.*  That  is,  a  vessel  with  a 
seven-second  period  will  require  seven  seconds  to  roll  ten 
degrees  and  also  seven  seconds  to  roll  twenty  or  thirty  degrees. 

But,  as  the  angle  of  roll  increases  her 
rapidity  of  roll  increases  directly  with 
the  distance  through  which  she  rolls. 
The  greater  roll,  in  the  same  time,  car- 
ries with  it  an  increase  of  momentum 
that  may  make  it  very  dangerous.  The 
speed  of  the  roll  is  greatest  at  the 
middle  of  the  roll,  when  the  vessel  is 
upright.  The  ship  is  simply  a  huge 
floating  pendulum. 

To  measure  the  angle  of  roll,  cli- 
nometers  are   fitted   at   convenient 

*  The  period  of  roll  is  of  great  importance.  Lack  of  stability  may  be  at 
once  determined  from  its  e£fect  on  rolling.  Knowing  the  period,  under 
normal  conditions,  any  lengthening,  and  if  the  rolling  becomes  sluggish  and 
lags  at  the  end  of  the  roll,  will  indicate  lack  of  stability. 

If  tanks  cannot  be  filled  to  correct  this,  return  to  nearest  port  and  shift 
cargo  weights  lower  down.    Report  by  radio,  or  cable  owners  at  once. 


points.  These  usually  have  indicating  arms  that  are  carried 
out  on  each  side  by  the  recording  pendulum  and  show  the 
maximum  roll.  The  indicators  may  be  moved  to  the  center  of 
the  scale  by  small  milled  heads  located  outside  of  the  clino- 
meter case.  It  is  very  essential  that  a  sensitive  clinometer  be 
fitted  in  the  engine  room  to  guide  the  engineers  in  the  filling  or 
emptying  of  boilers,  tanks,  bunkers,  etc.  The  angle  of  heel  and 
stability  is  also  of  importance  when  loading  fast  cargoes,  or  when 
purchasing  extra  heavy  weights  with  the  vessel's  own  gear. 

When  the  period  of  the  waves  and  the  period  of  rolling  are 
synchronous,  or  nearly  so,  the  waves  may  add  to  the  rolling  at 
each  swing  tmtil  dangerous  conditions  arise.  Of  course  good 
seamanship  would  call  for  measures  to  put  the  vessel  out  of  the 
trough  of  the  sea  where  such  rolling  would  take  place. 

The  period  of  roll  is  less  when  a  vessel  is  moving  through  the 
water,  the  reduction  however  is  slight. 

Large  liners  may  have  a  period  of  roll  of  from  ten  to  twelve 
seconds. 

Pitching  is  of  less  importance  than  rolling  so  far  as  it  effects 
the  safety  of  the  vessel.  A  light  vessel  pitching  into  a  heavy 
sea  may  strain  herself.  The  writer  recalls  the  fore  hold  stan- 
chions buckling  under  pitching  stresses  on  a  vessel  going  light 
into  a  heavy  head  sea. 

Heaving  is  the  vertical  motion  of  a  vessel,  increasing  and 
decreasing  her  draft. 

The  resultant  motion  of  a  vessel,  due  to  rolling  and  pitching, 
and  heaving  is  the  combined  effect  of  sea  and  wind,  and  her  own 
machinery,  all  acting  together  upon  the  whole  structure. 

The  growth  of  sea  waves  is  -treated  of  under  calming  the 
sea  with  oil.*    The  following  definitions  are  of  interest  here : 

The  generally  accepted  theory  of  wave  formation  at  sea  is  the 
trochoidal  theory.  This  defines  the  form  of  a  sea  wave  as  a 
trochoid,  a  curve  traced  by  a  point  inside  of  a  circle  rolling  along 
on  a  straight  line.  The  path  of  a  point  on  a  wheel  rolling  on  a 
level  road  is  a  trochoid.  In  the  case  of  a  sea  wave  the  circle  is 
supposed  to  roll  along  on  the  under  side  of  a  straight  line.  The 
line  in  this  instance  is  the  level  of  the  sea. 

*  Page  706. 


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Every  particle  of  water  influenced  by  the  wave  has  a  fixed 
circular  orbit,  around  which  it  moves  with  uniform  velocity, 
completing  the  circle  in  a  time  equal  to  the  period  of  the  wave.* 

The  following  is  taken  from  the  Manual  of  Seamanship  of  the 

British  Admiralty : 

"  The  size  of  waves  varies  in  different  localities,  and  with 
different  forces  and  directions  of  the  wind.  The  longest  wave 
recorded  is  one  of  2,600  feet  and  with  a  period  of  23  seconds. 

"  The  longest  waves  are  usually  encountered  in  the  South 
Pacific  with  lengths  varying  from  600  to  1,000  feet,  and  periods 
of  from  11  to  14  seconds.  Waves  of  from  500  to  600  feet  in 
length  are  occasionally  met  in  the  Atlantic,  but  more  commonly 
the  lengths  are  from  160  to  320  feet,  with  periods  of  6  to  8  seconds. 

"  The  variation  of  length  with  the  force  and  direction  of  the 
wind  is  not  yet  fully  understood. 

"  The  ratio  , — ^  decreases  as  the  length  increases, 
length 

"  For  the  longest  waves  the  ratio  varies  from  1/50  to  1/30,  and 

for  waves  300  to  400  feet  long  the  ratio  appears  to  vary  from 

about  1/25  to  1/20.    For  waves  100  to  200  feet  long  the  ratio 

may  vary  from  1/10  to  1/20.    For  small  waves  such  as  those 

near  the  coast  line  the  ratio  of  height  over  length  may  be  as 

great  as  1/5  to  1/6." 

The  Speed  of  Waves,  A  definite  idea  of  the  speed  with  which 
waves  may  travel  is  of  use  to  the  officer  handling  a  vessel.  This 
is  specially  so  when  rtmning  before  the  sea  in  a  sailing  ship, 
or  in  a  low  powered  steamer,  or  auxiliary. 

The  speed  of  large  waves  may  be  taken  to  roughly  approximate 
half  the  speed  of  the  wind  that  causes  them.  In  a  moderate 
sea  the  speed  of  the  waves  often  exceeds  the  speed  of  the  wind. 

In  long  stretches  of  sea  as  the  route  from  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  to  Australia,  waves  traveling  at  the  express  speed  of  thirty 
knots  are  not  uncommon.  This  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  sailors 
who  have  "  run  their  easting  down  "  on  this  classic  sea  way 
have  a  wholesome  respect  for  the  great  blue-black  combers  with 
their  snarling  crests  of  silver  white  that  crackle  and  curl  in  the 
wake  of  a  stormy  night.  Such  waves  have  an  eight-second 
period,  if  we  may  append  a  scientific  fact  to  something  coming 
very  close  to  romance. 

In  the  Atlantic  waves  with  a  speed  of  twenty  knots  and  a  six- 
second  period  are  not  uncommon. 

♦The  Period  is  the  time  between  the  passing  of  successive  wave  crests 
measured  from  a  stationary  point. 


In  shallow  waters  waves  are  distorted  and  piled  up.  Here 
the  waves  of  translation  with  broken  crest  and  ugly  masses  of 
moving  water  add  to  the  dangers  of  ship  handling. 

Waves  piling  and  breaking  on  a  beach  are  an  instance  of  the 
effect  of  shoaling  water. 

It  is  quite  possible  for  two  series  of  waves  to  be  in  motion  at 
the  same  time.  Each  may  have  its  origin  at  widely  different 
points.  When  the  two  are  in  coincidence  we  have  a  piling  up  of 
a  great  wave,  one  upon  another.  Seamen  can  do  a  great  service 
by  carefully  studying  and  observing  the  characteristics  of  sea 
waves — indeed  no  one  else  can  do  this  except  those  men  who 
actually  live  upon  the  sea  and  observe  it  under  all  conditions. 

The  height  of  waves  is  taken  from  hollow  to  crest.  Mount 
the  rigging  and  when  in  the  hollow,  vessel  in  the  trough,  and 
ship  upright,  sight  across  the  crest  to  the  horizon  and  measure 
the  height  of  eye  above  the  waterline.  This  will  approximate 
the  height  of  the  wave. 

The  highest  waves  observed  at  sea  are  in  the  neighborhood  of 
forty  feet.  These  are  only  possible  when  there  is  plenty  of  sea 
room,  or  "  fetch  "  for  them  to  make  up  in.  Waves  of  from  fifty 
to  sixty  feet  in  height  are  possible  but  rare. 

Mr.  Thomas  Stevenson,  of  lighthouse  fame,  worked  out  an 
empirical  formula  that  approximates  the  possible  maximum 
height  of  waves,  the  same  being  considered  as  a  function  of  the 
"fetch,"  or  distance  from  which  they  may  originate.  This  is 
as  follows : 

Height  of  wave  (in  feet)  equals  the  square  root  of  the  "  fetch  " 
in  nautical  miles  multiplied  by  the  constant  1.5. 

Or,  the  distance  from  which  a  great  wave  comes  is  equal  to 
its  height  divided  by  1.5,  and  the  quotient  squared. 

This  formula  seems  to  give  wave  heights  in  excess  of  those 
actually  observed. 

Waves  formed  by  the  action  of  the  vessel  itself  are  the  bow 
waves  and  the  wake.  These  are  of  considerable  force  and  are 
very  important  when  steaming  through  crowded  waters  or 
through  canals.  Speed  in  canals  is  limited  because  of  their 
erosive  action,  where  the  banks  are  sand.  The  water  of  the 
wake  has  a  speed  imparted  by  the  skin  of  the  vessel,  and  in 
single  screw  ships  the  propeller  works  in  this  water,  adding 
somewhat  to  its  propulsive  effect. 


!| 


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On  the  other  hand  the  wake  movement  detracts  slightly  from 
the  effective  action  of  the  rudder. 

Rollers  are  the  great  waves  piling  up  on  a  shelving  beach. 

The  Bore,  or  eageiy  is  a  high  crested  wave,  advancing  up  river 
with  the  flood  tide.  It  is  Uable  to  do  considerable  damage  if 
met  with  unawares.  Seamen  who  put  into  strange  rivers  or 
estuaries  should  remember  this  when  handling  or  mooring  their 
vessels.  Sailing  Directions  provide  ample  information.  The 
Bore  is  met  with  in  such  rivers  as  the  Amazon,  Hoogly,  Ganges, 
Indus  and  in  the  Tsientang  Estuary.  The  term  is  sometimes 
used  to  describe  the  "meeting  of  the  tides"  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy. 

Convoys 

Convoys  are  a  strictly  naval  measure  and  are  only  employed  m 
time  of  war.  Many  merchant  service  officers  have  had  experience 
in  running  in  convoy  and  the  few  notes  here  are  of  a  supplement- 
ary nature.  Conditions  under  which  a  convoy  may  be  formed 
are  military  conditions  and  these  need  not  be  set  down  here. 

The  zig-zag  course,  a  whole  convoy  changing  course  at  a  given 
moment  and  in  a  given  direction,  and  the  S  course  where  courses 
are  constantly  changing  through  the  working  of  automatic 
shifting  devices  displacing  the  lubber's  line  progressively  from 
side  to  side,  were  worked  out  and  are  a  part  of  our  knowledge  in 
this  form  of  work. 

The  towing  spar,  trailing  astern  from  vessels  in  convoy  forms  a 
mark  for  following  vessels  to  keep  ahead  of  them  and  is  often 
the  only  guide  on  a  dark  night  or  when  running  in  thick  weather. 

Smoke  boxes  are  carried  by  merchant  craft  in  war  time  and 
their  use  is  now  familiar  to  many. 

Paravanes  are  devices  streaming  out  at  an  angle  from  either 
bow  attached  to  strong  wires  shackled  to  chains  leading  through 
eyes  riveted  to  the  forefoot.  These  are  held  out  from  the  vessel's 
side  by  underwater  kites  and  carry  a  sharp  cutting  knife  that 
shears  off  mines  which  are  carried  out  clear  of  the  track  of  the 
vessel  by  the  wire  cables  trailing  the  kites. 

Without  a  doubt  the  paravane  was  one  of  the  most  useful  and 
ingenious  devices  invented  during  the  war.  It  was  invented  by 
Lieutenant  Burney,  R.N.  who  is  said  to  have  received  $150,000 
from  the  British  Government  for  his  service,  in  addition  to  other 
honors  of  a  less  substantial  nature. 


The  "  kites  "  or  "  fishes  "  are  torpedo-shaped  water  planes 
fitted  with  fins  and  rudder.  They  can  be  regulated  for  any 
desired  depth  or  distance  from  the  vessel  depending  upon  the 
speed,  length  of  wire,  and  set  of  the  rudders. 


5  Miles 


SOOYarc^s. 


f 


<-800Yards- 


T-^->0     \  f   0     0 


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♦ 


BOO  Yards 


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0    0     0 


^ 


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\  - 


\^ 


14  Destroyers 


B  Escort  Commander 
C  Destroyer  wifh  Walloon 
12  Transports 


ij  Troop  Transports 
m  Destroyers 

A  Convoy  Commander 


Instructions  when  in  Convoy,  Masters  of  vessels  in  convoy 
are  supplied  with  instructions  which  should  be  complete  and 
should  be  strictly  followed.  A  ship  master  who  does  not  fully 
understand  such  instructions  should  insist  upon  complete  in- 
structions. As  master  of  his  ship  he  has  certain  obligations 
imposed  upon  him  by  law.    He  must  see  the  authority  of  the 


^ 


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naval  commander  and  must  receive  full  instruction  governing 
his  own  vessel  as  a  part  of  the  convoy.  Such  orders  and  instruc- 
tions are  given  in  detail  by  the  naval  commander. 

XIV 
Collision 

Danger  of  collision  is  always  present  where  vessels  meet  and 
practically  all  of  the  rules  of  the  road  are  based  upon  this  possi- 
bility. Here  a  few  things  will  be  considered  with  respect  to 
vessels  that  have  already  been  in  collision,  or,  seeing  collision 
is  inevitable,  have  a  few  moments  in  which  to  mitigate  its  effect. 

An  officer  in  charge  of  a  vessel  in  danger  of  collision  or  about 
to  collide,  should  have  a  very  clear  idea  of  the  things  he  can  do 
with  his  vessel.  To  suddenly  back  a  single  screw  ship  in  an 
attempt  to  avoid  a  vessel  approaching  head  on  on  the  port  bow, 
for  instance,  would  swing  his  ship  across  the  other  fellow's  bow, 
exposing  his  broadside  to  the  stem  of  the  approaching  vessel. 
Clearly,  in  such  a  case  it  would  be  bad  policy  to  reverse  a  single 
screw  ship  with  a  right-handed  propeller.  The  thing  to  do  would 
be  to  put  the  helm  hard  a  starboard,  and  stop  engines.  Of 
course  do  not  ram  a  vessel  that  may  go  clear. 

With  a  vessel  coming  on  the  starboard  bow,  the  backing  effect 
would  be  to  throw  the  bow  of  the  backing  vessel  toward  the  bow 
of  the  approaching  vessel,  at  the  same  time  stopping  her  way. 
This  would  make  the  blow  a  glancing  one  rather  than  a  direct 
smash  into  the  side. 

The  unwritten  rule  at  sea,  in  the  hard  old  days,  was  "  hit 
the  other  fellow  first."  But  this  only  referred  to  a  condition 
where  collision  is  inevitable.  Also  it  sounds  worse  than  it  is,  for 
very  seldom  is  there  any  choice  when  vessels  get  so  close  that 
they  must  collide.  But  it  is  a  good  rule  for  both  vessels  to  pre- 
sent their  bows  to  each  other,  or  to  swing  in  that  direction,  mak- 
ing the  blow  a  glancing  one. 

Having  collided  with  another  vessel,  your  bow  into  his  side, 
do  not  back  out,*    If  a  heavy  sea  is  running  the  question  of 

*  "  With  a  double  lookout  peering  into  the  fog  ahead,  the  Monroe  was 
creeping  under  half  speed  northward,  and  the  Nantucket ^  heavily  laden  with 
freight,  was  nosing  her  way  toward  Norfolk. 


steaming  into  the  gap  made  by  the  stem  may  be  governed  by 
the  tearing  and  rending  of  one  ship  against  another  and  backing 
out  may  be  necessary.  But  where  the  striking  vessel  can  do  so 
without  further  damage  to  the  vessel  struck,  she  should  plug 
the  hole  until  satisfied  that  both  vessels  have  their  bulkhead 
doors  closed  and  pumps  working.  Where  a  large  hole  is  cut  into 
the  side  of  a  vessel,  opening  two  holds,  it  is  well  if  possible  to 
transfer  passengers  over  the  bow  of  the  striking  vessel.  The 
vessel  struck  should  stop  her  engines  at  once.  This  is  a  safe 
rule  to  follow. 

In  such  a  case  bow  of  one  vessel  into  side  of  another,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  get  out  heavy  stern  lines  from  the  striking  vessel 
to  the  vessel  struck  to  prevent  the  two  craft  from  slewing  broad- 
side to  in  the  sea  and  further  opening  up  the  gap.  The  quickest 
and  clearest  headed  seamanship  is  needed  under  such  conditions. 
Boats  should  be  swimg  out  on  both  vessels,  passengers  mustered, 
life  belts  issued  ready  for  anything  that  may  arise.  Insist  upon 
quiet,  maintain  order  and  discipline. 

Many  lives  have  been  lost  and  much  property  has  been  sunk 
through  lack  of  cool  tmderstanding  in  such  emergencies. 

A  shipmaster  who  meets  with  a  collision  (as  every  one  may) 
and  who  acts  quickly  and  with  cool  judgment,  saving  lives  and 
property,  may  turn  a  disaster  into  a  personal  triumph. 

In  the  event  of  a  collision  both  vessels  must  stand  by.  See 
page  604. 

The  full  report  of  a  collision  must  also  be  entered  in  the  official 
log  book.  Always  note  all  changes  of  course,  speed  and  weather 
with  exact  time, 

"  The  two  vessels,  moving  slowly  through  the  dense  fog,  were  gradually 
drawn  toward  each  other. 

"  Without  warning,  the  crash  came — ^in  the  gray  black  mist  that  shut  evien 
the  waves  from  view,  the  feeble  gleam  of  the  NantuckeVs  searchlight  scarcely 
touched  the  dripping  side  of  the  Monroe  before  the  knife-Uke  bow  of  the 
south  botmd  vessel  cut  into  the  other's  side  with  a  crashing  and  ripping  of 
steel  plates  that  threw  the  stricken  ship  aback,  and  the  Nantucket^  with  her 
bow  crushed  in,  BACKED  out  of  sight  into  the  fog. 

"  The  order  was  shouted  for  lifeboats,  but  so  soon  did  the  Monroe  roll 
over  on  her  side  and  plimge  beneath  the  waves  that  many  who  were  fortunate 
enough  to  reach  the  deck  safely  were  left  afloat  to  be  picked  up  by  boats 
sent  out  from  the  Nantucket.  Others,  unable  to  leave  their  staterooms  were 
caught  like  rats  in  a  trap  with  no  chance  whatever  to  save  themselves." 

— Master,  Mate  and  Pilot, 


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I 


The  Italian  Lloyd  S.  S.  Florida  in  the  Morse  Dry  Dock,  N.  Y.,  after 
ramming  and  sinking  the  S.  S.  Republic  in  January,  1909.  Jack  Binns, 
wireless  operator  of  the  latter  vessel  became  famous  when  he  sent  out  his 
C.Q.D.  after  the  collision.  The  photograph  shows  the  tremendous  impact 
of  such  a  collision. 


As  collision  cases  gener- 
ally end  up  in  the  admiralty , 
courts,  the  Master  who 
violates  any  part  of  the 
law  must  be  prepared  to 
have  his  violation  set  up 
against  him  as  a  presump- 
tion of  fault.  The  reader 
will  do  well  to  consult 
Hughes,  On  Admiralty,  in 
connection  with  this  impor- 
tant question  of  the  legal 
aftermath  of  collision. 

Concrete  vessels  seem 
to  be  a  dangerous  proposi- 
tion when  we  think  of  the 
possibility  of  collision.  Like 
crockery  pots — they  either 
don't  break,  or  they  sink.* 

Straight  Stem  versus  In- 
clined or  Clipper  Stem 

The  undoubted  danger 
of  fitting  all  vessels  with  a 
sharp  straight  stem  that, 
in  the  event  of  collision, 
cuts     directly     down    to 

*  Newport,  Oct.  29,  1920.— 
The  concrete  steamer  Cape  Fear 
was  sunk  in  the  deepest  part  of 
Narragansett  Bay  tonight  in  a 
collision  with  the  Savannah  Line 
steamer  City  of  Atlanta.  At  a 
late  hour  nineteen  of  the  crew 
of  thirty-four  of  the  sunken  ves- 
sel were  unaccounted  for. 

The  Cape  Fear  sank  in  three 
minutes  about  half  way  between 
Castle  Hill  on  the  Newport 
shore  and  Rose  Island,  going  down  bow  first  in  125  fathoms. 


Cut  down  by  a  straight  stem. 


734 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


the  water's  edge,*  has  lately  received  some  attention.  The 
straight  stem,  aside  from  its  simple  construction,  has  nothing  to 
specially  recommend  it.  A  considerable  forward  rake  of  the 
stem  piece  would  improve  the  appearance  of  most  vessels.  The 
need  for  carrjring  upward  of  the  knife  edge  stem  is  also  far  from 
apparent.  By  widening  the  forecastle  head,  and  making  the 
bow,  well  above  the  water  line  and  inclining  forward,  rounded 
instead  of  sharp,  the  danger  due  to  collision  would  be  greatly 
minimized.  A  more  comfortable  vessel  would  be  the  result  and 
considerable  reserve  buoyancy  and  storage  and  working  space 
would  be  gained  in  the  forecastle.  Perhaps  naval  architects 
may  someday  do  this. 

Water-tight  doors\  are  generally  built  after  two  plans.  Either 
they  are  hinged  and  swing  to  against  gaskets  of  rubber  or  other 
material  and  are  set  close  by  means  of  dogs  and  screws,  or  they 

*  On  the  25th  of  April,  1908,  the  S.  S.  St.  Paul  and  H.  M.  cruiser  Gladiator 
were  both  making  their  way  in  the  waters  of  the  Solent.  The  wind  was 
blowing  in  squalls,  and  every  now  and  then  flurries  of  snow  shut  off  vision 
except  for  a  short  range  of  a  few  hundred  feet.  Finally,  the  driving  flakes 
blinded  the  men  on  the  bridges  of  the  nearing  liner  and  the  fighting  craft  and, 
before  either  vessel  could  be  swung  clear,  the  straight  stem  of  the  St.  Paul 
crashed  at  an  oblique  angle  into  the  starboard  broadside  of  the  warship, 
ripping  the  Gladiator* s  shell  plating  right  down  to  the  very  bottom  of  her 
moulded  structure.  As  a  result,  a  hole  50  feet  long,  extending  to  within  a 
few  inches  of  the  bilge,  was  opened  in  the  cruiser's  side  through  which  the 
sea  poured  in  a  flood  and  carried  the  craft  to  the  bottom  in  a  few  minutes. 

t  The  International  Convention  Rules  for  watertight  doors,  in  vessels 
canying  more  than  200  passengers,  make  it  necessary  to  have,  either  doors 
which  close  by  their  own  weight  or  by  power  pressure,  and  in  any  case  oper- 
ated from  the  bridge.  Actually  it  is  not  often  possible,  in  practice,  to  make 
all  the  watertight  doors  in  the  machinery  spaces  slide  vertically  so  that  they 
will  close  by  their  own  weight.  The  result  is  that  power-operated  doors  must 
be  fitted,  so  that  the  Convention  Rules  do,  in  effect,  require  a  power-operated, 
centrally-controlled  system  of  watertight  doors  in  passenger  steamers. 

In  a  passenger  vessel,  therefore,  the  choice  remains  between  solid  bulk- 
heads and  centrally-controlled,  power-operated  doors,  and  the  advantages 
of  doors  are  so  obvious  as  compared  with  the  inconvenient  system  of  unpierced 
bulkheads  that,  in  these  days  of  high  wages  and  short  working  hours,  it 
follows  that  the  moderate  expense  of  installing  an  efficient  power  system 
would  quickly  l>e  exceeded  by  the  wages  bill  where  soUd  bulkheads  were 
fitted.  It  appears  certain  that  all  liners  will  in  future  have  their  bulkheads 
pierced  for  watertight  doors,  and  that  such  doors  will  be  centrally  controlled 
and  operated  by  power. — "  Engineering." 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


735 


are  sliding  doors  and  are  held  in  contact  by  wedge-shaped  cams 
and  are  also  close  fitted  or  made  watertight  by  gaskets. 

The  method  of  control,  either  by  hand  or  motor  should  be 
understood  by  all,  and  on  large  passenger  liners  and  transports  a 
complete  system  of  signals,  showing  the  state  of  the  watertight 
doors  should  be  led  to  the  bridge  and  engine  room. 

Doors  operated  by  power  are  all  of  the  sliding  tjrpe  and  are 
vertical  or  horizontal  sliding  doors.  Operating  doors  from  the 
bridge  should  carry  with  it  an  adequate  alarm  before  closing  or 
else  very  unhappy  results  might  ensue  to  some  imfortunate 
trjring  to  get  through  just  as  the  door  closes. 

Where  watertight  doors  are  fitted  frequent  drills  should  be 
held  and  the  doors  should  all  be  operated  before  starting  on  a 
voyage.  All  doors  shotild  be  kept  closed  unless  their  being  open 
is  essential.  At  all  times  the  Master,  Chief  Mate,  and  Officer  of 
the  Watch  should  be  informed  as  to  just  what  doors  are  open. 
When  running  in  a  fog  have  all  doors  closed,  or  at  least  have  some- 
one ready  to  close  doors  that  are  open  should  a  collision  occur. 

Men  of  war  carry  large  collision  mats,  heavy  canvas  thrum 
mats  fitted  with  hogging  lines  from  the  lower  corner^  to  lead 
under  the  keel,  and  distance  lines  from  the  upper  corners  to 
stretch  the  mat  fore  and  aft. 

Such  mats  should  be  very  heavy,  of  two  or  three  thicknesses 
of  canvas  and  with  the  thrum  surface  next  the  ship's  side. 

Spare  tarpaulins  or  sails  may  be  used  if  a  hole  is  to  be  stopped 
on  a  merchantman.  Use  great  care  to  have  the  mats  and  the 
lines  properly  secured  before  passing  it  over  the  side.  A  bight 
of  stream  chain  lashed  at  the  lower  edge  of  the  mat  has  been 
found  of  great  use  in  placing  a  collision  mat.  A  patent  collision 
mat  has  recently  been  devised.  This  consists  of  a  number  of 
steel  pipes  set  close  together  and  parallel  to  each  other  and  all 
securely  stopped  to  a  heavy  mat.  The  device  is  secured  over 
the  hole,  pipes  parallel  to  the  water  and  unrolled  downward 
against  the  inrush  of  water.  This  seems  to  be  a  very  practical 
thing.    The  inventor  is  Mr.  John  L.  Hyland  of  New  York. 

Ice  and  Derelicts 

Collision  with  these  dangers  to  navigation  is  always  a  possi- 
bility and  should  be  uppermost  in  mind.    Collision  with  derelicts 

26 


i!!^ 


U>. 


736 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


737 


I' 

I       i 


is  end  on,  and  usually  at  top  speed,  and  of  course  is  liable  to  have 
serious  consequences,  such  as  fire,  damage  to  engines,  and  a  gen- 
eral shaking  up  and  breaking  up  of  all  concerned,  depending 
upon  the  solidity  and  mass  of  the  derelict. 

In  colliding  with  ice  still  greater  dangers  are  to  be  expected 
as  a  vessel  may  rip  open  a  considerable  length  of  her  side.  This 
happened  on  the  Titanic. 

The  notes  below  are  taken  from  H.  O.  Reprint  No.  2.    They 

sum  up  the 

Signs  of  the  Proximity  of  Ice 

Ice  Blink,  Before  field  ice  is  seen  from  deck  the  ice  blink 
will  often  indicate  its  presence.  On  a  clear  day  over  an  ice 
field  on  the  horizon  the  sky  will  be  much  paler  or  lighter  in  color 
and  is  easily  distinguished  from  that  overhead,  so  that  a  sharp 
lookout  should  be  kept  and  changes  in  the  color  of  the  sky  noted. 

On  clear  nights,  especially  when  the  moon  is  up,  the  sky  along 
the  horizon  in  the  direction  of  the  ice  is  markedly  lighter  than 
the  rest  of  the  horizon.  This  effect  can  be  noted  before  the 
ice  is  sighted. 

Visibility  in  Daylight,  On  a  clear  day  icebergs  can  be  seen 
at  a  long  distance,  owing  to  their  brightness;  during  foggy 
weather  they  are  first  seen  through  the  fog  as  a  black  object. 
In  thick  fog  the  first  sight  of  a  berg  is  apt  to  be  a  narrow  streak 
of  dark  at  the  water  line. 

Echoes,  They  can  sometimes  be  detected  by  the  echo  from 
the  steam  whistle  or  the  fog  horn.  In  that  case,  by  noting  the 
time  between  the  blast  of  a  whistle  and  the  reflected  sound,  the 
distance  of  the  berg  in  feet  may  be  approximately  found  by  multi- 
plying by  550.  The  absence  of  echo  is  by  no  means  proof  that 
no  bergs  are  near,  for  unless  there  is  a  fairly  vertical  wall,  no 
return  of  the  sound  waves  can  be  expected. 

Noise,  The  presence  of  icebergs  is  often  made  known  by  the 
noise  of  their  breaking  up  and  falling  to  pieces.  The  cracking 
of  the  ice  or  the  falling  of  pieces  into  the  sea  makes  a  noise  like 
breakers  or  a  distant  discharge  of  guns,  which  may  often  be 
heard  a  short  distance. 

Absence  of  Swell,  The  absence  of  swell  or  wave  motion  in  a 
fresh  breeze  is  a  sign  that  there  is  land  or  ice  on  the  weather 
side. 

Animal  Life.  The  appearance  of  herds  of  seal  or  flocks  of 
murre  far  from  land  is  an  indication  of  the  proximity  of  ice. 

Temperature  Air.  The  special  temperature  studies  made 
during  the  ice  patrol  of  1914  showed  that  no  definite  tempera- 
ture effects  of  the  air  can  be  attributed  to  the  presence  of  ice- 
bergs.   Also  that  if  there  are  temperature  effects  of  sea  water 


due  to  icebergs  they  are  not  distinguishable  from  the  irregular 
variations  observed. 

Temperature  Water.  In  the  ice  zone  ice  is  more  likely  to  be 
found  in  cold  water  than  in  warm.  So  when  encountering  water 
below  40°  in  spring  and  below  50°  in  early  summer,  it  is  well  to 
be  on  guard  for  ice.  In  foggy  weather  it  is  advisable  to  keep  in 
water  above  50°  while  crossing  the  ice  zone,  thereby  avoiding 
both  ice  and  fog. 

Calf  Ice.  A  reUable  sign  of  icebergs  being  near  is  the  presence 
of  calf  ice.  When  such  pieces  occur  in  a  curved  line,  as  they 
may  do,  especially  in  calm  weather,  the  parent  berg  is  on  the 
concave  side  of  the  curve. 

No  ship  captain  can  afford  to  trust  any  of  the  above-named 
signs  to  the  exclusion  of  a  good  lookout. 

A  remarkable  optical  phenomenon  was  observed  one  day  by 
the  ice  patrol  of  1914  when  an  iceberg  which  was  ordinarily 
below  the  horizon  was  seen  raised  above  it,  at  one  time  inverted 
and  at  another  time  erect.  This  phenomenon  was  observed 
near  the  Gulf  Stream. 

Bilging 

Bilging  is  the  rupturing  of  the  shell  of  a  vessel  at  any  point 
below  the  water  line  and  at  once  effects  her  stability  and  her 
buoyancy.  This  may  be  due  to  collision,  or  to  some  internal 
cause  such  as  an  explosion,  of  boilers  or  cargo.  It  also  results 
from  grounding  on  rocks,  or  other  vessels  sunken  in  a  fairway. 
In  war  time,  and  for  a  considerable  time  afterward,  bilging  may 
be  caused  by  contact  with  mines. 

In  the  event  of  bilging  the  closing  of  watertight  doors  is  in 
order.    The  following  should  be  done  at  once : 

Start  pumps.     Sound  wells. 

Watch  heel  and  trim.  If  a  hole  is  not  too  far  below  the  water- 
line  a  vessel  may  be  heeled  over  to  bring  the  hole  above  or 
nearer  the  surface.  The  higher  up  the  less  water  will  flow 
through  in  a  given  time.  This  maneuver  depends  somewhat 
upon  the  state  of  the  sea.* 

Watch  draft  gauges  if  fitted  to  keep  tabs  on  the  action  of  pumps. 

When  possible  examine  all  bulkheads  next  to  flooded  com- 
partments and  if  possible  strengthen  them  by  shores,  should  it 

seem  necessary. 

*  If  state  of  sea  permits,  lower  boats  on  side  of  hole  and  unhook.  Lower 
boats  on  other  side,  fill  with  water  and  hoist  clear.  Otherwise  fill  these 
boats  with  a  hose.  Only  do  this  if  there  is  no  immediate  need  of  the  boats. 
Also  trim  with  tanks. 


1 


738 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


739 


When  a  cargo  hold  is  bilged  the  permeability  of  the  cargo 
should  be  taken  into  account.  K  the  vessel  is  stowed  with  light 
freight  of  non-permeable  character,  it  will  add  to  her  buoyancy 
by  displacing  water.   Also  consider ^ooc/a6/e  length.   See  page  26. 

On  the  other  hand  if  she  is  close  stowed,  with  grain,  let  us 
say  rice,  the  swelling  of  the  cargo  becomes  of  the  utmost  moment 
in  considering  her  safety. 

Hatch  covers  on  vessels  of  standard  design  are  built  on  the 
principle  of  the  alligator's  jaw,  which  is  powerful  to  crush  any- 
thing but  just  strong  enough  to  open  up.  The  hatch  is  powerful 
against  water  pressure  on  top  but  practically  useless  against 
pressure  from  underneath. 

Hatches  have  been  designed  to  work  both  ways,  and  all 
hatches  on  a  bulkhead  deck  should  be  of  such  construction  that 
they  become  an  integral  part  of  the  deck,  and  both  deck  and 
hatches  should  be  so  designed  that  in  the  event  of  bilging  the 
deck  will  not  lift  and  the  hatches  cannot  fly  ofif  when  the  water 
rises  in  a  hold  and  the  air  pressure  under  deck  becomes  equal 
to  the  water  pressure  under  the  bottom. 

Such  construction  would  reduce  the  danger  from  bilging  to 
a  very  great  extent.  Hatches  could  be  made  of  steel  fitting  into 
gaskets  and  these  could  be  screwed  down  from  below.  A  small 
hatch  cap  would  admit  the  men  for  securing  the  hatch,  and 
would  also  admit  of  a  complete  filling  of  the  hatch  square,  if 
need  be,  and  this  hatch  cap,  in  turn,  could  be  screwed  down 
like  a  man  hole.  The  whole  thing  could  be  lifted  by  the  cargo 
booms  in  one  hoist  and  deposited,  end  up  at  the  side  of  the  hatch 
away  from  the  winches.  Such  hatches  might  be  hinged  and 
fold  back  against  the  hatch  openings  and  be  worked  by  special 
gears  from  the  winches.  All  of  this  of  course  is  nothing  new — 
however  it  is  not  being  done  at  present. 

Marine  underwriters  should  have  some  interest  in  seeing 
hatches  on  the  bulkhead  deck  properly  constructed  from  the 
standpoint  of  safety,  both  against  bilging  and  fire.  The  present 
wooden  deck  hatch  covers  are  unsafe. 

XV 
Stranding 

Practically  every  seaman,  at  some  time  or  another,  puts  his 
vessel  aground,  or  at  least  is  on  board  of  some  such  unfortunate 


craft.  The  writer  recalls  quite  a  few  stirring  incidents  of  this 
kind.  It  was  great  fun,  in  a  way,  especially  to  watch  the  Skipper. 
Later  on  the  fxm  was  not  so  apparent  when  his  own  ship  touched 
on  the  bar  off  the  foot  of  Duval  Street,  at  Key  West. 

The  procedure  when  stranding  is  simple.  Know  the  state 
of  the  tide— if  falling  act  without  hesitation  and  at  once.  Start 
to  pump  out  tanks,  sound  along  sides  and  get  the  location  of 
the  point  of  contact  with  bottom,  sound  the  wells,  and  if  con- 
ditions permit,  prepare  to  put  all  boats  overboard  without  delay, 
lightening  the  vessel  of  many  tons  of  weight,  if  she  is  a  big  ship 
with  large  boat  equipment.    Place  handy  weights  in  boats. 

Sometimes  a  vessel  may  back  off  at  once.  At  other  times, 
if  grounded  amidship  on  a  reef,  fill  tanks  forward,  pimip  out  aft, 
and  go  ahead  full  speed. 

The  most  serious  condition,  of  course,  is  taking  the  beach  at 

high  tide,  and  in  an  exposed  position  with  regard  to  the  wind 

and  sea. 
If  the  vessel  is  fast  lay  out  anchors  at  once  to  prevent  her  going 

further  on  the  beech.    If  tugs  are  standing  by  use  tugs  to  carry 

out  the  bower  anchors  with  best  wire  hawsers  bent. 

If  grounded  in  sand  care  must  be  taken  not  to  fill  the  condenser 
with  sand  by  continuing  the  use  of  the  engines.  The  writer 
recalls  the  grounding  of  the  old  American  Liner  St.  Louis y  in 
the  Solent,  near  Hurst  Castle.  This  fortunately  happened  near 
low  water  but  on  a  falling  tide.  The  backing  of  the  engines 
began  to  pile  the  sand  up  under  the  bottom,  so  this  was  stopped. 
Later  on  as  the  tide  rose  she  slid  off  under  her  own  power  al- 
though the  bow  was  lifted  ten  feet  above  her  normal  water  line. 
The  trouble  came  through  a  yacht  luflfing  across  the  bow,  the 
helm  was  jambed  hard  a  port  to  avoid  the  yacht  and  the  steering 
gear  stuck  with  the  helm  hard  over.  She  piled  high  and  dry 
with  the  engines  kicking  full  speed  astern. 

Captain  C.  A.  McAllister,  U.S.C.G.  (retired),  Vice-President 
of  the  American  Bureau  of  Shipping,  well  known  as  an  authority 
on  marine  engineering,  has  given  the  author  the  following  data 
on  working  the  condenser  when  aground  in  sandy  bottom. 

Sand  in  Condenser 

This  is  generally  impossible  if  the  main  injection  valve  is 
placed  on  the  hull  at  or  above  the  turn  of  the  bilge.    Many  ships 


r 


t. 


740 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


are  provided  with  two  main  injection  valves  at  bottom  and  side 
of  the  ship.  On  such  a  ship,  if  she  take  the  ground,  all  that  is 
necessary  is  to  close  the  bottom  injection  and  open  the  side. 
On  ships  not  provided  with  double  injections  there  is  frequently 
a  connection  made  from  one  of  the  auxiliary  pumps,  such  as  the 
ballast  pump  or  auxiliary  feed  pump  to  the  water  end  of  the 
condenser.  This  can  be  used  temporarily  for  injection  purposes. 
Some  ships  are  provided  with  hose  connections  on  water  ends 
of  condenser  whereby  circulating  water  may  temporarily  be 
provided  through  the  fire  hose.  If  the  outboard  delivery  happens 
to  be  below  the  waterline,  water  may  be  allowed  to  flow  by 
gravity  through  the  condenser  into  the  bilges  temporarily  and 
pumped  overboard  from  the  bilges.  Should  none  of  these  means 
be  available  a  temporary  exhaust  pipe  could  be  used,  made  of 
canvas  or  sheet  metal,  discharging  into  condenser  through  the 
engine  room  trunk. 

Innumerable  cases  of  stranding  are  on  record.  The  American 
Liner  St,  Paul  spent  eleven  days  on  the  sands  off  the  Jersey 
Coast  in  midwinter,  1896,  piling  up  early  in  the  morning  of 
January  25  in  a  fog  and  sliding  ofif  on  February  4.  While  the 
many  attempts  were  being  made  to  haul  the  vessel  off  into  deep 
water  a  telephone  line  was  connected  to  the  stranded  ship, 
being  the  first  instance  of  this  use  of  the  telephone. 

Another  famous  case  of  stranding  in  recent  years  was  that  of 
the  North  German  Lloyd  Liner  Prinzess  Irene  on  Lone  Hill  Bar, 
Fire  Island.  Three  days  after  grotmding  on  April  7,  1911,  she 
was  hauled  off  with  little  damage.  The  discussion  in  the  press 
resulted  in  the  following  important  letters  advocating  and 
explaining  a  method  of  freeing  ships  from  the  sand  that  has  the 
weight  of  engineering  use  behind  it.  It  should  be  known  to 
seamen  more  generally.  Piles  are  sunk  into  hard  sand  and 
lifted  clear  again  by  the  use  of  a  water  jet;  the  same  use  of 
water  to  clear  the  skin  of  a  ship  from  friction  and  to  float  her  is 
feasible  and  easy  of  application. 


i 


>•■ 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


Treatment  of  Ships  Ashore 


741 


Suggests  That  Water  Be  Forced 
Through  Pipes  Along  Their  Keels 

To  the  Editor  of  The  New   York 
Times: 

I  wish  to  make  public  a  suggestion 
that  may  possibly  be  of  use  in  the  case 
of  stranding  of  vessels  as  in  the  recent 
case  of  the  Prinzess  Irene,  If  I 
understand  it,  when  a  steamer  runs 
ashore,  on  a  sandbar  or  beach,  the 
sand,  after  the  motion  of  the  vessel 
has  ceased,  takes  such  a  strong  hold 
on  the  surface  of  the  hull  that  it  is  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  pull  the  vessel  off. 
I  suppose  this  action  of  the  sand  to  be 
something  like  that  when  a  pile  is 
driven  in  a  river  bottom.  If  I  am  cor- 
rectly informed,  immediately  after  a 
pile  is  driven  it  can  readily  be  with- 
drawn, but  after  the  sand,  or  earthy 
material,  has  settled  about  it,  and 
displaced  the  water  on  its  skin,  and 
taken  hold  on  the  pile,  it  requires  a 
number  of  times  as  much  force  to 
withdraw  the  pile  as  was  used  to 
drive  it. 

My  suggestion  is  that  perforated 
pipes  be  nm  along  the  keel  of  a  vessel 
on  each  side,  and  connected  with  the 
ship's  pumps,  so  that,  in  case  of 
stranding,  water  cotdd  be  forced  out 
of  the  perforations,  and  this  water,  in 
passing  upward  along  the  hull,  be- 
tween the  sand  and  the  hull,  would,  I 
think,  be  found  to  disturb  the  sand 
and  to  materially  lessen  its  hold  on 
the  hull.  I  am  led  to  think  this  by  the 
fact  that_piles  are  driven  by  forcing 
water  through  them  to  the  lower  end 
and  then  allowing  it  to  escape,  the 
action  of  the  water  disttirbing  the 
sand  so  that  the  piles  can  sink. 

Edwin  J.  Prindle. 
New  York,  April  16,  1911. 

This  brought  forth  the  in- 
teresting letter  by  Mr.  Picard, 
printed  in  next  column,  telling 
of  a  very  successful  use  of  the 
water  jet  to  free  ships  held  by 
sand. 


Cites  Case  in  Which  Ship*slPumps 
Were  Rigged  to  Disperse  the  Sand 

To  the  Editor  of  The  New   York 
Times: 

It  may  interest  your  readers  to 
know,  in  connection  with  the  sug- 
gestion offered  by  Mr.  Edwin  J. 
Prindle  in  your  colimms  some  days 
ago  to  float  stranded  ships  on  a  sandy 
coast  by  "  forcing  water  through  per- 
forated pipes  running  along  the  keel 
of  a  vessel  on  each  side,"  that  it 
would  be  practically  impossible  to 
accomplish,  for  any  one  who  knows 
the  circumstances  of  the  sea  and 
shipbuilding;  however,  the  idea  has 
already  been  put  in  practice  with  suc- 
cess, but  in  a  different  way.  Twenty 
years  ago  an  English  squadron  cast 
anchor  outside  of  Port  Said,  previous 
to  entering  the  Suez  Canal,  and 
throu^  some  inexplicable  error  one 
of  the  men  of  war  was  nm  full  speed 
high  and  dry  on  one  of  the  sand  shoals 
of  the  roadstead.  The  efforts  of  all 
the  tugs  sent  to  her  assistance  and 
some  of  her  sister  ships  put  together 
could  not  budge  her. 

I  do  not  remember  how  long  she 
remained  stranded  until  the  engin- 
eers conceived  the  plan  to  use  the 
ships'  and  other  pumps  in  connection 
with  a  battery  of  pipes  lowered  verti- 
cally on  either  quarter,  right  tmder 
her  stem  post,  and  the  operation  to 
float  her  was  started. 

The  water  pimiped  through  the 
beds  of  sand  soon  began  to  tell,  for, 
in  conjunction  with  the  hauling  of 
other  craft,  her  own  efforts  on  her 
kedge  anchors  she  moved  inch  by 
inch  easily,  the  pipes  being  displaced 
alongside  the  board  as  she  was  free- 
ing herself  into  deep  water,  tmtil  she 
finally  floated  tmhurt. 

The  deed  was  highly  praised  at  the 
time  and  recorded  in  all  the  nautical 
papers  of  the  world;  it  was  the  first 
time  the  scheme  had  been  put  in 
practice. 

G.  S.  Picard. 
New  York,  April  26,  1911. 


742 


Breoikere 


11 


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r  --^ 


o 
.  1^ 


I 


-V 


o 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 

The  Case  of  the  S.  S.  Arakan 

On  August  29,  1920,  the  Dutch 
steamer  Arakan  fetched  up  on  the 
California  beach  six  miles  north  of 
Point  Reyes.  This  happened  at  four 
bells  in  the  mid  watch.  As  this  was  a 
very  successful  salvage  operation  the 
story  of  its  details  is  taken  from  an 
excellent  accotmt  in  the  Pacific  Ma- 
rine Review  of  October,  1920. 

"  When  tugs  and  salvage  vessels  arrived 
at  the  scene  they  found  the  Arakan  nearly 
broadside  on  to  the  beach  and  hawsers  were 
passed  aboard  from  both  tugs.  The  tugs 
pulled  all  night  and  by  morning  the  Arakan 
had  been  fairly  well  straightened  out.  As 
the  vessel  was  steaming  ahead  at  a  seven- 
knot  clip  when  she  struck,  she  was  well  up  on 
the  beach,  straddling  a  hump  of  sand,  with 
the  surf  breaking  against  the  starboard  side. 
The  accident  happened  during  high  tide,  and 
when  the  water  fell  there  was  but  sixteen  feet 
of  water  amidships,  the  stem  was  barely  afloat, 
and  the  stern  was  buried  in  four  feet  of  sand. 
As  time  passed,  the  big  ship  snuggled  down 
in  a  bed  of  sand  amidships  estimated  at  about 
eight  feet.  The  strain  was  terrific  on  the  hull 
and  the  plates  in  the  bottom  buckled  badly 
and  the  boilers  and  engines  became  useless. 

"  The  prompt  work  of  the  tugs  kept  the  ship 
from  pounding  to  pieces  and  permitted  the 
operations  to  be  conducted  successfully  after- 
wards. Captain  Cecil  M.  Brown*  appeared 
at  the  wreck  on  Monday  afternoon  at  4:30 
o'clock  aboard  the  tug  Chief,  He  hoped  to  get 
aboard  the  Arakan^  but,  owing  to  the  rough 
surf,  dashing  against  the  steel  hull  and  break- 
ing clear  over  the  bridge,  the  plan  had  to  be 
abandoned.  In  the  meantime  the  Sea  Queen 
and  Sea  King  had  returned  to  San  Francisco 
and  the  tugs  Sea  Fox  and  Restless  had  taken 
the  lines  from  the  Arakan. 

*  Of  the  Board  of  Marine  Underwriters,  San  Fran- 
cisco. 


-* 

s* 


I 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


743 


"  Captain  Brown  released  the  Chief  that  night  and  waited 
for  the  arrival  of  the  Homer.*  She  encountered  a  heavy  fog  at 
the  harbor  entrance  and  had  to  feel  her  way  to  the  wreck,  by 
foUowing  the  breaker  line.  She  anchored  in  a  position  1000  feet 
from  the  Arakan  on  Tuesday  at  4  a.  m.  In  the  meantime  the 
steamer  had  started  to  broach  to  the  beach  again  and  there  was  a 
battle  of  the  tugs  for  many  hours  before  the  hull  Imed  out  straight 
from  the  beach. 


This  picture,  taken  from  an  aeroplane,  the  "  Arahan  "  gripped  by  the 
sand  of  Point  Reyes,  Cat.  She  is  the  only  vessel  ever  to  touch  on  Point 
Reyes  and  come  off  again. 

"  Immediately  after  the  arrival  of  the  Homer j  Captain  Brown 
came  aboard  and  consulted  with  Captain  Seike.  It  was  decided 
to  begin  laying  the  moorings,  including  the  big  anchors,  imme- 
diately. .  Simultaneously  it  was  agreed  that  it  would  be  best  to 
run  out  the  anchors  of  the  Arakan  and  Captain  Brown  and 
Captain  Langren  shifted  to  the  wreck.  Brown  put  the  engine 
room  crew  to  work  repairing  two  of  the  boilers  and  steam  con- 
nections in  order  to  have  the  necessary  steam  for  working  the 
ship's  winches.  This  was  done  in  a  few  hours  and  Langren  ran 
the  anchors.  The  port  hook  was  carried  back  astern  forty-five 
fathoms  by  the  Restless^  but  the  rough  sea  on  the  starboard  side 
made  necessary  the  use  of  the  pontoon  from  the  Homer.  Pre- 
viously this  pontoon  had  been  used  to  carry  to  the  wreck  the 
huge  blocks,  wire  and  other  gear  from  the  Homer, 

"  While  this  work  was  conducted  aboard  the  Arakan,  Captain 
Seike  proceeded  to  lay  his  big  anchors.    These  were  laid  in 

*  Salvage  steamer. 


744 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


745 


f   f 


•t 


li    ^ 


tandem,  each  being  marked  by  a  small  mooring.  Longshoremen 
brought  from  San  Francisco  came  aboard  the  Arakan  in  the 
afternoon  and  prepared  to  jettison  such  cargo  as  was  deemed 
necessary  by  Captain  Brown.  They  started  work  at  7  p.  m.  on 
Tuesday,  but  belayed  at  8  o^clock  because  it  was  deemed  best 
to  refrain  from  lightening  ship  until  all  the  purchases  could  be 
secured  and  a  simultaneous  pull  exercised. 
"  Captain  Seike  completed  laying  the  moorings  on  Tuesday 
•  just  before  midnight  and  all  was  in  readiness  to  run  the  big  five- 
inch  wire  from  the  main  mooring  to  the  Arakan.  The  tugboat- 
men  refused  to  undertake  this  work  until  the  morning  because 
there  was  considerable  danger  that  the  hawsers  might  become 
fouled.  Captain  Langren  ran  the  wire  at  4  a.  m.  and  Theodore 
Wicks,  who  was  aboard  the  Arakan  and  in  charge  of  the  Homer 
share  of  the  job,  promptly  made  the  end  fast  to  one  of  the  big 
blocks  and  started  to  take  in  the  slack.  At  7  a.  m.  this  slack 
had  been  taken  in  and  all  was  taut.  The  purchase  on  the  ship's 
anchors  had  also  been  taken  in  and  then  the  stevedores  started 
to  spill  copra  cake  into  the  sea. 

"Captain  Brown,  who  kept  in  close  touch  with  the  operations, 
decided  that  a  few  hundred  tons  of  cargo  over  the  side  would 
suflSce,  and  when  350  tons  of  cake  had  been  jettisoned  he  ordered 
all  hands  to  belay.  The  purchases  on  anchors  and  moorings 
had  been  fleeted  and  at  10:30  a.  m.  there  was  a  total  strain  esti- 
mated at  better  than  350  tons.  Captain  Brown  was  so  certain 
that  the  ship  would  float  at  noon — high  tide — that  he  flashed  a 
message  ashore  to  that  efifect. 

"  All  about  the  scene  was  expectancy.  The  tugs  Alert  and 
Intrepid  were  stationed  in  readiness  to  take  a  tow  when  the 
ship  slid  off.  No  move  was  made  until  11:30.  The  weather 
had  cleared,  until  but  little  fog  was  in  evidence.  The  tide  rose 
constantly  and  then  the  hull  began  to  grind  a  bit  and  rock  as 
the  huge  pressure  of  the  sea  became  manifest.  The  winchman 
took  in  just  the  slightest  bit  of  slack  that  was  now  noted  in  the 
big  five-inch  line.  Then  the  anchor  chains  were  tautened  a  bit 
more.  The  tide  was  due  to  rise  a  few  inches  more  at  11:45, 
when  all  of  the  lines  began  to  sag  a  bit.  The  winchmen  used  a 
bit  more  of  steam  and  then  all  realized  that  the  ship  was  actually 
shifting  from  her  sand  cradle  out  toward  the  deep  water.  The 
ship  moved  faster,  and  just  fourteen  minutes  before  the  noon 
hour  and  sixteen  minutes  after  the  full  power  of  the  purchases 
was  effected,  the  Arakan  was  floating  safely,  ready  to  tow  to  San 
Francisco." 

Here  it  will  be  noted  that  the  Arakan  was  pulled  off  by  her 

own  winches.    Water  jets  might  have  been  useful. 


The  Floating  of  the  S.  S.  Ecuador 

The  following  letter  by  Capt.  C.  F.  Depre  appeared  m  the 
Grace  Log  and  contains  several  excellent  points  of  seamanship. 

"  Speaking  of  shipwrecks,  puts  me  in  mind  of  one  very  serious 
stranding  of  the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Co.  in  1900. 

"  On  the  10th  of  July,  1900,  a  telegram  was  received  at  the 
head  office,  Valparaiso,  that  their  S.  S.  Ecuador  had  run  ashore 
at  6  a.  m.  on  the  day  previous  at  Morgilla  Beach,  some  fifteen 
miles  south  of  Lebu  and  ninety  miles  north  of  Corral. 


S.  S.  Ecuador  ashore  at  Morgilla  Beach.     This  picture  was  taken  by  Captain 

Depre  at  the  time  of  the  wreck. 

"  The  ship  struck  the  outside  breakers  just  before  dawn,  and, 
being  light,  as  she  only  had  300  tons  of  cargo  on  board,  was 
pushed  shorewards  bodily  by  the  heavy  seas.  By  midday 
the  crew  were  landed  by  rocket  apparatus,  which  had  been  set 
up  by  a  boat's  crew  from  the  ship  who  had  risked  the  landing. 
By  evening  all  hands  were  on  shore,  and  went  to  some  nearby 
farm  houses  for  the  night. 

"  Mr.  George  Sharpe,  the  West  Coast  manager  at  Valparaiso, 
and  Captain  Harris,  the  Marine  Superintendent,  made  a  hurried 
trip  south,  and,  after  looking  over  the  conditions,  decided  that  an 
effort  should  be  made  to  get  the  vessel  off,  as  the  hull  was  not 
damaged  and  engines  and  boilers  were  intact.  I  volunteered 
for  the  position  of  taking  full  charge  of  the  salvage  of  the  ship 
and  got  together  a  crew  for  the  work. 


i 


^ 


!ii    I 


Urn 


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I       4 


746 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


"  August  10th,  or  thirty  days  after  the  ship  stranded,  we  started 
from  Valparaiso  for  the  wreck.  The  party  consisted  of  Captain 
Depre,  20  A.  B.,  2  O.  S.,  2  firemen,  6  carpenters,  1  diver,  1  cook, 
1  steward*s  boy,  34  all  told.  We  arrived  on  board  the  wreck  at 
4  p.  m.,  16th  of  August,  and  at  once  set  to  work  to  clear  up  the 
wreckage,  and  sent  the  ship's  crew  to  Valparaiso,  where  the 
Court  of  Enquiry  was  held  at  the  British  Consulate,  and  verdict 
given  that  the  ship  was  set  in  during  the  night,  and  that  no  one 
was  to  blame  for  the  accident. 

"  The  plan  to  get  the  ship  off  was  as  follows :  The  company's 
tug  Assistance  was  to  bring  down  two  anchors  and  180  fathoms 
of  2-inch  cable  for  each  anchor.  The  anchors  to  be  laid  out 
seawards,  and  then  3-inch  wires  shackled  on  to  the  end  of  the 
cable  chain,  each  about  1800  yards  long,  and  to  be  hauled  in  by 
ropes  floated  to  the  ship  on  bsdsas  fitted  with  sails  and  six  empty 
barrels  lashed  to  the  sides  of  each,  to  give  it  more  floating  power. 
As  the  wind  was  nearly  always  from  the  south,  the  Assistance 
went  well  to  the  southward  when  sending  the  line.  When  we 
received  the  small  line  floated  in  by  the  balsa,  we  hove  in  until 
we  received  a  5-inch  Manila  hawser  which  brought  in  the  wire. 

How  Wire  Was  Floated 

"  The  wire  was  floated  in  on  empty  barrels  lashed  at  intervals 
of  about  forty  feet,  and  was  a  most  successful  way  of  floating 
in  the  wire  without  allowing  it  to  drag  on  the  bottom.  After  the 
two  wires  were  received  on  board  and  set  up  with  big  purchased 
tackles,  which  were  secured  to  the  foot  of  the  iron  main-mast, 
and  when  spring  tides  came  roimd,  we  pulled  on  the  tackles  for 
an  hour  before  and  after  high-water,  and  we  slowly  pulled  the 
ship's  head  arotmd  from  N.  N.  E.  to  West,  and  on  the  10th  of 
October  we  made  the  first  attempt  to  pull  her  out,  but  owing  to  a 
big  sea  running,  we  had  to  stack  away  the  wire  and  allow  her  to 
fall  in  on  the  beach  again.  Another  unsuccessful  attempt  was 
made  on  the  24th  of  October.  Our  third  and  successful  effort 
was  made  on  the  15th  of  November  at  night,  and  we  pulled  the 
ship  off  the  outside  breakers  about  midnight. 

"  At  daybreak  we  hove  up  to  our  north  anchor  and  proceeded 
under  steam  to  Lebu,  where  we  took  in  100  tons  of  bunker  coal 
and  400  tons  in  the  hold  as  ballast,  and  sailed  for  Valparaiso 
twenty-four  hours  later.  We  arrived  at  Valparaiso  on  the  17th 
of  November,  at  6  p.  m.,  and  moored  the  ship  awaiting  dry  dock. 
On  the  19th  of  November,  we  entered  the  dry  dock  and  found 
over  3000  rivets  loose  and  the  rudder  post  cracked,  which  had 
to  be  repaired. 

"  The  ship  was  just  three  weeks  in  dry  dock  making  repairs, 
and  on  the  10th  of  December  took  up  her  usual  sailing  to  Port 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


747 


Montt  and  way  ports.  Her  starting  out  was  most  opportune 
for  the  company,  as  they  were  just  starting  to  extend  the  line  to 
San  Francisco,  and  would  not  have  been  able  to  do  so  had  the 
Ecuador  not  been  floated  and  ready  to  take  her  run.  The  vessel 
was  118  days  on  the  beach,  and  it  was  indeed  wonderful  that  she 
suffered  such  small  damage. 

"  In  conclusion,  I  may  say  that  I  was  specially  promoted  to 
command  the  ship  I  was  successful  in  floating,  and  remained  in 
command  of  her  over  a  year,  when  I  was  promoted  to  a  larger 
ship." 

Here,  as  in  the  Arakan^  the  vessel  came  off  with  her  winches 
working  on  a  suitable  purchase  and  without  the  use  of  tugs. 

The  salving  of  the  Arakan,  lying  with  engine  disabled  and 
on  an  exposed  beach  taken  at  full  speed  during  high  tide  speaks 
well  for  the  seamanship  of  the  salvors.  It  also  shows  that  a 
vessel  need  never  be  given  up  so  long  as  she  holds  together. 

The  recent  case  of  the  refloating  and  refitting  of  the  British 
ship  Andrina  run  ashore  on  the  sandy  beach  at  Policarpe  on  the 
coast  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  in  the  spring  of  1899,  and  successfully 
floated  off  in  February,  1918,  by  man  power  alone,  is  fresh  in 
mind.  She  was  five  hundred  meters  farther  up  the  beach  when 
pulled  off  than  when  she  struck.  And  after  nineteen  years  of 
rest  on  the  beach,  $40,000  worth  of  cargo  was  salved  by  the 
seamen  who  took  her  off,  re-rigged  her  and  sailed  her  to  New 
York  to  be  refitted.  She  is  now  at  sea  under  the  Chilian  flag, 
named  the  Alejandrina. 

Vessels  tmder  certain  conditions  are  freed  from  the  grip  of 
the  sand  by  "  rocking  them  off.**  Anchors  are  laid  out  to  sea- 
ward and  the  making  up  of  the  sea  helps  the  pull  of  the  anchor 
cables,  or  any  other  means  available,  to  move  the  vessel  clear. 

From  the  cases  cited  it  will  be  seen  that  very  many  factors 
enter  into  the  freeing  of  a  vessel  that  has  groimded.  The  U.  S.  S. 
Vicksburgh  ran  on  a  sharp  rock.  She  was  floated  off  by  cement- 
ing the  rock  into  her  bottom  and  by  blasting  it  off  outside  of  the 
hull.  Hydraulic  cement  is  most  useful  under  many  conditions 
where  repairs  have  to  be  made  to  hulls.  This  is  generally  known 
as  Portland  Cement,  and  a  considerable  supply  should  be  part 
of  the  ship's  stores.    It  is  most  useful  in  many  ways. 

In  lightening  a  ship  by  throwing  cargo  overboard,  or  jettisoning 
cargo,  that  part  which  floats  is  called  Flotsam,  the  part  which 


i| 


748 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


sinks  is  called  Jetsam^  and  cargo  that  sinks  but  is  marked  by 
a  buoy  is  called  Ligan, 

In  grounding  it  is  well  to  use  any  means  at  hand  to  loosen  the 
grip  of  the  bottom  while  at  the  same  time  kicking  ahead,  or 
astern,  on  the  engines.  In  the  experience  mentioned  at  the 
beginning  of  this  section,  the  writer  put  the  Schoolship  Newport 
hard  and  fast  amidship  of  her  length  on  a  coral  reef  in  Key  West 
Harbor.  A  very  brisk  breeze  was  blowing  at  the  time  a  point 
or  so  on  the  port  bow.  Soundings  were  taken  at  once  locating 
the  reef,  all  boats  were  made  ready  to  lower,  the  fore  yards  were 
braced  up  sharp  by  starboard  braces,  the  fore  topsail  (single) 
was  loosed,  sheeted  home  and  hoisted  flat.  Then  ^t  a  given 
word,  boats  were  lowered,  fore  topsail  was  boxed  around  by 
port  braces,  and  the  engine  kicked  hard  astern  as  she  began  to 
heel  and  pivot.  The  vessel  slid  off  the  bottom  without  damage. 
Just  then  two  powerful  navy  tugs  steamed  alongside.  It  was  a 
rather  agreeable  thing  to  inform  the  youngster  in  command  of 
the  tugs  that  assistance  was  not  required,  "  thank  you !" 

Remember  these  things — 

If  your  vessel  runs  aground. 

Know  state  of  tide. 

Sotmd  all  around. 

Form  a  plan — be  careful. 

Have  all  forces  act  together. 

Lay  out  anchors  if  it  can  e  done — at  once. 

If  bow  on,  try  to  keep  stern  free. 

When  tide  and  wind  are  right,  trim  tanks,  drop  weights. 
Work  all  freeing  agencies  together. 

When  in  a  bad  fix  don't  hesitate  to  take  assistance  when  you 

need  it.    Make  no  bargains,  if  possible,  unless  you  are  certain 

to  make  a  good  one — then  get  it  in  writing.    The  shipmaster 

should  always  remember  that  his  business  on  the  sea  is  that  of  a 

merchant,  out  to  make  money  for  his  owners,  and  by  the  same 

token  he  is  looked  upon  as  fair  prey  for  anyone  who  can  get.the 

best  Of  him  in  a  matter  of  business.    As  soon  as  a  vessel  meets 

with  trouble  this  tmpleasant  but  important  side  of  seafaring 

comes  to  the  fore.* 

*  The  Handbook  for  Masters  by  W.  H.  LaBoyteaux  has  a  fine  chapter  on 
"  First  Aid  to  Stranded  Vessels." 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


XVI 


749 


Fire 

The  fire  drill  and  the  fire  mains  and  connections  have  been 
taken  up  in  previous  chapters.  Here  the  larger  questions  of 
ship  handling  when  fire  is  discovered  on  board  will  be  considered. 
A  fire  when  alongside,  where  shore  assistance  is  at  hand,  need 
not  be  specially  considered.  The  usual  methods  of  fire  fighting 
are  employed,  fire  boats,  fire  engines,  and  fire  hydrants  from  the 
shore,  supplement  the  equipment  of  the  vessel.  The  saving  of 
life  is  less  difficult,  though  very  severe  fire  losses  have  been 
suffered  alongside  of  wharves.  Many  will  remember  the  burn- 
ing of  the  German  liners  at  Hoboken  some  years  ago  and  the 
terrible  loss  of  life.  Ports  were  so  small  that  men  caught  below 
decks  could  not  get  through  to  safety  and  perished  miserably  in 
the  flames.  A  good  precaution,  already  mentioned,  is  to  run  a 
wire  fire  warp  along  any  dock  filled  with  inflammable  material. 
Should  fire  start  on  the  wharf,  and  the  engines  not  be  in  com- 
mission, or  tugs  not  be  handy,  the  vessel  has  a  chance  to  work 
clear  of  the  wharf.  All  fire  hose  couplings  on  ship  and  shore 
should  be  of  standard  size. 

The  general  fire  alarm  on  board  ship  is  a  rapid  ringing  of  the 
ship's  bell.  Other  fire  alarms  are  fitted  in  all  living  and  working 
compartments  and  are  of  the  same  character,  namely,  a  rapid 
ringing  of  an  alarm  gong. 

Fire  stations  (see  the  general  Station  Bill    Page  381.) 

Upon  the  discovery  of  fire,  soimd  the  alarm  and  order  all 
hands  to  fire  stations.  On  a  passenger  vessel  swing  out  boats 
(unless  weather  forbids).  Consider  the  fire  to  be  serious  unless 
certain  of  the  contrary.  Every  fire  may  soon  spread  and  with 
certain  cargoes  the  danger  is  extreme. 

Close  all  openings  to  hold  or  compartment  where  fire  is  located. 
Start  all  smothering  agencies.  Be  certain  that  men  have  left 
hold  or  compartment  before  turning  on  steam  or  carbon  dioxide 
gas.  Where  a  sprinkler  system  is  used  the  water  can  be  turned 
on  at  once,  if  it  is  not  automatic. 

Weather  and  sea  permitting,  place  the  vessel  directly  under 
the  wind.  Avoid  excessive  rolling,  or  wallowing  in  the  sea. 
Moderate  speed  may  be  preferable  to  this,  as  it  shakes  up  the 
fire  and  adds  to  its  intensity. 


't; 


I 


n- 


750 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


On  a  sailer  clew  up  the  courses  and  shorten  sail,  but  do  not 
allow  her  to  roll  moire  than  is  necessary. 

Smoke  helmets  and  masks  should  be  out,  as  part  of  the  fire 
drill  routine  and  used  before  sending  men  into  the  holds. 

Where  a  ^e  gains  headway  rapidly  and  is  located  in  a  lower 
hold  it  is  sometimes  possible  to  extinguish  it  by  opening  sea 
cocks  and  flooding  the  hold  through  the  bilge  suctions.  Knowing 
the  condition  of  stability  this  can  be  done  and  the  hold  pumped 
out  when  the  fire  is  extinguished.  The  kind  and  permeability 
of  the  cargo  in  the  hold  should  be  considered  when  attempting 
this.  A  master  would  be  justified,  imder  certain  favorable 
conditions  of  the  sea,  to  lower  his  freeboard  tmtil  practically 
awash — always  keeping  his  pumps  in  hand  and  watching  the 
weather. 

The  cargo  diagram,  the  nattire  of  cargo,  or  bunker  coal,  on 
fire,  and  the  kind  and  location  of  inflammable  materials  sur- 
rounding the  fire  are  all  to  be  considered. 

When  fire  starts  all  dangerous  cargo,  even  some  distance 
from  the  fire,  should  be  made  ready  to  throw  overboard.  Ad- 
jacent holds  should  be  filled  with  gas — as  this  will  usually  not 
harm  the  cargo — or  with  steam,  after  the  hold  on  fire  has  been 
filled. 

When  fire  starts  it  is  well  to  radio  facts  to  owners  and  if  it 
cannot  be  controlled  make  for  nearest  safe  port,  stating  route 
and  speed. 

When  in  shallow  waters  and  with  fire  gaining  on  extinguishing 
efforts,  carefully  select  position  for  scuttling  ship  at  last  recourse. 
Hard  clean  sand  bottom,  if  available.  Sheltered  location. 
Vessel  just  awash  at  high  tide,  out  of  fairway,  as  near  port  as 
possible.  These  are  the  most  desirable  points  to  have  in 
mind. 

Bring  ship  to,  take  soundings,  anchor  by  short  scope,  open  sea 
cocks,  turn  condenser  discharge  into  bilges,  open  injection  valves, 
draw  fires,  blow  off  steam,  get  boats  ready,  save  ship's  valuables, 
papers,  etc.  Lift  hatch  covers,  if  necessary  to  allow  escape  of 
air,  and  open  all  sluice  gates  to  equalize  the  water  level.  Get 
accurate  bearings  of  vessel  on  chart,  and  note  same — ^have  them 
checked  by  an  officer,  as  masts  and  upper  works  may  be  carried 
away  and  vessel  may  drop  from  sight  after  abandonment. 


HANDLINGJjA  ^STEAMER 


751 


Causes  of  Fire  on  Board  Ship 

Fire  may  start  in  so  many  ways  that  to  attempt  to  enumerate 
would  be  useless.  One  general  rule  can  be  set  down.  Fire 
always  starts  because  some  one  has  been  careless. 

It  may  be  the  fault  of  the  cargo,  its  improper  condition,  or 
because  it  contains  some  forbidden  dangerous  ingredient.  Poor 
or  careless  stowage,  oily  waste  hidden  near  some  inflammable 
stuff.  Defective  electrical  insulation.  Sparks  down  a  venti- 
lator.   Poor  ventilation,  as  in  the  case  of  a  coal  cargo. 

The  spontaneous  combustion  of  bituminous  coal  in  holds  or 
bunkers  may  happen  on  any  voyage.  It  is  careless  and  im- 
proper to  stow  other  inflammable  cargo  over  coal  or  near  it, 
unless  this  cannot  be  avoided.  (See  instructions  for  stowing 
coal  cargo,  page  310.) 

Lightning  may  strike  the  vessel  and  set  her  on  fire.  This  is 
an  act  of  God,  and  no  one  can  be  blamed. 

Prevention  of  Fire 

Take  the  utmost  precaution  in  stowage,  in  the  carrying  of  lights 
into  holds,  in  the  closing  of  ventilators  in  the  wake  of  sparks. 
Smoking  in  holds  should  be  forbidden  at  all  times.  Officers  must 
look  after  this  themselves.  There  is  very  little  fire,  pilfering,  or 
other  irregularity,  on  a  vessel  where  the  officer  personnel  is 
strictly  on  the  job  in  the  interest  of  the  ship. 

The  regulations  for  the  stowage  of  dangerous  cargo  should  be 
strictly  adhered  to  (see  page  272). 

Fire  Detectors 

A  number  of  very  satisfactory  systems  of  fire  detection  have 
been  devised.    The  systems  may  be  divided  as  follows : 

Thermostatic  alarms ^  carrsring  an  alarm  at  the  rise  in  tempera- 
ture. 

Smoke  pipe  linesy  carrying  smoke  into  a  detecting  cabinet. 

The  first  system  may  operate  in  a  number  of  ways.  The 
Mount  Thermostatic  Wire  System  carries  an  alarm  to  any 
point  or  points  desired,  the  cargo  and  other  compartments  being 
wired  and  connected  to  thermostats  that  complete  the  alarm 
circuits  at  any  desired  rise  in  temperature. 


1:1 


...  .f 


■    ill 


1 


752 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


The  Aero  Automatic  Fire  Alarm  consists  of  a  small  tube 
extending  around  the  mouldings  of  passageways  and  staterooms 
and  in  suitable  corners  of  the  holds  where  it  will  be  protected 
from  damage  by  cargo.  A  rise  in  temperature  expands  the  air 
in  the  tubes  leading  to  a  detection  cabinet.  A  diaphragm  is 
moved  by  the  expanded  air,  a  circuit  is  closed  and  a  bell  rings, 
etc. 

In  both  of  the  above  systems  the  hold  or  compartment  must 
also  be  piped  with  the  usual  smothering  lines  for  the  admission 
of  steam,  or  CO2  gas. 

In  the  second  system  a  series  of  air  pipes  lead  from  smoke 
collectors  in  the  holds  to  a  detection  cabinet  in  the  wheelhouse. 
These  pipes  are  constantly  being  exhausted  by  a  small  fan.  A 
wisp  of  smoke  is  easily  seen,  or  if  the  exhaust  is  in  a  closed 
wheelhouse  the  smell  of  smoke  is  noticeable. 

This  is  a  very  sensitive  system.  It  takes  about  five  minutes 
for  the  smoke  to  come  from  the  farthest  hold  to  the  bridge  on  a 
vessel  of  average  size. 

As  smoke  is  usually  formed  some  time  before  the  temperature 
rises  to  an  appreciable  extent,  this  system  has  much  to  recom- 
mend it. 

It  has  an  added  advantage  in  that  the  smoke  detecting  lines 
are  also  available  for  carrying  steam  or  CO2  gas  into  the  holds. 

This  is  the  Rich  System,  and  the  makers  claim  it  has  the 
further  advantage  of  enabling  the  state  of  a  hold  to  be  deter- 
mined by  stopping  the  steam,  or  gas,  and  tr3ring  for  smoke.  If 
the  fire  is  still  going  evidence  is  soon  forthcoming.  If  out  no 
smoke  will  appear  and  it  is  reasonably  safe  to  open  up  hatches  if 
necessary. 

Automatic  sprinklers  are  being  fitted  in  many  ships.  In  order 
to  avoid  freezing  in  cold  weather,  the  dry  pipe  system  is  used. 
This  is,  the  pipes  are  filled  with  air  under  pressure  and  when  this 
is  released  by  the  melting  of  the  releasing  links  of  the  sprinkler 
heads,  water  rushes  through  the  pipes  to  the  seat  of  the  fire. 

This  system  may  be  adopted  to  the  distribution  of  CO2  gas, 
either  liquid  or  under  pressure. 

The  Lux  System  carries  the  liquid  gas  to  the  discharging  head 
where  it  vaporizes.  The  distribution  of  the  pipes  is  shown  in  the 
sketch.    The  pipes  may  be  as  small  as  1/2''  in  diameter.    The 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


753 


liquid  gas  is  immediately  brought  to  the  nozzle  by  the  pressure 
of  the  containers.  Immediately  upon  its  release  it  vaporizes, 
causing  a  drop  in  the  temperature  of  the  room  in  which  it  is 
released. 

A  very  interesting  pamphlet  is  issued  by  the  Department  of 
Commerce  detailing  the  Proceedings  of  a  Conference  on  Auto- 
matic Sprinklers  on  Vessels  held  at  the  Department  in  May, 
1916.    This  can  be  had  by  addressing  the  Department. 


BaiferyofCOi 
Cylinders  \ 


I         7'  IT — -iLI 


No.  3 
i  Hold    i  I  ;     Hold 


--n 


Valve  Baffery-  * 
'/One  Vcilve  for 
each  delivery 
Pipe. 


I   Engine      . 


Delivery  Pipes'"'"''  ""         '  ""  ~ ^^^  Deli  very  Pipes ' 

Lux  Fire  extinguishing  system. 

The  Grinnell  Automatic  Sprinkler  is  designed  for  shipboard 
use  so  that  no  matter  what  happens  to  a  sprinkler  head  no  water 
will  be  discharged  on  the  cargo  unless  the  pipe  line  has  first  been 
filled  through  a  separate  thermostatic  control.  That  is,  in  the 
event  of  a  fire  a  thermostatic  control  fills  the  pipes,  and  then  the 
sprinkler  heads  work  in  the  usual  way,  those  near  the  fire  opening 
up  and  discharging  on  the  flames. 

Carbon  Dioxide 

Carbon  dioxide  is  not  dangerous  to  life  except  that  it  asphyxi- 
ates from  lack  of  air.  It  is  not  an  explosive  gas.  Its  presence 
can  be  determined  by  lowering  a  candle  into  the  area  where  it  is 
supposed  to  be.  If  the  candle  goes  out,  it  is  not  safe  for  a  person 
to  breathe  the  air.  Carbon  dioxide  is  perfectly  stable,  and  can 
be  kept  indefinitely  without  changing  its  properties.  A  man  can 
live  for  a  limited  time  in  an  atmosphere  containing  10  to  15  per 
cent.    It  does  not  require  100  per  cent  to  extinguish  a  fire. 


754 


[STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


755 


\ 


m 


At  30  to  40  per  cent  the  fire  will  go  out.  It  is  not  injurious  to 
merchandise.  One  of  the  20-pound  cylinders,  which  are  about 
4  feet  high  and  8  inches  in  diameter,  would  take  care  of  at  least 
320  cubic  feet  of  air,  and  probably  as  much  as  400  to  500  feet, 
and  a  50-pound  cylinder  would  take  care  of  not  less  than  800 
cubic  feet  of  air,  and  probably  1,000  to  1,200  cubic  feet. 

Floating  Oil 

In  many  ports  the  danger  from  floating  oil  is  often  serious, 
and  great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  discharge  oil  over  the  side. 
When  much  oil  is  noted  on  the  water  have  all  combustible 
material  kept  away  from  the  ship's  side.  Have  fire  hoses  handy. 
Look  out  for  awnings,  tarpaulins,  etc.  Recently  oil  was  pumped 
overboard  from  the  S.  S.  Lordship  Manor  lying  in  Stockholm,  a 
spark  set  it  on  fire  and  the  flames  spread  to  a  sailing  vessel 
called  the  Advance,  causing  thirty  thousand  dollars  worth  of 
damage  before  they  could  be  put  out. 

Warning 

At  present  many  vessels  carry  the  handy  tetrachloride  fire 
extinguishers.  Use  great  caution  in  discharging  these  while 
confined  in  a  small  state  room  or  compartment.  The  fumes  are 
about  as  powerful  in  extinguishing  the  life  of  man  as  they  are  in 
putting  out  a  fire.  Two  men  were  recently  killed  in  the  Ports- 
mouth Navy  Yard  when  they  attempted  to  put  out  a  fire  in  a 
submarine,  using  this  handy  extinguisher. 

Generally  a  fire  aboard  ship  originates  in  the  coal  bunkers 
and  may  keep  on  going  for  weeks  at  a  time.  The  writer  recalls 
such  a  fire  starting  a  few  days  out  of  St.  Lucia  and  continuing 
for  some  six  weeks  well  up  into  the  Pacific.  The  decks  during 
that  time  were  so  hot  that  planks  were  scorched. 

Fire  in  a  wooden  ship  may  also  be  a  long  dragged  out  affair. 
Often  crews  abandon  ships  on  the  strength  of  thick  smoke,  or  a 
harmless  explosion.  This  was  supposed  to  have  been  the  cause 
of  the  abandonment  of  the  brig  Marie  Celeste,  found  afloat  with 
her  hatches  off,  a  fowl  roasting  in  the  galley,  and  all  hands  gone, 
the  ship  sailing  along  in  fine  weather  with  no  one  on  board. 

The  following  experience  of  the  wooden  ship  Twin  Brothers 
shows  the  endurance  of  even  a  wooden  craft  when  a  coal  fire 
starts. 


The  Twin.  Brothers,  engaged  some  years  ago  is  the  wheat 
trade  between  San  Francisco  and  Liverpool.  The  vessel  was 
returning  from  the  latter  port  with  a  thousand  tons  of  coal  in  the 
hold  as  ballast.  Just  after  she  rotmded  Cape  Horn  it  was  dis- 
covered that  the  coal  was  on  fire. 

There  was  a  steam  pump  on  board,  and  after  closing  the  lower 
hatches  the  crew  flooded  the  hold  until  the  ship  had  settled 
about  four  feet  lower  in  the  water.  No  one  was  frightened  and 
every  one  was  confident  that  the  ship  would  be  safely  brought 
into  port  at  San  Francisco.  Call  was  made  at  Valparaiso,  but 
not  a  man  deserted  the  ship. 

The  vessel  was  seventy-two  days  in  reaching  San  Francisco 
from  the  Horn,  and  all  that  time  the  coal  burned,  and  little 
streams  of  smoke  could  be  seen  coming  through  the  cracks  in 
the  deck.  Arriving  at  San  Francisco  the  Twin  Brothers  sailed 
out  on  the  mud  flats  and  was  flooded  until  she  settled  almost 
even  with  her  upper  deck.    This  extinguished  the  fire. 

The  appearance  of  the  vessel  after  all  this  was  pretty  fair 
evidence  what  a  ship  may  survive  in  the  way  of  fire  damage. 
In  a  dozen  places  the  bottom  had  burned  through,  and  all  that 
was  between  the  crew  and  the  deep  sea  was  the  thin  sheet  of 
copper  bottom.  The  weight  of  the  coal  and  the  pressure  of  the 
water  kept  about  equal  strain  on  both  sides  of  the  copper  sheath- 
ing, and  it  had  not  broken  through,  although  it  was  little  thicker 
than  an  ordinary  tin  pan. 

Sulphur  Fires 

Statement  of  Capt,  Arthur  N,  McGray  before  Commerce  Dept. 

Conference  on  Fire  at  Sea,  Washington,  May  3, 1918. 

"A  number  of  fires  occurred  in  the  bulk  sulphur  cargoes  of  the 
steamers  Herman,  Frasch,  and  Frieda  during  my  command  of 
those  ships.  Theoretically,  the  best  means  of  extinguishing  a 
sulphur  fire  is  for  a  shovel  brigade  to  heap  on  more  sulphur  and 
smother  the  fire.  This  plan,  however,  works  poorly  in  practice, 
as  it  is  impossible  to  know  exactly  what  is  happening  underneath, 
and  the  confinement  of  the  gases,  which  generate  very  rapidly 
when  sulphur  begins  to  fuse,  presents  an  explosive  menace 
which  it  were  well  to  avoid.  I  have  used  steam  jets  from  the 
standard  fire-smothering  equipment  of  the  ship  on  several  occa- 
sions, but  to  little  or  no  purpose.  The  liberal  use  of  water  has 
been  the  only  adequate  answer  I  have  discovered  so  far,  but  on 
two  occasions  this  involved  entering  a  hold  filled  with  strong 


756 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


sulphurous  fumes  in  order  to  direct  the  hose  efifectively.  The 
risk  to  be  incurred  appeared  greater  than  I  felt  justified  in  order- 
ing officers  or  crew  to  accept,  so  the  only  road  open  was  to 
personally  handle  both  hose  and  nozzle.  I  was  impressed  at 
this  time  with  the  fact  that  it  was  not  my  ship  itself  which  was 
burning  or  which  was  in  imminent  danger,  but  that  it  was  the 
cargo  within  the  vessel." 

In  conclusion  it  may  be  said  that  the  best  fire  risks  at  sea  today 
are  the  Diesel  motor  ships,  burning  heavy  low  flash  oil,  in 
cylinders  where  the  flames  can  do  no  harm  and  where  high 
pressure  and  temperature  is  needed  to  set  off  the  charge.  Such 
vessels  are  far  safer  than  coal  burners. 

Smoke  helmets  are  carried  by  many  vessels.  Practice  in  the 
use  of  the  apparatus  is  very  desirable.  Such  helmets,  as  gas 
masks  are  often  very  useful  when  ammonia  or  other  fumes  get 
loose  about  the  holds  or  compartments.  This  sort  of  apparatus 
should  be  carefully  looked  after  by  the  chief  mate. 


xvn 

Ship^s  Business 

Salvage,  Salvage  is  to  the  merchant  seaman  what  prize 
money  is  to  the  naval  seaman  (unfortunately  for  the  American 
naval  seaman  it  is,  **  was  ").  Here  the  possibility  of  a  tidy  sum, 
even  a  fortime,  always  stands  before  him  off  somewhere  in  the 
mystery  and  adventure  that  lies  ahead.  To  quote  from  "Hughes 
On  Admiralty." 

"  The  right  of  salvage  depends  on  no  contract.  A  salvor  who 
rescues  valuable  ships  or  cargoes  from  the  grasp  of  wind  and 
wave,  the  embrace  of  rocky  ledges  or  the  devouring  flame,  need 
prove  no  bargain  with  its  owner  as  the  basis  of  recovering  a 
reward. 

"  He  is  paid  by  the  courts  from  motives  of  public  policy — 
paid  not  merely  for  the  value  of  his  time  and  labor  in  the  special 
case,  but  a  bounty  in  addition,  so  that  he  may  be  encouraged  to 
do  the  like  againJ* 

And  while  quoting  from  Hughes,  it  may  be  just  as  well  to 
strongly  recommend  this  standard  work  on  Admiralty  to  all 
seamen,  deck  and  engineers.    It  is  a  book  on  the  law  of  admir- 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


757 


alty  so  clearly  written  and  so  filled  with  useful  information  that 
no  seafarer  should  fail  to  own  it  and  study  it.  Hughes  goes  into 
the  law  and  adjusting  of  salvage  awards  which  need  not  trouble 
us  here.  We  merely  bring  up  the  question  of  salvage  to  further 
impress  upon  the  mind  of  the  seaman  the  valuable  side  of  sea- 
manship, of  ship  handling,  and  of  a  clear  knowledge  of  the  forces 
and  materials  of  his  ancient  profession. 

Salvage  operations  are  also  those  in  which  wrecked  property 
is  recovered.  The  Master,  at  least,  should  have  a  definite  idea 
of  how  vessels  are  salvaged.  Of  the  limits  to  which  a  diver  can 
work,  of  the  pumps,  cranes,  floats,  cofferdams,  and  the  like  that 
may  be  employed  to  float  and  recover  ships  and  cargoes. 

Data  for  the  Master 

In  Case  of  Disaster.  1.  Take  all  necessary  measures  for 
relief,  recovery  and  preservation  of  property. 

2.  Advise  owners  at  once  by  cable. 

3.  Cut  down  all  unnecessary  expense. 

Forced  Sale,  The  immedate  sale  of  wrecked  or  damaged 
property,  without  orders  from  owners,  is  only  legal  or  justifiable, 
if  destruction  is  impending  for  the  vessel  from  perils  beyond  the 
control  of  the  master  and  which  tend  to  increase  quickly  from 
lapse  of  time. 

If  a  vessel  is  on  the  rocks,  bilged,  full  of  water,  exposed  to  the 
waves  so  that  she  is  almost  certain  to  break  up  from  hour  to 
hour,  the  master  may  act  on  his  own  responsibility. 

If  the  cargo  is  in  danger  of  rotting,  or  when  a  refrigerator  plant 
breaks  down — then  a  prompt  sale  may  be  the  only  method  of 
saving  an3rthing. 

Expense  to  Save  Insured  Property,  It  is  a  grave  error  on 
the  part  of  a  master  to  neglect  to  save  property  known  to  be 
insured,  even  when  the  attempt  to  do  so  will  cost  some  money, 
under  the  mistaken  idea  that  such  expense  will  not  be  recover- 
able in  case  of  failure. 

The  master,  acting  as  agent  for  the  assured,  is  empowered  to 
do  all  he  can  for  the  preservation  of  the  property  in  his  charge, 
and  the  underwriters  are  bound  to  pay  their  portion  of  the  ex- 
pense whether  the  property  be  saved  or  not. 

Repairs  in  Port,    As  soon  as  a  vessel  has  been  relieved  of 


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immediate  danger,  she  must  be  repaired  as  speedily  and  as 
economically  as  possible. 

When  repairs  may  not  be  made :  *  ' 

K  absolutely  beyond  repair. 

If  the  estimated  cost  of  the  repairs,  at  the  place,  and  under  the 
circumstances,  would  in  gross  exceed  her  value  after  repairs. 

Repairs  at  Sea,  Loss  or  injury  of  spars,  sails,  rigging,  rudder, 
etc.,  should  be  made  good  at  sea  by  experienced  seamen.  Such 
jury  rigs  may  often  serve  until  a  vessel  arrives  at  a  home  port, 
or  a  port  where  repairs  can  be  economically  made.  Spare  gear, 
spars,  wire  blocks,  etc.,  should  always  be  carried.  Masters  and 
engineers  effecting  repairs  at  sea  find  favor  with  the  imder- 
writers. 

Responsibility  of  Mas  ter.  The  master  is  the  responsible  man- 
ager in  a  port  of  distress,  as  in  all  other  circumstances  and 
places.  He  cannot  be  relieved  of  this  responsibility  so  long  as 
he  is  competent  to  attend  to  business. 

In  all  cases  the  master  should  enter  a  protest  before  the 
American  Consul,  who  will  appoint  a  committee  of  three  to 
assist  and  advise  the  master.  One  member  of  the  committee 
will  be  the  local  representative  of  the  American  Bureau  of 
Shipping. 

The  powers  of  the  committee  are  limited  to  giving  advice. 
It  remains  for  the  master  to  decide  whether  he  will  follow  their 
advice.  If  he  follows  bad  advice,  a  total  loss  to  his  owners  or 
underwriters  may  ensue,  or  at  any  rate  an  enormous  average  may 
be  incurred. 

The  master  must  remember  that  no  imderwriter,  agent,  sur- 
veyor, or  consignee,  has  the  right  to  order  him  to  take  any 
measure  at  all.  Only  his  owner  has  that  right.  Others  can 
only  recommend. 

The  following  hints  may  be  useful. 

Energetic  Action,  Take  energetic  action  immediately  on 
getting  into  trouble  to  get  out  of  it  as  quickly  as  possible,  though 
it  involves  sacrifice  of  anchors,  masts,  deck  load  or  jettison  of 
cargo.  If  ashore,  on  a  falling  tide,  very  prompt  measures  in 
dropping  weight  may  be  necessary. 

Salvage  Agreements,  Have  salvage  agreements  in  writing, 
if  possible. 


;  1 


Discharge  of  Cargo  at  Port  of  Disaster,  Cargoes  should  not 
be  discharged  at  a  port  of  disaster  without  the  clearest  necessity. 

Surveys,  The  master  should  see  that  reports  of  surveys 
distinguish  between  repairs  attributable  to  the  perils  insured 
against,  and  other  repairs  due  to  wear  and  tear,  or  to  original 
defects,  natural  decay  or  depreciation  of  the  vessel.  This  will 
enable  the  average  adjusters  to  make  a  correct  statement. 

Disbursements,  The  master  should  see  that  disbursements 
are  charged  to  their  correct  uses  such  as,  salvage  expense, 
general  average  expense,  and  repairs.  Particular  average 
expenses  and  repairs,  and  special  charges  for  items  that  do  not 
come  under  any  of  these  heads. 

These  divisions  of  expenditure  should  be  kept  carefully  dis- 
tinct, especially  when  repairs  are  tmdertaken  by  contract.  In 
this  care  the  contractor  should  be  required  to  apportion  the  total 
into  the  above  division  coming  under  his  work.  This  will  help 
in  the  preparation  of  the  average  statement. 

The  particulars  of  expenditure  cannot  be  too  complete. 

Give  the  fullest  passible  information. 

Funds,    A  master  may  obtain  funds  as  follows : 

A,  By  draft  on  his  owners. 

B,  By  a  bottomry  bond  on  ship  and  freight. 

C,  If  absolutely  necessary  by  a  bottomry  on  respondentia  bond 

on  ship,  freight  and  cargo. 

D,  By  the  sale  of  a  portion  of  the  cargo.    Cargo  should  be  sold 

as  follows : 
1st.  Any  damaged  goods  condemned  by  the  surveyor  as  unfit  to 

go  forward  and  recommended  by  them  to  be  sold. 
2d.  Cargo  that  will  bring  the  highest  price  at  the  port  of  distress, 

compared  with  its  value  at  the  port  of  destination. 

E,  If  the  ship  be  condemned  and  the  cargo  forwarded  by  another 

vessel,  the  master  can  give  a  respondentia  bond  on  the 
cargo  alone,  but  only  for  that  portion  of  the  whole  expense 
for  which  the  cargo  alone  is  responsible.  In  this  case 
the  sale  of  the  vessel  will  supply  fimds  for  her  proportion 
of  the  expense. 

Ship's  Papers 

To  round  out  the  preceding  sections  it  may  be  well  to  briefly 
indicate  the  kind  and  nature  of  the  documents  carried  by  a 


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merchant  vessel.  A  book  on  seamanship  is  not  the  place  to  go 
into  the  matter  of  ship  business  fully.  The  reader  is  advised  to 
consult  Hughes  on  Admiralty y  referred  to  above.  Ocean 
Shipping,  by  Annin,  Handbook  for  Masters  by  La  Boyteaux, 
Marine  Insurance  by  Huebner,  and  the  writer's  The  Men  on 
Deck,  These  books  cover  the  law,  the  method  of  doing  ship's 
business  and  the  regulations  and  responsibilities  of  the  master. 

The  Ship^s  Papers  are— 
The  Register — her  evidence  of  nationality.  Gives  name  of 
master,  and  all  necessary  data  as  to  home  port,  size,  owners, 
etc. 
Certificate  of  Classification  carried  by  vessels  complying  with 
the  requirements  of  the  American  Bureau  of  Shipping. 
The  continuance  of  classification  of  any  vessel  is  conditional 
upon  full  compliance  with  the  rules. 

Periodical  surveys  must  be  carried  out  every  foxu"  years 
and  special  surveys  whenever  required. 

To  maintain  class  a  surveyor  must  be  called  whenever 
vessel  is  dry  docked,  caulked,  or  repaired.    In  case  of  dam- 
age at  any  time  vessel  must  be  surveyed.     Violation  of  any 
condition  of  the  rules  renders  class  void.     See  page  36. 
Certificate  of  Freeboard  shows  the  assigned  position  of  the  load 
line  disc  which  must  be  permanently  marked,  the  particulars 
given  in  the  Certificate  must  be  entered  in  the  Official  Log 
and  the  Certificate  of  Freeboard  must  be  framed  and  placed 
in  a  conspicuous  place.    This  is  also  issued  by  the  American 
Bureau  of  Shipping. 
Certificate  of   Inspection   is  issued  by  the  U.  S.  Steamboat 
Inspection  Service  and  states  that  the  Inspectors  approve 
the  vessel  and  her  equipment  throughout.    It  also  must  be 
framed  and  placed  in  a  conspicuous  place. 
Tonnage  Certificate  for  Panama  and  Suez  Canals. 
A  Seaworthy  Certificate  is  issued  by  a  Classification  Surveyer 
and  attests  the  good  condition  of  the  vessel.    See  page  766. 
Sea  Letter,    A  document  issued  to  unregistered  vessels  owned 
by  citizens  of  the  United  States  and  issued  by  the  Customs 
authorities.    It  certifies  to  the  nationality  and  ownership  of 
the  vessel. 
The  Articles  of  Agreement— these  recount  the  voyage  and  its 


duration.  The  names  and  ratings  of  all  members  of  the 
crew  and  their  compensation,  and  the  time  of  the  commence- 
ment of  their  service.    The  Crew  List  is  a  separate  paper. 

Clearance — the  official  permission  to  sail  from  her  port  of  de- 
parture. Shows  that  all  port  dues  and  charges  have  been 
paid,  port  of  destination,  etc. 

Bill  of  Health — shows  condition  of  the  health  of  all  on  board, 
port  of  destination,  etc.  Bill  of  health,  in  duplicate,  should 
be  obtained  from  U.  S.  Consuls  abroad. 

Charter  Party — contract  between  owner  of  vessel  and  charterer, 
or  shipper.    Carried  where  the  vessel  is  under  charter. 

Manifest — a  detailed  accotmt  of  the  cargo  on  board,  names  of 
the  consignee,  consignor,  ports  of  loading  and  discharging 
same,  marks,  etc. 

Bills  of  Lading — ^the  bill,  signed  by  the  master,  or  owner,  or 
agent,  receipting  for  the  lading  of  the  goods  on  board  ship, 
in  good  condition.  It  promises  to  deliver  them  safely  at 
the  place  agreed  upon,  perils  of  the  sea,  excepted. 

Passenger  List — contains  names  and  destination  of  passengers. 
A  part  of  manifest. 

Stores  List — contains  detailed  account  of  ship's  stores  must  be 
complete  when  entering  port,  showing  all  imbroken  and 
broken  stores. 

Invoice,  This  document  must  contain  a  detailed  accoimt  of  the 
cargo,  stating  the  number  of  packages,  value,  charges, 
freight,  insurance,  marks  and  numbers.  Also  the  name  of 
the  vessel,  her  master,  port  of  destination  and  name  of 
consignee. 

The  Log — gives  history  of  the  voyage  to  date.  A  log  that  is  not 
written  up  each  watch  is  useless.  The  smooth  log  is  a  copy 
of  the  rough  log.  The  latter  is  the  original  and  valuable 
record.  The  Official  Log  is  supplied  by  the  Government. 
See  page  766. 

Ship's  Business  Definitions 

Charter  Party,  A  mercantile  lease  of  a  vessel;  a  specific 
contract  by  which  the  owners  of  a  vessel  let  the  entire  vessel  to 
another  person,  to  be  used  by  him  for  transportation  for  his  own 
account,  either  under  their  charge  or  his.    When  the  vessel 


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remains  in  charge  of  the  owners  it  constitutes  a  Contract  of 
Affreightment. 

Time  Charter.  The  owner  hires  his  ship  out  for  a  definite  time 
and  usually  supplies  crew,  coal  and  stores. 

Voyage  Charter.  The  owner  hires  his  ship  out  for  a  definite 
trip,  as,  for  example,  a  single  trip  between  two  points  or  a  round 
trip  between  two  ports  with  intermediate  stops  in  both  or  one 
direction.    Owner  furnishes  Crew,  coal  and  stores. 

Tonnage  Charter.  Charterer  pays  a  certain  rate  per  regis- 
tered ton,  or  per  ton  dead  weight  capacity. 

Bare  Boat  or  Bare  Pole  Charter.  Charterer  furnishes  crew, 
coal  and  stores.  Partial  bare  boat  charter  sometimes  occurs 
wherein  charterer  agrees  to  the  owner  furnishing  the  crew,  in 
which  case  the  latter  is  also  responsible  for  their  welfare. 

Lump  Sum  Charters.  The  Charterer  pays  a  lump  sum  fixed 
price  for  the  ship;  the  owner  gets  his  money  whether  cargo  is 
put  on  board  or  not. 

Contract  of  Affreightment.  When  a  vessel  is  operated  by 
her  owners  on  their  own  account,  or  contracts  directly  with  her 
shippers. 

Lay  Days.  The  days  allowed  by  the  Charter  party  for  loading 
or  unloading  a  vessel.  Beyond  that  time  it  involves  the  payment 
of  demurrage. 

Demurrage.  Is  the  compensation  to  be  paid  for  the  detention 
of  a  vessel  beyond  the  time  provided  for  in  the  Charter  Party, 
and  must  be  claimed  daily.  The  owner  of  a  vessel  has  no  claim 
on  the  cargo  for  demurrage  unless  so  stated  in  the  bill  of  lading, 
and  therefore  it  is  important  that  this  clause  should  be  inserted. 
Where  there  are  both  charter  party  and  bill  of  lading  the  former 
should  be  endorsed  as  follows :  "  Paying  freight  and  other  charges 
as  per  charter  party,  with  all  conditions  therein."  Demurrage 
claims  cease  when  all  the  cargo  is  out  of  the  vessel. 

Protest.  Or  "  Writ  of  Protest "  as  it  is  often  termed,  is  a 
declaration  made  by  the  master  of  a  vessel  before  a  Notary,  or 
Constil  if  in  a  foreign  port,  within  twenty  four  hours  after  the 
arrival  of  the  vessel  in  port  after  the  disaster  stating  that  he 
anticipates  that  the  ship  or  cargo  or  both  are  damaged,  and  that 
the  same  was  not  due  to  any  fault  of  the  vessel,  her  ofilcers,  or 
crew,  but  to  the  perils  of  the  sea,  and  protesting  against  them. 


It  must  be  signed  by  the  master  and  some  member  of  the  crew. 
Afterward  it  may  be  extended  to  show  particufars  of  storms,  etc., 
that  caused  the  damage.  The  log  book  should  support  the  state- 
ments made  in  the  protest. 

After  noting  a  protest,  a  survey  of  the  ship  and  cargo  must  be 
made  before  breaking  bulk  and  to  begin  by  opening  hatches. 
Where  merchants  are  acting  as  surveyors,  they  should  submit 
some  evidence  to  the  Master  that  they  are  not  in  any  way  inter- 
ested in  the  cargo. 

To  prevent  any  claim  on  the  ship  for  damage  by  water,  the 
Surveyors  must  certify  that  the  hatches  were  properly  secured, 
the  cargo  properly  dunnaged;  and  to  make  a  claim  on  the 
underwriters,  or  enable  the  Consignor  to  make  such  a  claim,  the 
surveyors  must  certify  that  the  cargo  is  damaged  by  sea  water. 

Copy  of  the  protest  should  be  sent  to  the  owners  of  the  vessel. 

General  Average.  Is  the  principle  of  law  which  requires  that 
the  parties  interested  in  a  marine  venture  shall  contribute  to 
make  up  the  loss  of  the  sufferer  when  there  is  a  voluntary  sacri- 
fice of  part  of  the  venture,  made  by  the  Master  or  representative 
of  all  concerned,  for  the  benefit  of  all. 

To  give  the  right  to  claim  a  general  average  contribution,  the 
sacrifice 

(a)  Must  be  voluntary. 

(6)  Must  be  made  by  the  master  or  by  his  authority. 

(c)  Must  not  be  caused  by  any  fault  of  the  party  asking  the 
contribution. 

(d)  Must  be  successful. 

(e)  Must  be  necessary. 

York-Antwerp  rules  relating  to  the  settlement  of  cases  of 
general  averages  are  usually  adopted,  but  such  must  be  speci- 
fically stated  in  Bills  of  Lading  or  Charter  Parties. 

It  is  called  General  Average  because  it  falls  upon  the  gross 
amount  of  ship,  cargo  and  freight  at  risk  and  saved  by  sacrifice. 

Some  evidence  should  be  produced  to  show  that  the  sacrifice 
was  necessary  and  such  should  be  supported  by  entries  in  the 
Log  Book. 

The  ship  may  hold  the  cargo  until  General  Average  Claim  is 
satisfied  but  care  must  be  exercised  that  cargo  so  held  is  not 
of  a  perishable  nature  and  the  ship  be  later  responsible  for  its 
destruction  through  such  detention. 


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Particular  Average,  Signifies  the  damage  or  partial  loss 
happening  to  the  ship,  or  cargo,  or  freight  in  consequence  of 
some  fortuous  or  unavoidable  accident;  and  it  is  borne  by  the 
individual  owners  of  the  articles  damaged,  or  by  their  insurers. 

Petty  Averages.  A  term  now  seldom  heard.  Are  small 
sundry  charges  which  occur  regularly  and  are  necessarily  de- 
frayed by  the  master  in  the  usual  course  of  the  voyage  such  as 
port  charges,  conmion  pilotage  and  the  like  which  were  formerly 
and  in  many  cases  still  are  borne  by  the  ship  and  partly  by  the 
cargo.  In  the  clause  commonly  found  in  a  Bill  of  Lading  (prim- 
age and  average  accustomed)  average  means  a  kind  of  composi- 
tion established  by  usage  for  such,  charges,  which  were  formerly 
assessed  by  way  of  average. 

Mortgage,  A  mortgage  is  a  transaction  whereby  the  ship  is 
given  as  security  for  money  advanced  to  the  owner  and  he  may 
spend  it  in  any  manner  he  sees  fit. 

Bottomry  Bond,  A  contract  in  the  nature  of  a  mortgage,  by 
which  the  owner  of  a  ship  or  the  master,  as  his  agent,  hypothe- 
cates and  binds  the  ship  (and  sometimes)  freight  as  security  for 
the  repayment  of  money  advanced  or  lent  for  the  use  of  the  ship, 
if  she  terminate  her  voyage  successfully. 

If  the  ship  is  lost  by  the  perils  of  the  sea,  the  lender  loses  the 
money,  but  if  the  ship  arrives  safe,  he  is  to  receive  the  money 
lent,  with  the  interest  and  premium  stipulated,  although  it  may 
be,  and  usually  is,  in  excess  of  the  legal  rates  of  interest. 

Respondentia  Bond.  When  sufficient  money  cannot  be 
borrowed  on  the  ship  and  freight  the  cargo  is  given  as  security. 
This  should  never  be  resorted  to  if  it  is  at  all  possible  to  avoid  it. 
The  contract  is  the  same  as  bottomry  but  has  priorty  to  such  in 
claims. 

Freight,  The  word  "  Freight "  is  sometimes  used  as  a  term 
meaning  cargo.  It  is  the  amount  agreed  upon  in  payment  for 
the  transportation  of  cargo  and  should  never  be  used  in  any  other 
sense.  The  freight  may  be  demanded  before  the  cargo  is  de- 
livered to  the  consignee.  It  is  generally  paid  when  cargo  is  on 
board. 

Dead  Freight,  When  the  Charterer  agrees  to  give  the  ship  a 
full  cargo  and  for  any  reason  does  not  do  so,  he  must  also  pay 
the  freight  on  the  quantity  that  will  be  required  to  finish  the 


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loading.  After  this  payment  (which  must  be  collected  at  the 
port  of  loading)  is  made  the  ship  must  not  take  on  any  more 
cargo  but  proceed  to  her  destination  without  any  unnecessary 
delay,  unless  she  is  so  loaded  as  not  to  be  seaworthy.  However, 
it  might  be  advantageous  to  the  ship  to  make  slight  concession 
to  the  charterer  to  free  the  ship  from  all  responsibility  for  delay 
caused  by  completing  the  cargo  with  goods  from  another  party, 
and  even  another  port. 

Pratique.  A  certificate  given  after  compliance  with  quaran- 
tine regulations  permitting  a  ship  to  land  her  passengers  and 
crew. 

No  member  of  the  crew  or  any  passenger  must  leave  the 
ship  and  no  person  must  be  allowed  to  board  her,  except  the 
pilot;  until  the  health  authorities  have  boarded  her  and  given 
permission,  which  they  will  do  if  the  ship  has  a  clean  bill  of 
Health. 

In  ports  that  are  infected  with  infectious  diseases  no  member  of 
the  crew  should  be  permitted  to  go  ashore  and  natives  should 
not  be  allowed  on  board,  except  on  business  concerning  the 
ship.  Every  reasonable  care  must  be  taken  to  safeguard  the 
crew  from  infectious  or  contagious  diseases. 

Port  Charges  and  General  Expenses,  Pilotage,  tonnage, 
provisions,  water,  harbor  and  hospital  dues,  cost  of  labor  for 
discharging  and  loading,  wharfage,  cost  of  coal  and  other  ex- 
penses to  which  a  ship  is  liable  to  be  subjected. 

A  ship  should  never  be  chartered  for  a  port  of  which  the 
master  and  owner  have  no  knowledge  tmtil  further  information 
of  the  place  has  been  obtained.  It  is  important  to  know  if  the 
port  affords  a  safe  harbor,  or  is  an  open  roadstead,  the  depth  of 
the  water  and  the  harbor  regulations. 

Where  ship  must  call  at  two  ports  in  the  tropics,  whether  the 
first  port  is  to  windward  or  to  leeward,  should  be  considered. 

Vouchers,  All  receipts  for  mon^y  expended,  should  clearly 
state  the  purpose  for  which  such  expenditures  were  made. 

Marine  Insurance  is  insurance  against  risks  connected  with 
navigation,  to  which  a  ship,  cargo,  freight  or  other  insurable 
interest  in  such  property  may  be  exposed  during  a  certain  voyage 
or  fixed  period  of  time. 

The  written  contract  of  insurance  is  called  a  policy. 


0 


i 


i 


i 


VK:.r 


§ 


766 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


Insurable  Interest.  The  party  affecting  marine  insurance 
must  be  so  situated  with  regard  to  the  thing  insured  as  to  expect 
pecuniary  benefit  from  its  safety  of  pecimiary  loss  from  its 
destruction. 

Contracts  of  marine  insurance  are  subject  to  certain  condi- 
tions, express  or  implied,  a  breach  of  which  voids  the  contract. 

Misrepresentation  and  concealment  of  any  material  fact,  or 
any  breach  of  warranty  of  any  fact,  will  void  the  policy. 

Seaworthiness,  It  is  an  implied  condition  of  marine  insurance 
of  a  vessel,  cargo,  freight,  that  the  vessel  shall  be  seaworthy. 
She  must  be  sufficiently  tight,  staunch  and  strong  to  resist  the 
ordinary  attacks  of  wind  and  sea  during  the  voyage  for  which 
she  is  instured,  and  that  she  must  be  properly  stowed,  manned 
and  equipped  for  the  voyage. — This  is  often  slated  in  a  Sea- 
worthy Certificate  signed  by  an  authorized  surveyer.  Proper 
stowage  may  be  attested  by  a  Loading  Certificate, 

Deviation,  It  is  an  implied  condition  of  a  voyage  policy  that 
the  vessel  will  take  the  course  of  sailing  fixed  by  commercial 
custom  between  two  ports,  or  if  none  is  fixed,  that  it  will  take  the 
course  that  a  master  of  ordinary  skill  would  adopt.  Any  de- 
parture from  such  course,  or  unreasonable  delay  in  pursuing  the 
voyage,  constitutes  what  is  known  as  "  deviation." 

Illegal  Traffic,  It  is  an  implied  condition  that  a  vessel  shall 
not  engage  in  illegal  traffic  (tradej. 

Perils  of  the  Seas,  Mean  all  losses  or  damage  which  arise 
from  the  extra  ordinary  action  of  the  wind  and  sea,  or  from  extra- 
ordinary causes  external  to  the  ship,  and  originating  on  navigable 
waters. 

Official  Log  Book,  This  book  is  supplied  to  masters  by  the 
U.  S.  Shipping  Commissioners  and  in  it  must  be  recorded  all 
events  of  importance.  The  list  of  the  crew,  deaths,  births, 
marriages,  collisions,  offences,  fines  and  punishments,  sending  a 
passenger  or  a  member  of  the  crew  to  the  hospital,  etc.,  are  im- 
portant matters  and  must  be  recorded. 

Certain  spaces  are  arranged  in  the  book  for  keeping  account  of 
any  dealing  seamen  may  have  with  the  ship.  The  book  con- 
tains full  instructions  for  its  use  and  is  to  be  handed  to  the  U.  S. 
Shipping  Commissioner  on  arrival  in  port  and  is  used  by  him  in 
pSLjing  off  the  crew  and  preparing  their  discharges. 


HANDLING  A  STEAMER 


767 


Precautions,  Never  sign  a  receipt  for  cargo  imtil  its  condition 
is  known,  and,  if  not  in  proper  condition,  state  the  facts  to  the 
person  delivering  the  goods,  and,  if  he  wishes  to  leave  them, 
state  the  incompleteness,  damage,  breakage,  leakage,  shortage 
or  any  other  fault,  on  the  receipt,  in  ink,  before  signing  the  same. 

Never  sign  any  paper  or  bill  until  its  contents  are  known  and 
thoroughly  understood. 

If  in  doubt  about  the  signing  of  any  paper,  postpone  it  and 
think  it  over  or  consult  some  reliable  person  from  whom  informa- 
tion on  your  subject  may  be  obtained. 

Before  signing  any  paper  written  in  a  foreign  language,  insist 
on  having  a  true  certified  copy  of  the  same  in  some  language 
you  understand. 

Before  starting  on  a  voygage  the  Master  should  have  a  con- 
ference with  the  managing  owner,  or  director,  covering  all 
possible  points  of  the  voyage.  He  should  receive  a  letter  of 
voyage  instructions  with  all  it  contains  clearly  understood. 

Never  permit  any  person  to  perform  any  service  whatsoever  for 
a  ship  unless  some  kind  of  an  understanding  or  agreement  has 
first  been  arranged. 

In  Time  of  War 

A  merchantman  in  time  of  war  must  be  guided  by  certain 
recognized  rules  of  international  law.  The  right  of  search  is 
accorded  to  a  duly  commissioned  belligerant  vessel  of  war  which 
has  the  right  to  stop  and  search  any  merchant  vessel. 

The  right  of  approach  is  the  right  of  any  vessel  of  war  to 
approach  a  merchant  vessel  on  the  high  seas  for  purposes  of 
observation  and  verification  of  character  and  flag.  The  mer- 
chantman need  not  heave  to,  and  no  force  is  used  except  where 
piracy,  or  slave  trade,  or  other  irregularity  is  suspected.  Mer- 
chant vessels  approached  by  a  man  of  war  should  show  their 
colors  as  a  matter  of  courtesy. 

Blockades 

A  neutral  merchantman  may  be  bound  for  a  blockaded  port 
and  still  not  be  held  liable  to  violation  of  blockade  if  she  has  no 
knowledge  of  the  blockade  through  same  not  having  reached 
her  port  of  departure  before  sailing. 
27 


I 


u 


CHAPTER  19 

HANDLING   A  SAILER 
I 

Foreward 

The  writer  believes  that  sailing  is  something  to  be  mastered 
progressively.  Small  boat  sailing  should  be  part  of  all  sea 
training.  No  finer  sport  exists  than  boat  sailing  and  as  yachts 
increase  in  size  only  the  millionaire  can  enjoy  the  sport  on  his 
own.  But  even  the  most  wealthy  yachtsman  falls  short  of  sailing 
the  great  craft  that  merchant  seamen  take  around  the  world. 
The  sailor  with  the  real  salt  under  his  hide  never  fails  to  thrill 
to  this  greatest  of  all  sports ;  his  business  is  something  more  than 
a  mere  occupation. 

While  the  art  of  handling  a  sailer  is  simple  in  the  extreme,  the 
amount  of  experience  needed  to  master  it  is  almost  without 
limit,  for  new  tricks  come  up  every  voyage.  But  all  of  the  gear 
and  the  innumerable  things  that  seem  to  be  necessary  to  the 
handling  of  a  sailer  are  based  upon  common  sense.  The  young 
seaman,  shipped  in  sail,  (and  every  lad  who  can  should  go  out 
under  canvas)  may  gain  a  great  deal  of  valuable  experience  in  a 
short  time  by  making  a  study  of  the  work  as  he  goes  along.  So 
many  men,  at  sea  under  sail,  drag  at  braces  and  halliards,  pulling, 
like  the  ox,  without  thought  or  knowledge  of  the  object  of  their 

toil. 

The  fundamental  principles  of  sailing  have  been  set  forth  in 
the  chapter  on  boat  sailing,  and  need  not  be  repeated  here. 
The  main  evolutions  under  sail  will  be  given. 

A  vessel  under  sail  has  free  movement  through  an  arc  of  the 
horizon  extending  six  points  each  side  of  the  wind,  in  the  case 
of  a  square  rigger  and  four  points  in  the  case  of  a  fore  and  after.* 

When  the  course  to  be  made  is  an3rwhere  within  the  restricted 
arc  the  vessel  must  sail  close  hauled,  or,  where  the  wind,  in  the 
case  of  a  square  rigger,  is  just  six  points  away  from  the  course 
to  be  made  good,  she  may  make  her  course  by  sailing  on  the 
wind.    The  terms  used  at  sea  for  sailing  on  the  wind,  are  close 

*  Many  square  rigged  craft  can  only  lay  6^/2  &  7  points  to  the  wind. 

768 


HANDLING  A  SAILER 


769 


hauled,  by  the  wind,  full  and  by,  and  on  the  port  (or  starboard) 
tack, 

A  square  rigger  on  the  wind  has  her  yards  braced  up  sharp, 
the  lower  yards  braced  in  close  against  the  swifters,  and  the 
tacks  of  the  courses  are  hauled  down  on  the  weather  side, 
stretching  the  foot  of  the  sail  forward,  the  sheets  to  leeward  are 
hauled  aft. 

Tacking 

A  vessel  tacks  when  slie  goes  about  from  one  tack  to  another. 

Tacking  a  full-rigged  ship  is  quite  an  art.  The  procedure  is 
as  follows  on  a  three-masted  ship.  And  here  the  writer  must 
apologize  for  quoting  from  his  own  book.  Under  Sail,  in  that  way 
saving  effort,  and  initiating  the  steamboat  sailor  into  the  mys- 
teries of  going  about  on  a  two  thousand  five  hundred  dead  weight 
vessel,  flying  skysails,  and  working  twenty  hands.  Most  of  the 
textbooks  on  this  subject  are  men-of-war  style  with  a  large  crew. 

"  With  livelier  weather  of  the  Southern  latitudes  we  were  often 
exercised  in  tacking  and  wearing  ship,  and  soon  became  a  very 
well  drilled  company,  sendmg  the  big  three-sticker  about  in 
record  time.  The  Fuller  was  lively  in  stays*  and  with  our  small 
crew  required  the  smartest  kind  of  work  in  handling. 

"  With  all  hands,  including  the  *  idlers,'  that  is,  the  carpenter, 
cook  and  cabin  steward,  we  mustered  twenty  men  forward, 
hardly  a  man-o*-war  complement,  but  enough,  when  driven  and 
directed  by  superior  seamanship,  to  send  the  long  braces  clicking 
through  the  sheaves  of  the  patent  blocks  with  a  merry  chatter. 

"  *  Hands  about  ship! »  meant  all  hands,  and  the  cook  at  the 
fore  sheet,  a  time-honored  station  filled  by  the  Celestial  with  all 
the  importance  in  the  world.  It  was  all  the  work  that  Chow  ever 
aid  on  deck  and  the  heathenish  glee  with  which  he  would  *  let 
go  at  the  proper  time,  added  a  certain  zest  to  our  movements, 
particularly  as  we  always  hoped  to  have  a  sea  come  over  and 
douse  him,  which  often  happened. 

"At  the  order,  <  Ready!  Ready! '  the  gear  of  the  main  and 
cro  jik  was  thrown  down  from  the  pins,  clear  for  running.  The 
command  *  Ease  down  the  helm ! '  and  the  order  *  Spanker  boom 
amidships!*  would  quickly  follow,  the  vessel  running  rapidly 
Lb    k     ^^^  °^  *^®  ^'^^  ^^*^  everythmg  shaking,  and  then  flat 

"  '  ^se  tacks  and  sheets ! '  and  the  hands  at  the  clew  garnets 
would  sway  up  on  the  courses,  lifting  them  clear  of  the  bulwarks. 

*  A  vessel  is  "  in  stays  "  when  in  the  act  of  going  about. 


I 


I 


L 
I 

i 


770 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


ir 


i-. 


Boaraf  Tacks, 
haul  af-f  sheets 
righf  helm, 
frirr  yards. 


When  wind  is  a  po'mf  \        ^ 
on  new  weather  bow  X.'^ 

Jbwincjheaciiaras)    > 


Wind 

I 


Then  all  hands  would  jump  like  monkeys  to  the  main  and  cro'jik 
braces,  at  the  order,  *  Weather  main,  lee  cro*jik  braces! '  the 

Second  Mate,  and  Chips,  stand- 
ing by  to  cast  off  on  the  other 
sides.  By  then,  the  wind  be- 
ing a  point  on  the  weaiher  boWf 
would  come  the  hearty  warn- 
mg,  *  Haul  taut! '  and  *  Now, 
boys,  mainsail  haul! '  and  the 
after  yards,  aback,  with  the 
wind  on  their  weather  leeches, 
would  spin  about,  the  gear  run- 
ning through  the  blocks  like 
snakes  afire,  the  men  on  deck 
pawing  it  in  at  the  pins' with 
feverish  haste,  belaying  as  the 
yards  slammed  back  against 
the  lee  swifters  on  the  other 
tack. 

"  By  that  time  the  ship  would 
be  practically  about,  with  head 
yards  and  head  sails  aiding  in 
the  work.  As  soon  as  the  wind 
was  on  the  bow,  all  hands  would 
spring  to  the  lee  fore  braces. 
*  Haul  taut — let  go  and  haul! ' 
thundered  the  order  from  aft. 
Chow  would  let  out  a  wild  yell 
as  he  unhitched  the  fore  sheet, 
and  around  would  go  the  head 
yards.  Then  with  jib  sheets 
shifted  over  and  the  spanker 
eased  off,  as  the  tacks  were 
boarded  and  the  sheets  hauled 
aft,  we  would  pause  to  get  our 
breath  amid  the  tangle  of  gear  on  deck. 

"*  Steady  out  the  bowlines— go  below,  watch  below!'  and 
as  the  watch  below  would  leave  the  deck,  the  order  *  Lay  up 
the  gear  clear  for  runnmg,'  was  the  signal  for  the  crowd  on  deck 
to  get  busy  while  the  good  ship  raced  away  on  the  new  tack  with 
the  wmd  six  pomts  on  the  bow,  a  bone  m  her  teeth,  and  a  half 
Point  of  leeway  showing  in  the  wake." 

Careful  reading  of  the  above  will  clarify  the  following: 
Ready  about!    Crew  takes  stations  for  going  about. 


When  wind  presses  \ 
on  weather  feeches  \ 
ofmainanolmnzen  1  -^ 

Mainsail  haul!       ) 

{swing after  yards)  ' 


When  sails  shake. .^  / 

Rise  tacks  anol  sheets!  / 


Reao(y  About ! 
,Ease  down  helm; 
[haul  jigger 
S^midship. 


Tacking  afourmast  ship. 


HANDLING  A  SAILER 


771 


Spanker  sheet  is  ready  to  be  manned,  boom  guys  slacked  off. 

Weather  head  sheets  are  hauled  to  windward  over  the  stays. 

As  ship  gets  a  good  way  upon  her,  easing  her  off  a  half  point 
or  so  if  necessary,  haul  the  spanker  boom  amidships  slowly  and 
ease  down  the  helm  bringing  her  sharply  up  into  the  eye  of  the 
wind  by  the  combined  action  of  the  rudder  and  the  spanker.  At 
the  same  time,  ease  off  the  head  sheets  as  she  nms  up.  The 
vessel  is  now  pivoting  through  the  action  of  the  wind  and  helm. 

At  the  order  "  ready,  ready,"  the  mainsail  is  hauled  up  just 
as  it  begins  to  shake.     ''Rise  tacks  and  sheets!*^ 

The  head  sails  lie  aback  and  aid  in  the  turning  and  as  the 
wind  gets  hold  of  the  weather  leeches  of  the  main  and  mizzen 
canvas,  the  order  is  "  Mainsail  haul!  "  sending  these  yards 
around  very  rapidly  and  further  easing  the  wmd  pressure  aft 
that,  if  the  yards  are  not  swung  at  once,  would  tend  to  retard 
her  turning  into  the  eye  of  the  wind. 

As  the  after  yards  spin  around,  largely  by  the  force  of  the  wind, 
the  vessel  is  well  up  with  the  wmd  a  point  on  her  new  weather 
bow.  Then  give  the  order  "  Let  go  and  haul!  "  The  fore  sheet 
and  tack  are  let  go,  and  the  men,  having  jumped  to  the  head 
braces,  swing  around  the  head  yards.  The  wind  by  that  time 
fills  them.  Right  the  helm.  The  spanker  is  eased  off,  the  head 
sheets  are  hauled  home.  Yards  are  trimmed,  main  tack  boarded 
and  sheet  hauled  aft,  and  she  is  off  on  the  new  tack. 

In  tacking  without  the  mainsail  the  order  for  swinging  after 
yards  is  "  Main  topsail  haul!  " 

The  time  to  right  the  helm  in  tacking  depends  upon  how  quick 
a  vessel  is  in  stays.  If  the  hehn  is  kept  hard  over  after  the  wind 
has  shifted  on  the  new  weather  bow  and  the  ship  is  swinging 
fast  she  may  fall  off  some  distance.  K  she  should  faU  of  too 
rapidly  and  bring  the  wind  abeam,  or  even  abaft  the  beam,  ease 
off  head  sheets,  put  the  hehn  a-/ee,  and  as  she  comes  up  ease 
the  hehn  and  haul  aft  the  head  sheets. 

When  a  vessel  loses  way  m  tacking,  right  the  helm*  at  once. 
In  this  case  the  after  yards  must  not  be  hauled  until  the  wind 
is  directly  ahead. 

A  ship  that  is  slow  in  stays  may  be  sent  about  quicker  by 
checking  the  lee  fore  brace  as  she  comes  up  into  the  wind.    K 

*  Put  it  amidship. 


,,] 


772 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


HANDLING  A  SAILER 


773 


she  gathers  stemboard  in  coming  about  shift  the  hehn  at  once, 
the  head  yards  will  then  box  her  about. 

The  writer  has  found  it  a  good  plan  not  to  haul  the  head  yards 
until  the  wind  is  at  least  a  point  on  the  new  weather  bow.  If 
a  vessel  refuses  to  come  aroimd  after  the  head  yards  have  been 
swimg,  brail  up  the  spanker  and  shiver  the  cross-jack  yards 
(i.e.,  brace  in  and  spill  the  wind). 

Missing  Stays 

In  this  case  either  let  her  go  around  on  her  heel,  that  is  wear 
ship,  or  let  her  fill  and  try  again.  In  order  to  fill,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  box  her  back  with  the  head  yards.  Brace  in  on 
the  weather  braces,  and  let  the  head  square  sails  box  her  off. 
The  ship  will  have  stem-board  and  the  helm  will  have  to  be  down. 

A  vessel  refusing  to  turn,  after  yards  swung,  forward  yards 
on  old  tack  is  said  to  be  in  irons.  This  is  practically  the  same 
as  missing  stays — wear,  or  box  off  on  old  tack. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  tacking  it  may  be  well  to  indicate 
the  station  of  a  crew  of  twenty  men  on  a  large  three-masted 
square  rigger. 

Boatswain  and  two  men  on  the  forecastle  head,  carpenter  and 
sailmaker  at  the  main  tack,  one  man  at  the  weather  cross-jack 
braces,  seven  men  at  the  weather  main  braces,  second  mate  at 
the  lee  main  braces,  three  men  at  the  lee  cross-jack  braces,  two 
men  at  the  main  sheet,  and  one  man  and  cook  at  the  fore  sheet. 

When  it  is  "  Let  go  and  haul?  " 

Three  men  on  the  forecastle,  all  others  at  the  lee  fore  braces 
and  foresheet.  Second  mate  at  the  weather  fore  braces.  Those 
on  the  forecastle  board  the  fore  tack.     One  man  at  helm. 

Four-masted  ships,  always  bark  rigged  on  the  jiggermast,  go 
about  like  a  three  master,  handling  the  jigger  like  a  spanker,  and 
hanging  the  crossjack  and  mainsail  in  the  gear  at  the  order 
"  Rise  tacks  and  sheets!  "     See  diagram,  Page  770. 

A  five  master,  like  the  France,  goes  about  swinging  the  three 
yards  on  the  after  square-rigged  masts  together.  The  fore 
yards  ^^  Let  go  and  haul,^  as  in  the  case  of  a  three  master. 

Tacking  a  Barkentine 

Here  the  evolution  is  greatly  simplified. 
Ready  about!    Stations  for  stays. 


Knight  Heaots-^^^^ 


Forecastle , 
Capstan 


Forecastle  Bitts^^ 


yBoYfsprit 

,Cat  Heads 


Fore  yard 


Fore 
Mast 


Port  Fore 
Brace' 


Charlie  Noble  - 

(Oalley  Smoke 

Stack) 


Forecastle  Head 

Forecastle  Hatch 

■Fore  Fife  Rail 
^Whate  Boats 
^^•Fore  Channels 
...  Long  Boat 

"—'Foreward  House 
^'*Bilge  Pumps 
-Waist 

..^•Main  Hatch 
^'Main  Mast 
^•Main  Fite  Kail 

•,''Main  Channels 

Main  Deck  Capstan 
,-Breaik  of  Poop 


Port  Crojik 
Brace 


Crojik  yard.-' 
Companion 

Wheel  and  Binnacle 

Bumpkin..^ 

Hatch  to  La-zarette 


I Forward  Cabin  Skylight 

liliJ         l^.i.. ---Raised  Poop 

— Hizxen  Hast 

—  -Mizzen  Channels 

--■After  Cabin  Skylight 


Skylight 

■. Quarter  Biffs 

--Wheel  House 


Taff  Rail 

Deck  plan  of  a  three  mast  ship. 


I' 


'k' 


774 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Haul  slack  of  weather  fore  stays*le  sheets  to  windward. 

Clear  main  and  mizzen  gaff  tops^es. 

Weather  fore  sheet  out  of  beckets. 

Haul  down  light  stays*les.  % 

Shift  lazy  tack  of  main  topmast  and  other  stays*le  to  windward. 

Ease  down  helm!    Haul  spanker  boom  amidship. 

Let  go  and  haul! 

When  arotmd,  down  fore  tack,  aft  fore  sheet,  trim  all  sheets. 

Tacking  a  Fore  and  After 

Here  the  trick  is  to  have  plenty  of  way  upon  her  before  easing 
down  the  helm,  and  hauling  the  spanker  (or  after  sail)  amidship. 
Ease  off  the  fore  sheet  as  the  sail  stops  driving  her  and  ease  off 
the  head  sheets,  having  previously  hauled  the  weather  pendants 
over  the  stays.  Where  clubs  are  fitted  nothing  need  be  done. 
A  club  staysail  however  is  useful  in  paying  off  a  vessel  when  she 
gets  in  irons  and  will  not  go  about  readily.  This  is  explained 
under  boat  handling. 

Most  well-designed  and  properly  rigged  schooners  go  about 
without  trouble  except  in  heavy  seas,  or  very  light  weather. 

A  schooner  has  two  points  less  to  move  through  before  getting 
into  the  wind  and  this  is  a  considerable  advantage. 

On  large  yachts  the  main  mast  is  stayed  by  a  runner,  and  the 
weather  runner  is  always  hauled  taut  by  a  purchase.  In  going 
about,  when  the  vessel  is  head  to  wind,  slack  off  weather  runner 
on  old  tack  and  haul  taut  weather  runner  on  new  tack.  This 
must  be  done  very  smartly  on  a  big  yacht  in  fresh  weather. 

To  head-reach  is  to  forge  ahead  in  stays. 

Wearing 

Wearing  is  going  about  by  turning  away  from  the  wind  and 
then  coming  up  into  the  wind  again  on  the  other  tack.  It  is 
often  resorted  to  when  a  large  ship  goes  about  with  only  one 
watch  on  deck,  or  imder  heavy  weather  conditions  when  not 
enough  sail  is  carried  to  permit  of  tacking.  Heavy  seas  may 
make  wearing  necessary.  Lack  of  wind  may  also  make  it 
necessary  to  wear. 

Wearing  a  square  rigger  is  simple.    The  spanker  must  be 


HANDLING  A  SAH^ER 


775 


brailed  in,  and  as  she  falls  off  before  the  wind  the  after  yards 
are  braced  in  and  around  on  the  other  tack. 

The  method  of  wearing  a  ship-rigged  vessel  is  as  follows — 
always  having  in  mind  the  fact  that  sails  should  not  be  put  aback, 
deadening  her  way. 

Haul  mainsail  up,  brail  in  the  spanker,  luff  ship  up  imtil  the 
weather  leeches  of  the  topsails  shake ;  then  hard  up  the  helm, 
and  brace  the  after  yards  in.  Keep  the  sails  shaking  as  she 
pays  off,  so  that  they  may  be  well  canted  for  the  other  tack  by 
the  time  the  wind  is  on  the  quarter.  When  the  wind  is  abaft 
the  beam,  raise  fore  tack,  and  shift  the  head  sheets  over  as  soon 
as  they  are  becalmed.  The  head  yards  being  nearly  becalmed, 
square  them  all  the  weather  braces  being  slacked  off  roundly  as 
the  ship  comes-to.  Gather  in  the  main  and  cross-jack  braces 
while  the  head  yards  are  being  braced  and  fore-tack  got  down. 
In  wearing  under  small  sail  in  a  ship  that  answers  her  weather 
helm  slowly,  take  care  that  the  maintopsail  is  not  shaken  until 
the  ship  begins  to  pay  off. 

Have  in  mind  the  danger  of  coming  to  the  wind  or  flying-to  so 
rapidly  that  the  fore  square  sail  may  be  put  aback,  and  if  she  is 
lively  brace  sharp  forward  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  main  and 
crossjack  yards  are  braced  up. 

If  blowmg  hard,  brace  up  the  fore  yards  while  the  vessel  is 
still  before  the  wind. 

To  Wear  Short  Round  or  Box  Haul  a  Ship 

Put  the  helm  down,  light  up  head  sheets,  and  slack  lee  braces, 
to  deaden  her  way.  As  she  comes  to  the  wind,  raise  tacks  and 
sheets,  and  haul  up  the  mainsail  and  the  spanker.  As  soon  as 
she  comes  head  to  the  wind,  and  loses  her  head-way,  square  the 
after  yards,  brace  the  head  yeards  sharp  aback,  and  flatten  in  the 
head  sheet.  The  helm  being  put  down  to  bring  her  up  will  now 
pay  her  off,  as  she  has  stern-way  on.  As  she  goes  off,  keep  the 
after  sails  lifting,  and  square  in  the  head  yards.  As  soon  as  the 
sails  on  the  foremast  give  her  head-way,  shift  the  helm.  When 
she  gets  the  wind  on  the  other  quarter,  haul  down  the  jib,  haul 
out  the  spanker,  set  the  mamsail,  and  brace  the  after  yards 
sharp  up.  As  she  comes-to  on  the  other  tack,  brace  up  the 
head  yards,  meet  her  with  the  hehn,  and  set  the  jib. 


f 


I 


776 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Wearing  a  Fore  and  After 

A  schooner  is  put  about  by  wearing  when  the  wind  is  too  light 
to  admit  of  tacking,  or  where  the  sea  is  so  high  that  she  cannot 
come  up  to  it  and  go  about. 

On  a  large  schooner,  say  a  five  or  six  master,  the  sails  go  over 
in  wearing  in  the  following  order,  all  booms  being  carefully 
steadied  by  sheets  and  boom  tackles.  As  she  pays  off  before 
the  wind,  haul  over  the  boom  next  forward  from  the  spanker, 
and  then  each  succeeding  boom  forward.  When  the  foresail 
is  over  on  the  new  tack,  steady  the  spanker  amidship  and  ease 
it  over  with  the  boom  tackle  as  the  wind  gybes  the  sail.  The 
gear  is  heavy  and  rubber,  or  spring,  buffers  are  now  fitted  to 
take  up  the  shock  on  the  sheet  traveller.  Watch  out  for  heads, 
and  mind  the  helm. 

Before  wearing  the  topsails  are  shifted  over  the  stays. 

Wearing  is  always  a  losing  proposition,  for  this  reason  a 
square  rigger  often  shivers  her  sails  to  lose  some  way  before 
turning  on  her  heel,  but  when  she  once  starts  turning  the  proper 
thing  is  to  keep  her  going  around  fast.  In  a  schooner  the  great 
size  and  swing  of  the  sails  makes  the  maneuver  dangerous  unless 
carried  out  by  experienced  seamen. 

Square  Foresail 

Before  going  into  heavy  weather  with  our  chapter  on  sailing, 
and  before  leaving  the  schooner,  mention  should  be  made  of  the 
square  sail  generally  fitted  on  large  fore  and  afters.  This  sail 
is  a  fair  weather  kite  and  is  set  from  a  stationary  yard  supported 
by  standing  lifts  and  parral,  and  controlled  by  braces  in  the 
usual  way.  The  square  foresail,  however,  is  set  by  means  of 
head  outhauls  bent  to  the  head  earings  and  leading  out  to  the 
yardarms.  The  head  of  the  sail  is  stopped  to  hoops  that  slide 
along  the  yard.  Amidship  from  the  yard  to  the  deck  is  a  stout 
wire  jackstay  (usually  four  inch  wire).  The  sail,  in  two  parts, 
port  and  starboard,  is  laced  to  this  and  brails  in  and  stows 
against  the  jackstay. 

The  sail  is  only  used  with  the  wind  well  aft,  sheets  are  rove, 
and  use  is  made  of  a  midship  tack. 

Sailing  with  wind  aft  and  booms  guyed  out  to  port  and  star- 
board, is  called  going  wing  and  wing. 


HANDLING  A  SAILER 


777 


Wearing  in  Heavy  Weather 

Ship  under  lower  topsails  and  fore  topmast  staysail.  Put  the 
helm  up,  and,  as  the  vessel  goes  off,  square  the  after-yards,  and 
keep  them  just  lifting.  When  before  the  wind,  brace  round  the 
fore-yard  for  the  other  tack,  but  not  sharp  up,  and  put  the  stay- 
sail-sheet over.  Brace  up  the  after  yards  and  meet  her  with  the 
helm.    Trim  yards  and  stand  on. 

Ship  under  lower  main  topsail  {hove  to).  Put  up  the  helm 
and  as  the  vessel  goes  off  square  the  after  yards  keeping  them 
lifting.  When  the  wind  is  aft,  brace  around  the  head  yards  on 
the  new  tack,  but  not  sharp  up.  Shift  the  staysail  sheet,  brace 
up  the  after  yards,  and  meet  her  with  the  hehn.  Brace  up  for- 
ward, trim  yards. 

Ship  under  Bare  Poles.  Vessels  well  down  by  the  stern  will 
often  wear  in  this  situation  by  merely  pointing  the  after  yards  to 
the  wind  and  filling  the  head  yards;  but  vessels  in  good  trim 
will  not  do  this.  To  assist  the  vessel  around,  veer  a  hawser  out 
of  the  lee  quarter,  with  a  drag  attached  to  the  end.  As  the  ship 
sags  off  to  leeward  the  drag  will  be  to  windward,  and  wiU  tend 
to  bring  the  stem  round  to  the  wind.  When  she  is  before  it  haul 
the  hawser  aboard ;  be  sure  to  fit  a  tripping  line.  If  the  vessel 
will  not  go  off,  it  will  be  necessary,  as  a  last  resort,  to  cut  away 
the  mizzenmast,  veer  away  the  hawser,  and  use  the  mizzen- 
topmast  as  a  drag  to  assist  in  wearing.  Be  sure  to  cut  lee 
rigging  first,  and  attach  a  second  hawser  before  cutting  weather 
shrouds  and  stays.  These  instructions  assume  your  vessel  is 
in  a  critical  situation  and  must  wear. 

Always,  in  wearing  during  very  heavy  weather,  use  oil  from  the 
quarters  and  from  the  closet  pipes  forward. 

When  blowing  very  hard  do  not  attempt  to  shift  over  a  storm 
staysail  in  the  usual  fashion.  Always  haul  down,  shift  over  the 
sheet,  steady  it  aft  and  then  hoist,  tending  the  sheet  so  the  sail 
will  not  bind  on  the  stay.  To  shift  over  as  in  moderate  weather 
will  cost  you  the  sail. 

To  Club  Haul  off  a  Lee  Shore 
Cock-bill  the  lee  anchor,  get  a  hawser  on  this  for  a  spring  and 
lead  it  to  the  lee  quarter;  range  the  cable  and  unshackle  it  abaft 


778 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


HANDLING  A  SAILER 


779 


of 


I 


( 


the  windlass.  HelnVs  a-lee!  and  Raise  tacks  and  sheets!  as  for 
going  in  stays.  The  moment  she  loses  head-way,  let  go  the 
anchor  and  Mainsail  haul!  As  soon  as  the  anchor  brings  her 
head  to  the  wind,  let  the  chain  cable  go,  holding  on  to  the  spring; 
and  when  the  after  sails  take  full,  cast  off  or  cut  the  spring,  and 
Let  go  and  haul! 

This  is  far  more  difficult  than  it  reads,  but  many  a  fine  ship 
has  been  saved  through  club  hauling,  and  many  have  been  lost 
because,  for  some  reason,  the  maneuver  was  not  tried. 

n 

Heavy  Weather  Sailing 
Heaving  to 

A  sailing  craft  lies  best  with  her  bow  toward  the  sea,  the 
wind  a  point  or  so  forward  of  the  beam.  Having  no  engines  to 
drive  her  into  the  sea,  she  takes  an  easy  position  and,  if  stowed 
properly  and  handled  in  a  seamanlike  way,  will  ride  out  the 
worst  kind  of  weather.  The  balance  of  forward  and  after  sail 
will  effect  her  helm.  A  ship  usually  lies  easiest  with  weather 
helm.  She  will  gradually  come  up  and  fall  off  as  these  forces 
oppose  each  other.  The  use  of  oil  is  always  advisable  as  shown 
in  the  previous  chapter. 

The  trimming  of  yards  is  very  important  in  lying  to.  The 
forward  and  after  yards  should  be  pointed  almost  into  the  wind 
pressure  on  after  sides.  Main  yards  may  be  braced  up  a  point 
higher. 

The  preparation  for  heavy  weather  is  as  follows: 

Preventer  topsail  sheets  on  upper  topsails. 

Preventer  braces  on  crossjack,  leading  aft  to  bumpkins,  or 
quarter  bitts. 

Rolling  tackles  (heavy  watch  tackles)  from  the  quarters  of 
yards  (hooked  to  stout  end  st^ps)  and  led  to  straps  about  the 
masts.    Set  up  on  these  from  the  deck,  belay  at  fife  rails. 

To  Reef  a  Course,  Haul  up  and  spill  the  sail  as  if  about  to 
furl.  Haul  out  the  reef  tackles,  and  reef.  The  senior  station 
at  sea  is  at  the  weather  earing.  An  able  seaman  always  takes 
this  post.  As  soon  as  he  has  called  "  All  out  to  windward !  " 
the  lee  earing  is  hauled  taut  and  the  reef  points  passed. 


Then  set  the  sail. 

To  reef  an  upper  topsail.  Lower  away  on  halliards,  haul  in 
slack  of  weather  brace  until  the  sail  shivers,  take  in  the  slack 
of  the  reef  tackles  while  the  yard  comes  down,  hauling  out  the 
weather  reef  tackle  first,  pass  earing  and  haul  out  to  leeward. 
In  every  heavy  weather  many  seamen  prefer  to  clew  up,  when 
going  large,  and  reef  with  the  sail  in  the  gear. 

When  the  fore  and  main  upper  topsails  are  to  be  reefed,  the 
mizzen  topsail  is  taken  in.  Put  the  ship  before  it  and  reef  the 
fore  topsail  first.     See  page  211. 


Chart  of  the  course  of  a  ship  rounding  Cape  Horn  in  a  period  of  adverse 
gates.  Follow  each  stroke  in  the  zig-zag  day  by  day  as  the  dates  are  given 
on  the  course^  from  east  to  west,  and  you  will  read  the  story  of  a  plucky  fight 
lasting  weeks,  in  which  the  ship  "  Edward  Sewall "  was  driven  back  as  fast  as 
sh2  advanced  whils  trying  to  round  Cape  Horn  in  1914, 

It  took  her  67  days  to  get  from  latitude  SO  south  on  the  east  of  the  conti- 
nent to  the  same  parallel  on  the  west  side.  On  ten  previous  voyages  the  ship 
had  made  this  portion  of  the  voyage  in  from  11  to  23  days,  the  average  being 
16,4  days.  The  illustration  gives  the  course  in  detail  between  the  54  degree 
line.  The  coast  line  is  indicated  with  no  suggestion  of  the  treacherous  isles 
and  inlets. 


n 


i 


I 


780 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


•  Upper  Topsail  Splits,  The  square  sails  most  likely  to  split 
are  the  upper  topsails.  'When  such  an  accident  occurs,  send  the 
sail  down,  after  stopping  it  along  the  yard  and  cutting  robands. 
Use  a  strong  gantline,  and  the  weather  reef  tackle.  This  keeps 
the  sail  to  windward  of  the  stays  and  it  can  be  got  in  on  deck. 
The  new  sail  is  sent  up  by  reefing  on  the  foot.  Pass  reef 
points  under  the  foot.  Knot  so  they  can  be  easily  got  at.  Make 
up  sail  with  stops,  pass  robands,  and  sway  aloft  with  gantline 
and  weather  reef  tackle.  Bend  as  usual.  When  bent  hook  reef 
tackles  and  haul  out,  haul  up  on  all  gear,  pass  reef  points,  then 

set  sail  as  usual. 

Taking  in  Sail    The  procedure  of  taking  in  sail  on  a  ship 
rigged  vessel  from  all  plain  sail  to  storm  canvas  is  as  follows : 

1st.  All  plain  sail  to  skysails. 

2d.    Take  in  skysails,  jib  topsail,  and  upper  staysails. 

3d.    Take  in  royals,  and  flying  jib. 

4th.  Take  in  mizzen  topgallant  sail,  fore  topgallant  sail,  all 
mizzen  staysails,  all  main  staysails. 

5th.  Take  in  main  topgallant  sail. 

6th.  Take  m  mizzen  topsail  and  reef  fore  topsail,  take  in 

outer  jib. 

7th.  Reef  main  topsail  and  take  in  fore  topmast  staysail. 
8th.  Reef  spanker  and  main  course,  take  in  foretopsail. 
9th.  Take  in  mainsail,  reef  fore  sail,  take  in  main  upper 

topsail. 

10th.  Take  m  spanker,  taken  in  foresail,  set  fore  storm  stay- 
sail, and  haul  down  jib. 

11th.  Take  in  mizzen  lower  topsail,  set  storm  mizzen. 

12th.  Take  in  fore  lower  topsail. 

13th.  About  this  time  the  main  lower  topsail  may  blow  away. 
If  not  goosewing  it,  that  is,  stow  the  middle  and  set  one  or  both 

clews. 

Vessel  is  now  hove-to  under  fore  storm  staysail,  goose- 
wmged  main  lower  topsail,  and  storm  mizzen.  The  main  lower 
topsail  may  blow  away  and  the  vessel  will  ride  under  her  storm 
mizzen  and  fore  storm  staysaU,  giving  her  a  proper  balance  and 
some  steerage  way.  All  yards  are  pointed  almost  into  the  wind 
with  pressure  on  after  sides.  All  gear  is  stopped  up  where 
possible,  life  lines  rigged,  and  oil  overboard  in  bags  from  the 
weather  cathead,  forward  closet  pipes  and  from  the  weather 
main  rigging. 


HANDLING  A  SAILER 


781 


Preventer  gear  is  rove,  rolling  tackles  hooked,  and  the  well  is 
soimded  at  each  bell.  An  extra  hand  is  at  the  wheel,  and  relieving 
tackles  are  hooked  in  after  wheelhouse. 

Nothing  to  do  but  wait  for  the  blow  to  be  over,  and  to  follow 
the  rules  for  working  out  of  a  typhoon  or  hurricane,  if  that  is 
the  trouble.    See  page  827. 

Seamen  may  differ  some  as  to  this  order  of  taking  in  the  kites, 
but  this  was  the  method  practiced  on  the  American  Ship  A.  J. 
Fuller^  out  of  New  York,  in  the  early  nineties.  Captain  C.  M. 
Nichols,  of  Searsport,  Me.,  in  command. 

If  the  vessel  is  hove-to  on  the  wrong  tack  in  order  to  work 
clear  of  the  storm  center,  wear  ship  as  described  under  that 
heading.  Sometimes  a  vessel  drifting  to  leeward  gets  too  close 
to  land  and  she  must  wear  in  plenty  of  time.  Always  look  out 
for  plenty  of  sea  room  when  hove-to  for  any  length  of  time. 

Scudding 

In  running  before  a  sea  have  spanker  brailed  up  and  haul  up 
the  mainsail.  The  foresail  has  a  wonderful  lifting  effect  made 
more  noticeable  when  reefed.  Head  sails  are  generally  best 
hauled  down.  As  the  weather  increases  in  strength  sail  is 
shortened  in  the  usual  manner  and  the  fore  sail,  close-reefed 
makes  a  fine  sail  to  run  with.  In  extremely  heavy  weather  it  may 
be  difficult  to  round  to  and  get  under  control  in  the  usual  way. 
Some  of  the  most  expert  shipmasters  prefer  to  shorten  down  to 
bare  poles  and  keep  before  it,  reducing  the  speed  as  much  as 
possible. 

A  vessel  lying  so  will  ship  less  water  than  when  she  is  burying 
her  nose  through  press  of  sail. 

Most  American  sailing  craft  are  built  with  substantial  after 
wheelhouses.  This  is  a  protection  to  the  helmsman  and  enables 
him  to  steer  before  the  wind  without  the  constant  fear  of  being 
pooped.  Where  no  wheelhouse  is  provided  the  hehnsman 
should  be  securely  lashed  to  the  standard  of  the  wheel.  Never 
lash  a  man  to  the  spindle  or  the  rim  of  the  wheel. 

To  heave-to  when  scudding  under  main  lower  topsail,  reefed 
foresail  and  fore  staysail. 

Haul  the  foresail  up,  and  if  she  will  run  with  safety  for  a 
short  time,  under  the  topsail  and  staysail,  furl  the  foresail  before 


782 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


HANDLING  A  SAILER 


783 


bringing  her  to  the  wind.  K,  however,  there  is  such  a  sea 
running  that  she  cannot  keep  before  it  after  shortening  sail, 
look  out  for  a  smooth,  down  with  the  helm,  and  round  short  to, 
in  order  to  avoid  exposing  her  broadside  to  the  sea  a  moment 
longer  than  is  absolutely  necessary.    Use  oil  as  directed. 

Broaching- to  is  the  term  applied  to  a  vessel  scudding  in  heavy 
weather  when  she  runs  up  into  the  wind  and  is  taken  aback. 
This  puts  her  in  the  trough  and  is  a  situation  of  great  danger. 
If  the  vessel  is  carrying  enough  canvas  to  send  her  over  on  her 
beam  ends,  let  fly  aU  sheets  and  let  go  halliards.  Down  helm. 
This  should  never  occur  except  through  inattention  to  steermg 
with  a  heavy  quartering  sea  and  squalls.  A  sudden  shift  of 
wind,  however,  may  help  broach  a  vessel  to. 

Sailing  before  the  wind,  fine  weather,  all  plain  saU,     Vessel 

is  taken  aback. 

Box  off  with  head  yards  to  tack  nearest  course.  Brace  up 
after  yards.    When  after  sails  fill,  let  go  and  haul  head  yards. 

With  wind  fair,  a  vessel  is  often  referred  to  as  going  large. 
An  old  term  for  this  is  rooming,  used  in  days  of  blufiE  bows, 
square  high  stems,  spritsails  and  culverms. 

Notes  on  Handlmg  Sail 
In  handlmg  saU  judgment  and  quick  action  must  be  combined. 
Under  fine  weather  conditions  no  special  precautions  are  re- 
quired. If  the  wrong  piece  of  gear  is  let  go,  it  can  easily  be 
hauled  taut  and  made  fast  again,  but  when  the  wind  is  up,  at 
night,  and  with  the  ship  making  way  through  the  water,  squalls 
about,  etc.,  the  seaman  must  thoroughly  understand  his  busmess. 
If  he  does  not  he  will  get  into  a  mess  of  trouble  before  long. 
This  severity  of  nature  accounts  for  much  of  the  severity  of  men 
to  be  met  with  in  large  sailing  ships. 

Here  it  may  be  well  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  under 
most  conditions  stay  sails  and  square  sails  have  a  certain  lifting 
effect.  This  is  specially  true  of  a  reefed  fore  sail,  when  scud- 
ding. 

Sails  spread  from  a  gaff  have  a  downward  effect. 

In  taking  in  sail  the  wmd  must  be  spilled  from  a  sail,  at  the 
same  time  the  saU  must  be  kept  in  hand  with  its  gear  or  it  will 
shake  itself  to  pieces. 


Blowing  fresh  take  in  a  course  as  follows :  Ease  off  the  sheet  a 
little,  haul  up  on  the  weather  buntlines  and  leechlines,  then  haul 
on  the  lee  buntlines  and  leechlines.  Start  the  tack  and  haul  up 
on  clew  garnets,  rotmding  in  the  gear  together.  Then  haul  up 
the  lee  clew  garnets,  keeping  command  of  the  sheet. 

A  topsail  is  taken  in  the  same  way,  starting  to  windward.  Of 
course  in  fine  weather  you  rise  tacks  and  sheets  together  with  a 
smart  crew. 

On  any  square  sail  the  wind  is  got  out  of  it  by  hauling  best  on 
the  buntlines,  slow  on  the  clewlines. 

Therefore  to  take  in  a  course  in  fresh  or  heavy  weather  proceed 
as  follows : 

Man  the  weather  clew-garnets  and  buntlines,  ease  off  the 
main-sheet  a  fathom  or  two,  and  belay,  then  slack  away  the 
main-tack,  and  haul  up  the  weather  clew-garnet  and  buntlines, 
taking  care  to  have  the  sail  kept  full.  When  the  weather-clew 
is  up,  and  as  much  of  the  buntline  as  can  be  got,  luff  the  vessel 
as  close  to  the  wind  as  possible ;  ease  away  the  main-sheet,  and 
haul  the  lee  clew-garnet  and  btmtlines  at  the  same  time. 

To  take  in  a  topsail  (upper)  proceed  as  follows : 

Slack  away  the  weather-sheet,  and  haul  the  weather-clewline 
close  up,  and  the  btmtlines  as  much  as  possible,  then  man  the 
weather-brace,  let  go  the  lee  one.  As  you  start  the  lee-sheet, 
haul  in  upon  the  weather-brace ,  and  haul  up  the  lee-clewline  and 
bimtline. 

To  take  in  a  topgallant  sail,  ease  down  the  halliards,  round  in 
on  the  weather  brace,  hauling  on  the  clewlines  at  the  same  time. 
This  follows  the  order  "  Clew  down!  "  Then  ease  off  the  sheets 
and  ''Clew  up!  "  the  sail,  hauling  home  the  buntlines.    See  p.  213. 

Other  light  sails  are  taken  in  in  the  same  way. 

Lower  topsails  are  usually  allowed  to  stand  except  in  extreme 
weather.  Sometimes  the  lee  side  is  taken  in,  goosewinging 
the  sail.  Whenever  possible  send  hands  aloft  to  pass  the  sea 
gasgets  as  soon  as  a  sail  is  up  in  the  gear.  Warn  men  not  to 
pass  the  gasgets  of  a  course  aroimd  the  lower  topsail  sheets. 
All  yards  should  be  fitted  with  beckets  for  the  safety  of  men 
aloft. 
28 


t  '■ 


ll 


I    'I 

t 

I 


i 


784 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


Setting  Sail 

Sail  is  usually  set  under  favorable  conditions.  The  method  of 
setting  when  wind  is  fresh  or  blowing  hard  applies  to  storm 
canvas. 

Setting  a  Course 

Loose  the  sail  and  overhaul  the  btmtlines  and  leechlines.  Let 
go  the  clew-garnets  and  overhaul  them,  and  haul  down  on  the 
sheets  and  tacks.  If  the  ship  is  close-hauled,  ease  off  the  lee- 
braces,  slack  the  weather-lift  and  clew-garnet,  and  get  the  tack 
well  down.  When  the  tack  is  well  down,  sharpen  the  yards  up 
again  by  the  brace,  top  it  well  up  by  the  liftj  haul  aft  the  sheet, 
and  then  haul  out  the  bowline,  if  carried.  Most  modern  rigs 
dispense  with  this  piece  of  gear. 

When  bracing  up  a  lower  yard  man  the  lee  brace,  and  tend 
the  weather  brace  and  lee  lift.  Just  think  over  this  and  it  is 
easy  to  remember.  In  the  case  of  the  crossjack,  man  the 
weather  brace  and  tend  the  lee  brace,  also  the  lee  lift,  as  these 
braces  lead  forward  in  a  ship. 

Setting  a  Lower  Topsail,  or  Lower  Topgallant  Sail 

Man  the  sheets,  let  go  the  buntlines,  ease  off  the  clewlines 
as  the  lower  topsail  sheets  are  of  chain,  the  clewlines  must  not 
go  by  the  rtm  or  the  chain  will  jamb  in  the  shieve  at  the  lower 
yard  arm. 

Setting  an  Upper  Topsail 

The  clews  will  be  sheeted  home.  Overhatd  the  downhauls^ 
tend  the  braces,  overhaul  all  buntlines,  man  the  halliards.  In 
large  ships  the  halliards  are  taken  to  the  winch  or  deck  capstan. 
Let  go  the  topgallant  sheets. 

Setting  a  Light  Sail 

When  sheeting  home  a  light  sail  the  lee  sheet  is  brought  home 
first  and  the  clewline  is  slacked  away.  When  the  weather  sheet 
is  manned  the  clewline  is  let  go.  And  always  when  hoisting  a 
yard  see  the  sheets  of  the  next  sail  above,  if  any,  are  let  go,  and 
have  a  hand  at  the  lee  brace  to  tend  it.  When  a  sail  is  set 
buntlines  are  overhauled  and  stopped  with  cotton  twine,  this 


HANDLING  A  SAILER 


785 


prevents  chafe  on  sail  and  stops  are  easily  broken  when  taking 
in  sail.     Buntlines  are  stopped  together  just  under  the  lead 

I         blocks. 

I  Bracing  Yards 

When  going  free  and  the  wind  shifts  forward  brace  up  the 
head  yards  first,  then  the  main,  etc. 

When  wind  shifts  a//,  brace  in  the  crossjack  yards  first,  then 
the  main,  etc. 

When  close  hauled  always  hitch  the  weather  braces  on  the 
pins  to  prevent  them  coming  off.  Hang  up  the  lee  ones  in  the 
dajrtime,  and  lay  them  down  clear  for  running  at  night.  This 
is  done  by  taking  the  end  out  well  clear  on  the  deck,  and  flaking 
down  toward  the  pin. 

When  sweating  up  braces,  give  the  lower  brace  another  pull 
after  the  topsail  braces  have  been  hauled  taut.    Where  rope 


V 


Close  hauled  port  tack 
Note — trim  of  yards 


U 


786 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


HANDLING  A  SAILER 


787 


te 


I' 


!,' 


I 


l)races  are  fitted,  put  on  the  strop  with  the  splice  under  the  eye 
of  the  hook  of  the  handy  billy.* 

Many  modem  ships  now  reeve  wire  braces  throughout.  A 
small  hand  winch  is  used  at  the  pin  rail  for  sweating  up. 

Have  squaring  marks  on  all  braces.  Keep  yards  square  dur- 
ing fine  weather  in  port. 

Trimming  Yards 

When  on  the  wind,  brace  up  lower  yards  back  against  the 
swifters  (forward  legs  of  the  shrouds),  the  yards  as  you  go  up 
are  braced  in  a  few  degrees  each  one  making  a  slightly  smaller 
angle  with  the  keel.  The  reason  for  this  is  the  fact  that  lower 
sails  are  less  flat,  and  as  the  sails  go  higher  the  support  becomes 
less  and  the  leverage  greater.  This  method  of  trimming  is  most 
pronounced  when  close  hauled.  When  the  wind  is  on  the 
quarter,  or  aft,  yards  may  be  trimmed  about  the  same. 

Great  judgment  is  needed  in  trimming  yards  and  an  officer 
should  study  his  ship  and  her  way  through  the  water.  Yards 
trim  much  sharper  in  fine  weather  than  in  a  rough  sea. 

Fore  and  Aft  Canvas 

Taking  in  a  jib  when  on  the  wind.  Put  up  the  helm  and  keep 
the  ship  off  a  point  or  two,  let  go  halliards,  man  downhaul  and 
ease  off  sheet  The  sail  will  run  down  easily  if  this  is  done. 
This  applies  to  all  staysails.  In  fresh  weather  the  sheet  shovdd 
be  eased  just  enough  to  keep  the  hanks  from  binding  against  the 
stay.  With  wind  free  a  staysail  runs  down  as  a  rule  without 
much  hauling. 

Taking  in  a  spanker  or  trysaily  man  the  lee  brails  best.  This 
spills  the  wind  and  helps  to  bring  the  sail  in  snug  to  the  mast. 

Large  fore  and  aft  sails  spread  by  gaffs  and  booms  require 
the  most  careful  handling.  The  gaffs  are  heavy  and  cannot  be 
steadied  by  the  vangs  when  well  up,  and  these  spars  throw  an 
enormous  strain  on  sails  and  masts.  In  reefing,  come  close  to 
the  wind  but  do  not  allow  the  sail  to  slat  heavily.  All  reef- 
points  must  be  passed  and  earing  hauled  out  on  boom  with  equal 
tension,  as  the  reef  points  not  only  supports  the  sail,  but  takes  a 
large  part  of  the  weight  of  boom  as  well,  although  this  is  cared 
for  by  the  weather  leg  of  the  topping  lift. 

*Handy  hilly ^  the  small  watch  tackle  used  in  sweating  up  lower  braces. 
See  p.  141. 


The  stowing  of  a  gaff  topsail  and  the  setting  of  it  is  not  to  be 
acqtiired  by  reading.  This  is  a  light  weather  sail  and  should  be 
taken  in  in  plenty  of  time.  The  sail  is  hoisted  by  a  halliard  to 
the  mast  head,  the  clew  is  hauled  out  to  the  end  of  the  gaff  by  a 
sheet,  the  foot  of  the  sail  is  hauled  down  on  the  weather  side  of 
the  gaff  by  a  long  rope  called  the  lazy  tacky  which  must  be  shifted 
over  after  going  about.  In  stowing,  man  downhaul,  and  clew- 
line, gather  sail  in  abaft  the  doubling,  pass  gasgets  under  all 
running  gear. 

Squalls 

An  officer  in  sail  must  always  keep  his  eye  peeled  for  squalls. 
At  night  he  must  have  his  sense  of  wind  force  keyed  up  to  the 
working  point.  Carrying  sail  at  night  takes  a  seaman;  almost 
anyone  can  crack-on  during  the  day. 

With  a  heavy  squall  coming  act  quickly.  A  number  of  things 
may  be  done. 

Take  in  all  light  sails,  letting  them  hang  in  their  gear.  Brail 
in  spanker.  Lower  upper  topsail  yards.  Brace  in  lower  yards. 
Raise  mainsail.     Down  jib  and  set  foretopmast  staysail. 

If  the  squall  looks  heavy  put  up  helm  and  take  it  over  the  quar- 
ter. Do  this  before  the  wind  strikes  you,  and  only,  of  course, 
if  you  have  the  necessary  sea  room. 

If  on  a  schooner,  check  the  sheets  and  luff. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  two  types  of  craft  call  for  different 
handling.  Square  riggers  should  be  put  before  the  squall,  and 
fore-and-afters  up  into  it. 

After  a  squall,  or  period  of  heavy  weather,  make  sail  slowly 
but  do  not  force  the  vessel  into  a  heavy  sea.  The  sea  goes 
down  much  slower  than  the  wind. 

Carrying  Away  Rigging 

Accidents  at  sea  under  sail  are  of  common  occurrence.  Sheets 
may  carry  away,  gear  parts  when  working  sail,  braces  part,  and 
even  stays  and  shrouds  may  go  in  very  severe  weather.  If  a 
fore  and  aft  stay  goes,  up  helm  and  put  ship  before  it  to  take  off 
strain,  and  at  once  rig  preventer  gear.  If  fore  stay  goes,  or 
foretopmast  stay,  get  up  fish  tackle  and  hook  at  mast  head  and 
at  gammoning  or  knight  heads  and  set  up  on  capstan.    As  these 


i; 

m 


^■:^ 


•    i« 


788 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


Stays  take  most  of  the  backward  thrust  of  the  whole  system 
of  masts,  this  accident  occurs  most  often.  The  fish  tackle 
should  always  be  handy.  A  well-regulated  ship  will  always  have 
an  abundance  of  heavy  straps,  of  wire  and  manila,  and  plenty 
of  tackles. 
If  a  shroud  goes,  put  ship  about  at  once,  by  wearing  or  tacking 

as  may  seem  best. 

Upper  Weather  Main  Topsail  Brace  Carries  Away 
Ease  lee  sheet  to  spill  the  sail.    Luff  into  wind  and  lower  on 
halliards.    These  directions  cover  all  hoisting  square  sails. 

Lower  Weather  Main  Brace  Carries  Away 
Ease  off  the  sheet,  let  go  the  tack  and  haul  up  the  mainsail, 
bracing  in  on  the  weather  lower  topsail  brace.  Take  in  the 
lower  topsail,  starting  the  weather  sheet  at  once  to  take  the 
pull  off  of  the  main  yard.  Rig  a  preventer  brace.  If  yard  is 
swajring  about  put  the  main  yards  aback  to  steady  it. 

Parral  Carries  Away 
This  is  not  serious  where  the  braces  are  standing.    Lower  the 
yard,  put  the  sail  aback  and  pass  a  temporary  parral. 

Yard  Sprung 
Fish  the  yard  with  suitable  spars.    These  should  be  shaped 
properly  by  the  carpenter  and  hove  down  close  to  the  yard  with 
wire  lashings,  and  then  set  these  taut  with  hard  wood  wedges.* 

Cap  Carried  Away 
Pass  a  Spanish  cap,  that  is  a  chain  lashing  around  the  lower- 
mast  head  and  the  topmast,  heaving  the  turns  taut  with  a  wire 

frapping. 

Lower  Topmast  Sprung  Just  Above  the  Cap 

Lower  down  till  the  sprung  part  is  below  the  cap,  wedge  and 
lash.     Cut  new  fid  hole  and  shorten  rigging.     Set  up  and  hoist 

sail. 

Cutting  Away  Masts 

When  this  becomes  necessary,  a  vessel  being  down  on  her 
beam  ends,  always  cut  and  clear  the  lee  rigging  and  stays,  before 

*See  page  750. 


HANDLING  A  SAILER 


789 


cutting  or  knocking  loose  the  pelican  hooks  of  the  weather 

rigging.    Spars  smashing  alongside  to  leeward  may  bilge  the 

vessel. 
When  hove-to,  cut  the  rigging  on  both  sides  except  the  two 

forward  legs  and  the  stays.    Cut  these  last. 

Where  a  vessel  is  in  an  extreme  condi- 
tion, cut  away  the  mizzen  and  the  main 
masts.  Rouse  up  a  bower  chain  bring  it 
inboard  and  secure  it  to  the  foremast  well 
up.  Take  a  round  turn  and  lash  with  a 
hawser.  Attach  a  strong  block  and  three- 
inch  line  with  plenty  of  scope  for  an  oil  bag. 
Cut  lee  rigging  and  stays,  cut  weather  rig- 
ging, and  as  the  mast  goes  by  the  board, 
say  a  few  prayers  and  veer  chain  (many 
have  done  this),  and  if  all  goes  well  the  ves- 
sel will  bring  up  on  the  sea  anchor  formed 
Turn  buckles.  Handy  jjy  the  foremast  and  gear.    Haul  out  a  bag 

when  rigging  must  be  ^^  ^^  ^^  ^^^  ^ ^j.  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^^  ^^^^ 
"set  up.** 

Jury  Rigs 

In  a  case  like  the  one  just  mentioned,  when  the  weather  sub- 
sides haul  alongside  the  foremast  sea  anchor,  parbuckle  the 
heavy  spars  on  board  and  proceed  to  exercise  your  seamanship 
in  getting  up  a  jury  rig.  Work  the  vessel  into  the  nearest  port. 
Enter  a  protest  before  the  consul,  cable  your  owners  for  instruc- 
tions and  generally  follow  the  hints  to  a  master  in  a  port  of 
distress,  printed  in  the  chapter  ahead. 

During  all  such  operations  keep  sotmding  the  well,  look  after 
all  tarpaulins — never  neglect  the  cargo. 

After  this,  stand  by  for  a  presentation  from  the  underwriters 
and  a  newer  and  more  important  command. 

Man  Overboard 

On  the  windy  put  down  helm,  throw  over  a  life  ring  with  water 
light.  Try  and  sight  the  man  and  tell  off  one  hand  to  watch  him. 
Lower  a  lee  boat.  Square  the  head  yards  to  stop  the  way  In 
heavy  weather,  if  the  man  has  the  buoy,  it  may  often  be  possible 
to  work  down  and  pick  him  up  with  the  vessel. 


i 


790 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


HANDLING  A  SAILER 


791 


»         V 


Before  the  windy  put  the  helm  down,  throw  a  life,  etc.  Let 
fly  light  sails,  brace  up  the  crossjack  and  head  yards  and  take  off 
the  way  of  the  ship.    Lower  a  lee  boat. 

One  of  the  most  important  things  to  do  is  to  keep  the  man  in 
sight.  At  night  this  cannot  be  done,  but  assume  that  he  will 
swim  for  the  water  Ught  and  keep  that  in  sight  and  send  boat  to  it. 
Have  a  light  in  the  boat. 

m 

Directions  on  Hearing  another  Vessel^  your  Vessel  being  under 

Sail  Alone 

Close-hauled. — On  Starboard  Tack, 

Hold  your  course,  do  not  steer  wildly,  or  you  may  confuse 
the  ship  whose  duty  it  is  to  keep  clear  of  you. 
Close-hauled.— On  Port  Tack. 

Take  bearing.  * 

Ascertain  whether  a  steamer  or  not. 

If  a  steamer,  keep  your  course. 

If  a  sailing  vessel — 

a.  If  to  windward  of  you,  hold  your  course. 

b.  If  ahead  of  you,  or  less  than  two  or  three  points  on  the 

weather  bow,  hold  your  course. 

c.  If  to  leeward  of  you,  or  more  than  two  or  three  points 

on  the  lee  bow — 
1st.    Take  bearing  again. 
2d.     If  her  bearing  has  altered  materially,  and  continues 

so  to  alter,  keep  your  course. 
3d.     If  her  bearing  has  not  altered  materially,  tack,  or 
bear  away  until  it  does  so. 
Wind  Aft. 
Take  bearing. 

Ascertain  whether  a  steamer  or  not. 
If  a  steamer,  hold  your  course. 
If  a  sailing  vessel — 

fl.    If  right  astern,  or  if  overtaking  you,  hold  your  course. 
b.    If  in  any  other  direction  (except  right  astern,  or  over- 
taking you) — 


1st.    Take  bearing  again. 

2d.    If  her  bearing  has  altered  materially,  and  continues  so 

to  alter,  hold  your  course. 
3d.    If  her  bearing  has  not  altered  materially,  alter  course 
sufficiently  to  starboard  or  to  port  to  assist  in  alter- 
ing her  bearing. 
Running  Free.— Wind  on  Starboard  Side. 
Take  bearing. 

Ascertain  whether  steamer  or  not. 
If  a  steamer,  hold  your  course. 
If  a  sailing  vessel — 

a.  If  to  windward  of  you,  or  if  ahead  of  you,  and  going 

free,  or  if  her  Red  light  only  (or  her  Port  side)  shows 
provided  always  she  is  not  close-hauled^  keep  your 
course. 

b.  If  ahead  of  you  and  close-hauled,  or  if  to  leeward  of 

you,  or  if  her  Green  light  (or  her  Starboard  side) 
shows,  or  if  you  are  overtaking  her — 
Take  bearing  again. 
If  her  bearing  has  altered  materially,  and  continues 

so  to  alter,  hold  your  course. 
If  her  bearing  has  not  altered  materially,  alter  course 
sufficiently  to  starboard  or  port  to  assist  to  alter  her 
bearing. 
Running  Free.— Wind  on  Port  Side. 
Take  bearing. 

Ascertain  whether  a  steamer  or  not. 
If  a  steamer,  hold  your  course. 
If  a  sailing  vessel — 

a.  If  to  windward  of  you,  and  with  the  wind  on  her  port 

side,  or  right  aft,  hold  your  course. 

b.  Under  all  circumstances — 
1st.    Take  bearing  again. 

2d.     If  her  bearing  has  altered  materially,  and  continues  so 
to  alter,  hold  your  course. 

c.  If  she  is  on  your  starboard  side — ■ 
1st.    Take  bearing  again. 

2d.     If  she  has  altered  her  bearing  materially,  hold  your 
course. 


1st. 
2d. 

3d. 


b  r 


'.:n 


792 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


HANDLING  A  SAILOR 


793 


w       r 


3d.        If  her  bearing  has  not  altered  materially,  alter  course 

sufficiently  to  starboard  or  port  to  assist  in  altering 

her  bearing. 

In  all  of  the  above  instructions,  action  depends  upon  definite 

knowledge  of  the  course  and  condition  of  the  other  vessel. 

Never  shave  close.    Give  way  in  plenty  of  time  if  you  are  the 

burdened  vessel    If  you  are  the  privileged  vessel  watch  your 

course  and  speed.    Know  Rules  of  Road. 

IV 
Coming  to  Anchor  with  a  Sailer 

Have  the  anchors  both  ready  for  letting  go.  Reduce  canvas  to 
the  lowest  working  size.  As  the  ship  comes  to  the  anchorage 
lufE  unto  the  wind  and  square  the  fore  and  main  yards.  As  soon 
as  the  ship  gathers  sternboard,  let  go  the  anchor  and  veer  chain, 
clewing  up  and  hauling  down  at  the  same  time. 

A  fore-and-after  has  a  harder  time  coming  to  anchor  because 
of  the  lack  of  positive  backing  force  to  the  sails. 

Many  conditions  of  wind  and  tide  and  the  room  available  for 
anchoring  must  be  taken  into  consideration.  In  most  places  ships 
are  taken  to  their  anchorages  by  tugs,  but  often  it  is  necessary 
to  manage  the  business  alone. 

To  come  to  an  anchorage  with  the  wind  and  tide  in  the  same 
direction.  Round  up  with  the  after  square  canvas  set.  Square 
the  after  yards  and  let  go  as  soon  as  her  way  is  less  than  the 
tide.    As  she  veers  chain  haul  down  and  clew  up. 

To  come  to  anchor  with  the  wind  and  tide  opposed  to  each 
other.  Stem  the  tide,  pick  out  the  best  anchorage,  stow  all 
saU  ride  with  the  tide  and  let  go,  taking  care  not  to  pay  out  chain 
too  fast.  If  the  wind  is  strong  try  and  avoid  breaking  sheer  and 
riding  over  the  anchor  so  as  to  foul  it. 

A  fore-and-after  working  into  an  anchorage  may  often  gain  a 
desired  position  by  resorting  to  half-boardSj  that  is  luffing  mto 
the  eye  of  the  wind  and  paymg  off  again  before  she  loses  her 
way.  This  is  often  used  in  making  a  gain  to  windward  where 
tackmg  cannot  be  resorted  to  because  of  shipping  or  for  other 
reasons.  Yachts  stop  their  way  by  putting  helm  hard  over  to 
port  and  starboard  alternately. 


Riding  at  Single  Anchor 

A  light  ship  will  generally  lie  best  to  leeward  of  her  anchor. 
A  deeply  laden  ship  will  often  lie  to  windward  of  it,  keeping  a  good 
sheer  at  all  times,  and  seeing  that  she  swings  with  the  tide  on  a 
taut  cable  and  always  on  the  same  side  of  the  anchor,  if  possible. 

The  same  precautions  are  to  be  observed  as  in  the  case  of  a 
steamer.  Always  have  sufficient  sail  bent  to  take  care  of  her 
if  she  trips  her  anchor.  Always  have  the  second  bower  ready 
to  let  go.  When  the  weather  makes  up  veer  chain  in  plenty  of 
time.  Keep  yards  braced  up  sharp  in  stiff  weather  and  on  the 
tack  that  will  help  hold  her  sheer.  An  officer  should  always 
stand  anchor  watch  when  in  an  open  roadstead. 

Casting* 

A  vessel  riding  at  anchor  and  getting  under  way  presents 
many  different  sets  of  conditions.  In  casting  to  starboard  loose 
lower  and  upper  topsails  and  jib.  Heave  to  short  stay,  sheet 
home  and  hoist  away  topsails.  Brace  up  fore  yards  on  starboard 
tack,  main  yards  on  port  tack.  Crossjack  yards  square.  As  she 
pays  ofif  to  starboard  break  out  anchor.  When  main  topsails  fill, 
brace  around  fore  yards  and  crossjack  yards,  set  jib  and  spanker 
and  proceed.    To  cast  to  port  brace  yards  in  opposite  way. 

In  casting  the  seaman  must  show  his  judgment  and  his  skill. 
No  rules  can  be  set  down  covering  all  conditions.  Each  time  a 
vessel  gets  under  way  new  conditions  confront  the  master. 
Weigh  all  conditions  carefully,  the  force  of  wmd  and  tide,  the 
way  the  vessel  is  riding,  the  state  of  the  hawse,  the  proximity  of 
other  craft,  or  dangers,  and  the  possible  courses  that  can  be 
made  out  of  the  anchorage. 

Sail  and  Motor 

When  close  hauled  with  light  wind  run  the  lee  engine  (if  you 
have  twin  screws).  This  will  hold  her  up  against  leeway  and 
IS  generally  worth  while. 

Warning 

Never  approach  a  coast  unless  your  anchors  are  bent  on  in 
plenty  of  time  and  are  ready  for  instant  use.  Many  fine  craft 
have  been  lost  through  neglect  of  this  precaution.  The  shores 
Of  Tierra  del  Fuego  have  caught  many  a  Cape  Homer  suddenly 
dnven  on  the  rocks  with  anchors  stowed  and  cables  unbent. 

Casting  IS  the  getting  under  way  of  a  saiUng  vessel  riding  at  anchor. 


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•IH      V 


CHAPTER  20 
WEATHER  AT  SEA 


Foreword 

Most  people,  when  they  don't  know  what  to  talk  about,  talk 
about  the  weather.  Authors  also  seem  to  foUow  this  system 
when  we  glance  over  the  long  list  of  books  about  the  weather. 
We  find  a  wealth  of  elaborate  maps  covered  with  sinuous  curves 
and  many  pages  of  tables.  Much  of  this  matter  is  absolutely 
worthless  to  the  sailor. 

Bowditch  contains  exceUent  data  on  the  weather  observed  at 
sea,  the  prevailing  winds  of  the  great  oceans,  and  the  simple 
recording  instruments  in  use  on  board  ship;  the  barometer, 
thermometer,  anemomether,  etc.  Captain  Lecky  has  a  fine 
chapter  on  marine  meteorology  in  his  Wrinkles,  and  Mr. 
WiUiam  Allinghan  has  written  A  Manual  of  Marine  Meteorology 
that  every  ship's  oflicer  should  study.  The  Atmosphere,  by 
F.  J.  B.  Cordeiro  is  an  excellent  book  for  those  who  like  to  get 
their  facts  dressed  up  in  mathematics.  Here  we  learn  that  the 
cyclone  is  dynamically  a  gyroscope.  Mr.  Cordeiro  also  prints 
the  letter  by  Alexander  Hamilton,  dated  at  St.  Croix,  September 
6, 1772,  in  which  that  distinguished  statesman  and  scholar,  then  a 
very  young  man,  records  the  passing  of  a  cyclone  with  brilliant 
vividness.    It  is  said  to  be  his  earliest  writing. 

Professor  Milham,  of  Williams  CoUege,  records  some  three 
hundred  titles  in  the  bibliography  printed  as  an  appendix  to  his 
own  very  excellent  Meteorology, 

But  in  a  seamanship,  a  work  book  in  the  best  sense,  the 
weather  must  be  treated  and  in  a  practical  way.  Sailing  craft 
are  absolutely  dependent  upon  it  and  steamers  are  largely 
effected  by  weather  and  sea  conditions.  Several  very  important 
things  may  be  called  to  the  attention  of  the  seaman. 

On  a  sailing  ship  the  ofllcer  in  charge  of  a  watch,  and  the 
master,  of  course,  are  fuUy  alive  to  the  vast  importance,  to  them, 

795 


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796 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


WEATHER  AT  SEA 


797 


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of  the  weather,  especially  the  wind  and  its  changes.  The  sea 
officer,  in  sail,  is  constantly  keeping  his  "  weather  eye  "  on  the 
clouds,  the  sky  in  general  and  the  sea.  He  becomes  of  necessity 
a  keen  observer  of  local  weather  conditions  and  learns  to  judge 
the  speed  and  weight  of  a  squall  with  remarkable  accuracy,  even 
on  the  darkest  night.  He  soon  feels  the  weather.  The  "  glass  " 
and  its  pumping  means  volumes  to  him.  Sunset,  and  sunrise 
and  the  high  clouds  at  the  zenith,  all  speak  to  him  with  the 
language  of  experience.  Little  jingles  sum  up  a  great  deal  of 
this  ancient  lore — 


First  rise,  after  low. 
Indicates  a  stronger  blow. 

Long  foretold,  long  last: 
Short  notice,  soon  past. 

When  the  glass  falls  low. 
Prepare  for  a  blow; 
When  it  rises  high, 
Let  all  your  kites  fly. 
(Referring  to  the  barometer.) 


A  red  sky  in  the  morning 
Is  the  sailor^s  warning. 
A  red  sky  at  night 
Is  the  sailor^ s  delight. 


Evening  red  and  morning  gray 
Are  certain  signs  of  a  fine  day. 


A  mackerel  sky  with  Iambus  tails 
Makes  tall  ships  carry  low  sails. 
(Referring  to  cloud  forms.) 


When  the  rain^s  before  the  wind. 
Halyards,  sheets,  and  braces  mind. 

When  the  mruTs  before  the  rain, 
Soon  you  may  make  sail  again. 

(Sqtialls.) 


June,  too  soon;  July,  stand  by; 
August,  look  out  you  must. 
September,  remember;  October, 
all  over. 

(Hurricanes.) 


The  steamship  officer,  as  stated  in  the  chapter  on  the  Compass, 
is  vitally  interested  in  this  question  of  the  speed  of  sailing  craft 
under  different  conditions  of  wind  and  sea  and  on  the  various 
points  of  sailing.  To  accurately  judge  the  above  important 
points  he  must  know  the  true  force  and  direction  of  the  wind, 
not  with  relation  to  his  own  swiftly  moving  vessel,  but  with 
relation  to  the  sailing  craft  he  is  liable  to  meet. 

For  instance,  a  vessel  making  twenty  knots  due  north  with  a 
wind  blowing  twenty  knots  due  south,  would  have  the  wind 
dead  ahead  and  apparently  blowing  forty  knots,  in  fact  actually 
blowing  forty  knots  over  the  steamer,  but  only  half  that  fast 
over  the  sea.    If  the  vessel  were  steaming  south  the  air  would 


appear  to  be  calm,  smoke  rising  straight  up  from  the  stack,  and 
not  unlikely  showering  the  bridge  with  cinders  and  soot. 

Between  these  two  extremes  we  have  an  infinite  number  of 
variations  where  the  wind  blows  at  an  angle  to  the  course  of  the 
steamer.  In  the  daytime  the  direction  of  the  sea  waves  will 
often  give  the  true  direction  of  the  wind,  having  in  mind  the 
fact  that  the  sea  may  be  running  from  a  previous  storm  or  a 
distant  wind,  and  may  have  an  appreciably  different  direction 
to  the  wind  over  head. 

The  solution  to  this  problem  of  the  true  direction  and  force 
depends  upon  the  following  factors : 
Speed  of  vessel. 
Relative  direction  of  wind  across  vessel  (see  relative  bearings, 

page  464). 
Apparent  velocity  of  wind  over  vessel.    See  page  465. 

Plotting  these  three  factors  to  scale  and  working  out  a  paral- 
lelogram of  velocities  will  give  the  true  direction  and  velocity 
of  the  wind  over  the  sea. 

Of  course  no  sane  person  will  expect  an  officer  to  plot  these 
factors  and  work  out  a  parallelogram  of  velocities  while  on  the 
bridge  on  a  dark  night.  But  by  working  out  problems  comfort- 
ably on  fine  afternoons  on  the  bridge  he  will  soon  become  able 
to  judge  correctly  just  what  is  the  true  wind  direction  and  velo- 
city, knowing  its  apparent  direction  and  velocity  and  the  speed 
of  his  ship. 

Allingham,  in  his  Marine  Meteorology  gives  an  excellent  table 
for  solving  this  problem.  Still,  when  these  tables  are  needed 
most,  on  a  dark  wet  night,  they  can  not  be  used.  Only  judg- 
ment and  experience  are  worth  while  at  such  times.  The 
late  Captain  Lecky  worked  it  out  by  trigonometry  using  four- 
place  logarithms. 

n 

storm  Warnings 

The  seaman  who  is  not  equipped  with  radio,  will  watch  for 
storm  warnings  from  signal  stations  along  the  coast  and  these 
warnings  should  also  be  heeded  by  vessels  at  anchor  in  exposed 
harbors  where  they  may  drag  their  moorings. 

United  States  storm  warnings  by  flags  are  as  follows : 


k 


798 


WEATHER  AT  SEA 


Storm  Warning  Flags,— A  red  square  flag  with  a  black  center 
indicates  that  a  storm  of  marked  violence  is  expected. 

The  pennants  displayed  with  the  flags  indicate  the  direction 
of  the  wind:  Red  pennant,  easterly;  white  pennant,  westerly. 
The  pennant  above  the  flag  indicates  that  the  wind  is  expected 
to  blow  from  the  northerly  quadrants;  below^  from  southerly 
quadrants. 

United  States  Storm  Warnings, 

By  night  the  approach  of  storms  of  marked  violence  is  indi- 
cated by:  Two  red  lights,  one  above  the  other,  for  winds  be- 
ginning from  the  northeast;  a  single  red  light  for  winds  beginning 
from  the  southeast;  a  red  light  above  a  white  light  for  winds 
beginning  from  the  southwest;  and  a  white  light  above  a  red 
light  for  winds  beginning  from  the  northwest. 


Hurricane  Signal 

Hurricane  warnings,— Two  red  flags  with  black  centers,  dis- 
played one  above  the  other,  indicate  the  expected  approach  of 


WEATHER    AT  SEA 


799 


tropical  hurricanes,  and  also  of  those  extremely  severe  and 
dangerous  storms  which  occasionally  move  across  the  Lakes  and 
northern  Atlantic  coast.  These  warnings  are  displayed  at  all 
Weather  Bureau  stations  on  the  Atlantic,  Pacific  and  Gulf  coasts 
of  the  United  States,  at  Belize,  Honduras,  and  on  the  following 
islands  of  the  Atlantic  and  the  Caribbean  Sea :  Bermuda,  Cuba, 
Jamaica,  Haiti,  Porto  Rico,  Turks  Island,  Virgin  Islands  of  the 
U.  S.  A.,  Dominica,  Martinique,  St.  Lucia,  Barbados,  St.  Vin- 
cent, St.  Kitts,  Trinidad,  Grenada,  Curagao,  and  Swan  Island. 

By  night  on  the  Atlantic,  Pacific  and  Gulf  coasts  two  red  lights 
with  a  white  light  between  indicate  the  approach  of  a  hurri- 
cane or  whole  gale. 

in 

Forecasting  the  Weather 
The  following,  adapted  from  an  article  by  Commodore  A.  B. 
Bennett,  Jr.,  of  the  U.  S.  Power  Squadrons,  is  printed  here  by 
permission  of  the  author,  and  of  Yachting  in  which  it  appeared.* 

In  order  to  intelligently  predict  the  weather  it  is  essential  to 
have  a  working  knowledge  of  the  laws  that  govern  its  changes. 

When  reading  the  Barometer  we  simply  read  the  measure  of 
the  weight  or  pressure  of  the  air  at  that  particular  place  and 
elevation.  Suppose  we  go  down  under  water  in  a  submarine 
bell  and  in  the  wall  of  the  bell  there  is  an  instrument  to  indicate 
the  pressure  of  the  water  outside.  If  the  water  is  calm  and  the 
bell  is  moved  up  and  down  close  to  the  undulating  bottom  of  the 
water  we  would  notice  a  difference  in  the  pressure  registered 
by  the  instrument  being  less  as  we  went  up  and  greater  as  we 
went  down.  This  is  also  true  of  the  air  for  if  we  climb  up  and 
down  a  mountain  the  air  pressure  changes,  being  lighter  on  the 
mountain  and  heavy  in  the  valleys  and  at  sea  level.  Again 
suppose  the  submarine  bell  is  stationary  and  a  storm  comes  up 
and  great  waves  pass  over  the  spot  where  the  bell  is  located  we 
would  notice  that  as  the  water  rose  and  fell  the  pressure  would 
rise  and  fall.  It  is  the  same  in  the  air  for  there  is  a  constant 
passing  over  the  earth  of  waves  of  atmospheric  weight  and  as 
these  waves  pass  over,  the  barometer  will  show  a  rise  and  fall 
as  the  crests  and  troughs  of  the  waves  move  on. 

In  the  North  Temperate  Zone  the  movement  of  the  atmospheric 
pressure  waves  is  always  easterly,  the  center  of  the  trough  or 
the  low  points  usually  passing  out  over  the  Gulf  of  the  St. 

*The  student  sailor  is  advised  to  consult  Physics  of  the  Air,  by  Dr.  W.  J. 
Humphreys  of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  to  supplement  the  reading  of  this 
section  of  the  seamanship. 

29 


800 


STANDARD     SEAMANSHIP 


WEATHER  AT  SEA 


801 


Lawrence.  This  is  true  with  the  exception  of  a  few  low  points 
which  form  in  the  Tropics  and  either  pass  up  the  Mississippi  or 
the  Atlantic  Coast.  These  waves  of  atmospheric  pressure  are 
not  in  parallel  ridges  like  the  waves  of  the  sea,  but  they  are  like  a 
mountain  range  with  peaks  of  different  heights  and  valleys  of 
different  depths  passing  over  the  earth,  not  broadside,  but 
end  on;  not  as  a  company  marching  company  front,  but  as  in 
march-ing  in  column  of  twos.  The  speed  of  their  passing  varies 
from,  one  peak  and  valley  a  day  to  one  peak  and  valley  in  a 
week. 

The  high  pressure  areas  are  areas  where  the  air  is  heavy  or 
dense  and  low  pressure  areas  are  areas  where  the  air  is  light  or 
rare.  As  air  is  like  fluid  in  its  tendency  to  flow  the  direction 
of  its  flow  is  naturally  from  the  high  pressure  areas  to  the  low 
pressure  areas  and  this  movement  of  air  is  wind.  The  move- 
ment of  air  or  wind  in  its  relation  to  the  highs  and  lows  is  in 
obedience  to  definite  meteorological  laws.  Pull  out  the  stopper 
of  a  wash  bowl  which  is  full  of  water  and  you  will  notice  that 
the  water  does  not  rush  to  the  center,  but  soon  takes  on  a  spiral 
direction  rushing  around  and  around  on  its  way  to  the  low  point 
or  opening  of  the  bowl.  Air  currents  or  winds  behave  in  the 
same  way  about  a  point  of  low  pressure  going  spirally  and 
inward  and  always  in  a  counter  clockwise  direction.  Air  currents 
about  a  high  pressure  point  flow  spirally  and  outward  and  always 
in  a  clockwise  direction.  The  speed  of  these  air  currents,  or  in 
other  words  the  force  of  the  wind,  is  in  direct  ratio  to  the  slope 
from  the  peak  to  the  valley  or  the  amount  of  difference  between 
and  the  proximity  of  the  high  and  low.  A  high  which  is  not  very 
high  and  a  low  which  is  not  very  low  and  considerable  distance 
apart  will  have  hardly  any  flow  of  air  from  one  to  the  other, 
but  a  very  low  point  with  a  high  point  or  high  points  nearby 
will  result  in  a  very  rapid  flow  of  air  or  a  strong  wind  flowing 
spirally  toward  the  center  of  the  low  as  illustrated  by  a  tropical 
storm  or  a  Western  hurricane  or  cyclone.  The  areas  of  low 
pressure  are  known  as  cyclones  and  the  areas  of  high  pressure 
are  known  as  anticyclones. 

The  location  of  the  highs  and  lows  is  ascertained  every  day 
by  the  Weather  Bureau  and  the  easterly  advance  can  be  easily 
watched.  The  method  of  ascertaining  this  is  fairly  simple.  At 
the  same  hour  every  day  barometer  and  thermometer  readings 
are  taken  at  hundreds  of  stations,  ashore  and  on  shipboard.  The 
barometer  readmgs  are  corrected  to  sea  level,  which  means 
making  allowances  for  elevations  and  temperature.  Then  the 
readings  are  noted  upon  a  map  at  all  the  stations  and  the  stations 
with  the  same  reading  are  connected  by  a  line.  These  lines 
are  known  as  Isobars,  Also  the  stations  with  the  same  tem- 
perature are  connected  with  a  dotted  line  and  these  lines  are 


known  as  Isotherms,  The  drawing  of  the  Isobars  immediately 
reveals  the  highs  and  lows,  their  proximity  to  each  other  and  the 
steepness  of  their  slopes.  The  slope  is  known  as  the  Barometric 
Gradient,  Accompanying  the  report  from  the  stations  is  a 
report  of  the  wind,  its  direction  and  force  and  this  is  shown  on 
the  map  by  an  arrow  placed  in  the  proper  direction. 

The  barometer  is  an  instrument  for  the  measuring  of  the 
weight  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  principles  of  the  instrument 
were  discovered  by  Torricelli  in  1643.  He  found  that  when  he 
filled  a  glass  tube  (which  was  closed  at  one  end)  with  mercury 
and  inverted  it  in  a  bowl  of  mercury  that  the  weight  of  the  air 
on  the  mercury  in  the  bowl  would  support  the  mercury  in  the 
tube  to  a  height  of  thirty  inches.  All  standard  barometers  are 
of  the  mercury  type  and  the  readings  on  all  barometers  represent 
height  of  mercury.  The  weight  of  the  atmosphere  is  not 
measured  in  pounds  or  ounces  but  in  height  of  mercury.  For 
our  use  the  aneroid*  barometer  of  good  make  is  much  better  than 
a  mercury  type  as  the  aneroid  is  accurate  enough,  is  compact 
and  easily  handled.  At  least  each  quarter  the  aneroid  barometer 
should  be  compared  with  a  standard  barometer.  Do  not  remove 
from  ship.  Take  set  of  readings  and  time  to  W.B.  for  compari- 
son. In  certain  parts  of  the  scale  the  aneroid  may  rise  or  fall 
more  or  less  than  the  standard  and  the  best  way  to  determine 
this  is  to  take  the  reading  of  the  aneroid  and  compare  the  range 
of  activity  with  that  of  the  W.B.  standard.  This  study  of  rela- 
tive activity  had  best  be  from  29.20  inches  to  30.60  inches  which 
is  as  much  range  as  we  will  usually  need  to  know  about.  The 
best  time  of  the  year  to  make  this  study  is  in  winter  when  there 
are  the  most  active  changes  and  the  greatest  range  of  rising 
and  falling  atmosphere  pressure.  The  weather  words  usually 
found  on  the  face  of  an  aneroid  barometer  are  of  small  value 
to  the  sailor  and  should  be  disregarded.  The  ideal  face  of  an 
aneroid  should  be  perfectly  plain,  except  for  the  graduations. 

In  using  a  barometer  it  is  important  to  realize  that  a  single 
observation  of  a  barometer  without  reference  to  the  readings  at 
definite  intervals  preceding  is  not  only  useless  but  liable  to  be 
misleading.  Therefore  it  is  very  necessary  to  keep  a  written 
record  of  the  barometer  readings  at  stated  intervals  during  the 
twenty-four  hours.  Another  important  fact  to  be  considered  is 
that  the  barometer  foretells,  as  well  as  indicates  weather  that  is 
*The  aneroid  barometer  is  a  metal  box  partly  exhausted  of  air,  the  sides 
bulge  out  or  in  as  the  air  pressure  varies.  This  motion  is  measured  on  a 
scale  graduated  to  inches  of  mercury,  or  m  millimeters  or  in  centibars.  Cen- 
tibar graduation  is  being  introduced  by  the  British,  100  centibars  being  the 
standard  atmosphere  »  in  the  C.G.S.  (centimetre,  gramm,  second)  system 
Of  umts.  Standard  Atmosphere  is  the  pressure  of  a  mercury  column  of 
standard  gravity,  0°  C,  760  millimeters  high. 


802 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


present,  foretelling  changes  as  much  as  twelve  to  twenty-four 
hours  in  advance.* 

In  forecasting  remember  that  "  The  possibility  is  always  for  a 
continuance  of  existing  weather  unless  some  phenomenon 
presents  itself  which  foretells  a  change." 

In  regard  to  the  barometer  readings,  the  important  points  to 
know  are,  has  the  rise  or  fall  been  gradual  or  rapid  or  if  sta- 
tionary how  long  has  it  been  so.  And  in  making  barometer 
readings  remember  that  there  is  a  natural  change  of  pressure 
every  day  because  the  principal  maximum  pressure  occurs  at 
10  a.  m.  and  10  p.  m.,  and  the  principal  minimum  pressure  occurs 
at  4  a.  m.  and  4  p.  m.,  amounting  to  .05  of  an  inch.  Therefore, 
if  the  barometer  shows  a  fall  of  .05  between  10  a.  m.  and  4  p.  m. 
it  really  means  a  stationary  barometer.  This  allowance  should 
be  made  to  form  an  accurate  opinion  of  the  barometer  change. 

A  stationary  barometer  indicates  a  continuance  of  existing 
conditions,  but  a  slight  tap  on  the  barometer  face  will  likely 
move  the  hand  a  little  indicating  the  tendency  to  rise  or  fall. 
A  rapid  rise  or  a  rapid  fall  indicates  that  a  strong  wind  is  about 
to  blow  with  a  change  in  the  weather,  the  nature  of  the  change 
depends  upon  the  direction  of  the  wind.  The  rapidity  of  the 
storm*s  approach  and  its  intensity  will  be  indicated  by  the  rate 
and  amount  of  fall  in  the  barometer. 

A  fall  of  .01  inch  per  hour  is  considered  a  low  rate  of  fall. 

A  fall  of  .03  inch  per  hour  is  considered  a  high  rate  of  fall. 

A  rate  of  .10  inch  might  be  reached  and  a  rate  of  .20  has  been 
recorded. 

In  the  tropics  a  fall  of  more  than  .02  is  considered  dangerous 
and  the  following  table  shows  the  distance  of  the  storm  center 
from  the  vessel  by  the  average  rate  of  fall.    See  page  826. 


Average  fall  of  barometer  per  hour 
From  .02  to  .06  inch 
From  .06  to  .08  inch 
From  .08  to  .12  inch 
From  .12  to  .15  inch 


Distance  from  storm  center 
From  250  to  150  miles 
From  150  to  100  miles 
From  100  to  80  miles 
From    80  to    50  miles 


When  the  barometer  falls  considerably  without  any  particular 
change  of  weather  a  violent  storm  is  raging  at  a  distance.  And 
the  barometer  falls  lower  for  high  winds  than  for  heavy  rains. 

The  barometer  falls  for  southerly  winds  (including  from  S.  E. 

by  S.  westward),  for  wet  weather,  stronger  wind  or  for  more 

than  one  of  these  changes,  except  on  a  few  occasions,  when 

moderate  wind  with  rain  or  snow  comes  from  the  northward. 

If  the  barometer  falls  slowly  for  several  days  during  fine  weather, 

*The  Barograph  is  a  recording  aneroid  barometer  and  traces  a  line  of  pres- 
sure readings  on  a  revolving  card  moved  by  a  clock. 


WEATHER  AT  SEA 


803 


expect  considerable  rain.  A  lowering  barometer  and  rising 
thermometer  indicate  heavy  rain.  A  very  low  barometer  is 
usually  attendant  upon  stormy  weather  with  wind  and  rain  at 
intervals  but  the  latter  not  necessarily  in  any  great  quantity. 
Should  the  barometer  continue  low  when  the  sky  becomes  clear, 
expect  more  rain  in  twenty-four  hours.  If  the  weather,  not- 
withstanding a  very  low  barometer,  is  fine  and  calm  it  is  not  to 
be  depended  upon  as  a  change  may  come  very  suddenly. 
For  middle  latitudes  (standard  readings) : 

29.50  and  thereabouts  is  very  low. 
30.00  inches  is  an  average  pressure. 
30.50  inches  is  high.* 

The  barometer  rises  for  northerly  winds  (including  from  N.  W. 
by  N.  to  eastward)  for  dry  or  less  wet  weather,  for  less  wind,  or 
for  more  than  one  of  these  changes  except  on  a  few  occasions 
when  rain,  hail  or  snow  comes  from  the  northward  with  strong 
winds.  If  the  barometer  continues  rising  while  wet  weather 
continues,  the  weather  after  a  day  or  two  will  probably  be  fair 
for  some  time,  and  when  the  barometer  and  thermometer  rise 
together  it  is  a  very  sure  sign  of  coming  fine  weather. 

A  gradual  but  steady  rise  indicates  settled  weather. 

A  gradual  but  steady  fall  indicates  wet  or  unsettled  weather. 

A  very  slow  rise  from  a  low  point  is  usually  associated  with 
high  winds  and  dry  weather. 

A  rapid  rise  indicates  clear  weather  with  high  winds. 

A  very  slow  fall  from  a  high  point  is  usually  associated  with 
wet  and  unpleasant  weather  without  much  wind. 

A  sudden  fall  indicates  a  sudden  shower  or  high  wind  or  both. 

When  the  air  becomes  colder  and  drier  with  a  rising  barom- 
eter, it  is  pretty  certain  that  a  northeast  wind  is  coming. 

*  Capt.  Arthur  H.  Mellick,  of  the  United  States  fisheries  ship  Eider^  has 
submitted  the  following  note,  which  is  interesting  in  connection  with  the 
abnormally  high  presstire  prevailing  over  Alaska  and  the  Aleutian  Islands  and 
the  unusually  low  pressure  (barometer  29.64  inches  Jan.  17)  at  Honolulu 
during  January,  1920. 

"On  the  15th  day  of  January  we  left  Unalaska  for  the  Pribiloff  Islands. 
The  barometer  then  registered  30.62.  By  midnight  it  was  30.66  [inches]. 
On  the  16th  at  midnight  it  showed  31.00.  At  noon  on  the  17th  it  showed 
31.20,  at  4.00  p.  m.  it  was  above  the  registered  marks,  and  at  midnight  it  was 
back  to  31.20,  where  it  remained  tmtil  4.00  a.  m.  on  the  19th,  when  it  com- 
menced to  fall  very  slowly;  and  even  now,  with  a  northeast  gale  blowing  and 
heavy  snowstorm,  it  is  still  30.68.  Such  barometer  readings  I  have  never 
seen  in  this  part  of  Alaska  before  with  all  the  years  that  I  have  been  in  the 
coimtry.  While  at  the  Pribiloff  Islands  the  sea  was  very  calm  and  light 
northeast  breeze,  but  not  a  particle  of  ice  was  to  be  seen,  although  it  felt  as 
though  it  was  not  very  far  away."    Monthly  Weather  Review  U.  S.  W.  B. 


804 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


WEATHER  AT  SEA 


805 


'I 


;<■ .! 


it  U^,f»  f^  w  ^!lf  warmer  and  damper  with  faUing  barometer, 

^^^  }^  infer  that  a  south-west  wind  is  at  hand, 
^oo*     5.U   J^**  ^®*^  ™  ^'o™  points  between  east  and  north- 
fhf  n*^^  barometer  falls  steadily,  a  storm  is  approachhig  frZ 
the  south  or  southwest,  its  center  wiU  pass  near  or  to  tte  souS 

Sn^H -^•t*^°'''^"'5  ^*^  **«I^«  to  twenty-foJr  hours.  S 
^ndshiftmg  to  northwest  by  way  of  north.  ""ws,  wim 

easTan'il^fh^'T'*  ^**!  ^x^'.?™  P"^*^  ''^^^een  south  and  south- 
nf^Lt^     i^^  barometer  falls  steadily,  it  indicates  a  storm  ao- 

neT^VlT  ^^^r'}  ?u'  'H  "northwest.  Its  center^pass 
near  or  to  the  north  of  the  observer  within  twelve  to  twentv- 

^ZZIZ^  ""'  "^^  '"^'"^^  ''  '^°'*'^^^^*  by  way  of  3- 
A  good  aneroid  barometer  will  indicate  the  height  of  a  table 
b  J^t.,?^ '**"'"'  '^^"^^^  •'y  *^«  ^"J  and  baroLter  ^e  the 
dftLr  "'""    ""^  ^"^  '^^^^"°^S  future  weather  con! 

of  tte  tin^f.T^^  important  factor  in  weather  and  the  shifting 
coiS^^T/n^!  *1*  ""1"  trustworthy  of  weather  indications  fof 
coming  changes  though  m  the  warm  months  the  winds  are  often 

i^t  and  variable  and  the  changes  in  direction  Zve^?  qurte 
the  same  miportance  as  in  the  colder  months.*  wLd  alwavs 
A^^^^J.f'  PT*  "^  *^  «=ompass /rom  wMchtt  com7s 
!n  J;Lt  }  7^^^  ?**™  ^^^  ®*^t  quadrant  with  falling  barometer 
md  cate  foul  weather  and  winds  shifting  to  the  welt  ouadra^t 
n^T^  .<=learing  and  fair  weather.  Soutt  winds  S  waS 
north  winds  cold,  east  winds  in  middle  latitudes  Sdicatrthe 

ttf  s?o™^ri"V™'°  "^^  r^^*'<*  "^^  ^««'  v^d^  show  tfat 
the  storm  area  has  passed  to  the  eastward.    A  rule  worth 

ttfZ''•r^?,!^*^."  *""''^^«=  When  the  wl^d  comes  up  S 
the  sun  it  is  likely  to  go  down  with  it  but  when  the  wind  r^eTa^ 

R^^  '1'  'I  'e-"'^"'y  *l"°^  ^1  °'«"  ^»d  Probably  r  neTday 
/?ain.-In  takmg  up  the  subject  of  rain  the  first  thought  I  wi^ 
to  convey  is  that  we  must  think  of  the  air  as  a  miSurf  of  e^es 
holding  moisture  in  the  f  onn  of  water  vapor.  SSTsponge  i? 
«^  ^.^  f^ywbere  from  slightly  damp  to  ve^  wet  withou? Stag 
and  the  air  can  be  from  slightly  humid  to  very  humid  witW 
precipitation.  The  amomit  of  humidity  is  expressed  ta  percent 
meanmg  the  per  cent,  of  the  air's  capaci^  for  moisUire     A 

i  Zh^nl  T^^^'  ''f- ''  -considered  good.  If  the  hur^di^ 
IS  high  and  the  barometer  starts  to  fall  the  capacity  of  the  ah 
for  moisture  is  lessened  and  the  moisture  will  precipttate  a^ 

vSevsT^A  ?  %*.^"=*  «^^*  *'T  '"^^  Mississippf^TMtsourl 
*Z       ?      "*"*"=  '=*'*^*  ^^  ""^  «»«  Pacific  coast  rain  gen- 
The  wind  veers  when  it  shifts  "  with  the  sun  »;  right  handed  in  North 

oacK     when  it  shifts  "  against  the  sun." 


erally  begins  on  a  falling  barometer.  However,  in  the  warmer 
months  summer  showers  and  thunderstorms  usually  come  about 
the  time  the  barometer  turns  from  falling  to  rising.  Another 
point  that  must  be  borne  in  mind  is  that  warm  air  has  a  much 
greater  capacity  for  moisture  than  cold  air  and  that  precipitation 
occurs  when  moist  air  is  cooled  below  the  dew  point  as  rain, 
snow,  hail  or  frost. 

Rain  is  preceded  from  12  to  24  hours  by  a  rise  in  atmospheric 
moisture.  Without  this  increase  in  moisture  the  changes  in 
barometer  and  temperature  would  not  produce  rain.  A  good 
hygrometer  will  keep  one  informed  as  to  the  state  of  humidity 
and  is  a  great  help  in  forecasting  rain.  However,  there  are 
two  natural  signs  of  high  humidity  which  should  be  remembered. 
Sound  travels  easily  through  moist  air  so  that  distant  sounds 
are  easily  heard  which  has  given  rise  to  the  following  couplet: 

"  Sound  traveling  far  and  wide 
A  stormy  day  will  betide." 

The  other  natural  sign  of  rain  is  excessive  refraction  of  the 
atmosphere  when  distant  objects  as  hills  are  unusually  visible 
or  raised,  and  based  on  this  fact  is  the  old  proverb : 

"  The  farther  the  sight 
The  nearer  the  rain,** 

The  signs  of  falling  weather  in  the  colder  months  are :  the 
formation  of  a  high  sheet  cloud  covering  the  whole  sky,  an 
increase  in  temperature  and  moisture  of  the  air  and  the  wind 
changing  to  some  easterly  quarter.  The  precise  direction  that 
the  wind  takes  either  N.  E.  or  S.  E.  varies  for  different  localities 
and  the  direction  from  which  the  storm  is  approaching.  In  New 
England,  the  Middle  Atlantic  States  and  the  Ohio  valley,  N.  E. 
winds  precede  storms  approaching  from  the  S.  W.  and  S.  E. 
winds  precede  storms  approaching  by  way  of  the  Great  Lakes. 
Also  during  the  colder  months,  when  the  land  temperature  is 
below  the  water  temperature  of  the  ocean,  precipitation  will  begin 
along  the  seaboard  when  the  wind  shifts  and  blows  steadily 
from  the  water  over  the  land  without  regard  to  the  height  of  the 
barometer.  In  such  cases  the  moisture  in  the  warm  ocean  winds 
is  condensed  by  the  cold  of  the  continental  area.  During  the 
summer  months,  on  the  contrary,  the  ocean  winds  are  not  neces- 
sarily rain  winds  for  the  reason  that  they  are  cooler  than  the 
land  surfaces  and  their  capacity  for  moistiire  is  increased  by  the 
warmth  that  is  communicated  to  them  by  the  land  surfaces.  If, 
however,  the  easterly  winds  of  summer  increase  in  force  with  a 
falling  barometer,  the  approach  of  an  area  of  low  barometer 


r 
1 


806 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


B 


m 


.1 


t.- 


[Ur 


Smwo"  ^'"^  ^^  "^^^^  '^  indicated  and  rain  wiU  follow  in  a  day 

"  Rainbow  in  the  morning 
Sailor  take  warning 
Rainbow  at  night 
Sailors'  delight." 

thL^ArfT^^^^'Crl^^  rain  of  summer  usually  occurs  with 
^d  th/^-n!r'  ""^^i^f  "-^st  frequent  from  cert'ain  directton^ 
f W^»,  T  "  *  particular  quarter.  Beyond  the  fact  that  more 
^hf^I-  ^*°f™s  cojae  from  a  westerly  quarter  than  fromZy 

f^ri  ^^u^'tu  ^'"'^.  '*"  ''^  ^*»d  »f  'al^e  in  forecasting  thdr 
approach  by  the  surface  winds  only.    Their  coming  c«i  usuaUv 

A  thSl^f'  •  °"''  ''y  *••"  t**.""  «°<*  movement  If  t^  cS^ 
^w^^f^K  *°""  m  summer  which  does  not  depress  the  baronT: 
eter  wiU  be  very  local  and  of  slight  consequence.  Thunder 
forXIfl/ •".^^'°  1^"  barometer  is  high  and  are  to  be Sed 
for  when  it  is  low.  About  the  earliest  indication  is  when  the 
sun  m  the  morning  is  breakmg  through  clouds  ^d  Lrchinf  a 
thunder  storm  will  foUow  in  the  afternoon.  scorcmng  a 

««n6oif«.— Rainbows  are  produced  by  the  refraction  of  the 
sun's  rays  m  the  rain  drops  in  the  air,  the  center  of  Sie  bow 
bemg  opposite  the  sun.  A  rainbow  se^n  in  the  morning  is  to 
the  west  and  the  shower  will  probably  pass  over  The  obse^^er 

^ssii'off"  ""     '  "*''"°°''  *^  '^'"'''  '^  *»  *«  east  ^T's 
Fogs.— Fogs  are  usually  produced  when  a  current  of  warm 
moist  aa>  passes  over  a  body  of  water  of  a  lower  temperature 

uX^  a'^I'"*^  ^'"'  «^e<7//ier.  On  the  Atlantic  from  30  to  35  north 
latitude  fogs  are  ahnost  unknown. 

1,  P*"';— When  the  temperature  of  the  earth's  surface  faUs 
below  the  dew  point  of  the  air  the  latter  deposits  on  the  cooled 
surface  part  of  its  vapor  in  dew  drops.  This  is  due  to  the  ?ap1d 
cooling  by  radiation  especially  on  clear  nights  when  the  tem- 

^ofni^f.,  ""^  /^  ?'°\"'*  ^^  ""^^^^  ^""d  substance!  becomes 
if^Z^^lu^  '^  above  and  the  dew  point  or  frost  po^Tis 
reached  by  the  ground  while  the  air  a  few  feet  above  Liay  be 
several  degrees  warmer.    Dew  is  an  indication  of  fine  weather. 

wenZr^l  "I  '""  r"''"'  ''"^'^'"«  "  continuance  offlir 
weather.    No  dew,  after  a  hot  day,  foretells  rain. 

frost  suddenly  following  a  heavy  rain  seldom  lasts. 

Aloon.— A  halo  or  ring  around  the  moon  may  be  caused  by 

ice  crystals  or  water  mist  in  the  upper  atmosphere  and  is  an 

f^«  hrs^^o^^ST*^."'  •'/""^°«'  P°^«'"y  ^itJ^  twen^ 
«n^l  „f  ti,  ^  °*  ^^t  ^^^^  forecasts  based  upon  the  appear- 
ance of  the  moon  is  when  the  moon  can  be  seen  quite  clearly 


WEATHER  AT  SEA 


807 


in  the  day  time  fair  and  cooler  weather  will  follow  with  winds 
probably  from  the  northerly  quadrant. 

"  Moon  light  nights  have  the  heaviest  frosts." 

Clouds. — Clouds  have  been  poetically  called  the  "  Storm 
signals  of  the  sky."  And  in  every  locality  there  is  one  direction 
of  cloud  motion  that  betokens  bad  weather  and  another  which 
portends  fine  weather. 

"  A  fog  on  a  mountain  is  a  cloud 
And  a  cloud  on  earth  is  a  fog." 

• 

After  fine  weather  the  first  signs  in  the  sky  of  a  coming  change 
are  usually  light  streaks,  curls,  wisps  or  mottled  patches  of  white 
distant  clouds  which  increase,  and  are  followed  by  an  over- 
casting murky  vapor  that  grows  into  cloudiness — this  appearance 
more  or  less  watery,  is  an  infallible  sign,  that  wind  or  rain  will 
prevail.  Usually  the  higher  and  more  distant  such  clouds  seem 
to  be  the  more  gradual  but  more  general  the  change  will  prove. 

One  of  the  important  efifects  of  clouds  is  to  prevent  the  mini- 
mum  temperature  from  becoming  as  low  as  it  would  tmder  a 
clear  sky  because  the  radiation  from  the  earth  is  hindered. 

When  clouds  form  over  a  region  where  the  air  is  saturated 
with  moisture  the  globules  of  water  forming  the  clouds  unite  and 
descend  through  the  moist  air  underneath  falling  as  rain,  and 
the  higher  the  cloud  the  larger  the  size  of  the  drops  will  be. 
High  upper  clouds  crossing  the  sun,  moon  or  stars  in  a  direction 
different  from  that  of  the  lower  clouds  or  the  wind  field  below, 
foretell  a  change  of  wind  toward  that  direction. 

Light  scud  clouds  driving  across  heavy  masses,  show  wind  and 
rain,  but  if  they  are  alone  they  may  indicate  wind  only. 

Misty  clouds  forming  or  hanging  on  heights,  if  they  remain, 
increase  or  descend,  indicate  wind  and  rain,  but  if  they  rise  or 
disperse  the  weather  will  improve  or  become  fine.  Light  deli- 
cate quiet  tints  of  color  with  soft  undefined  form  of  douds, 
indicate  and  accompany  fine  weather.  Generally  the  softer  the 
appearance  the  less  wind  may  be  expected  and  the  harder,  more 
greasy,  rolled  and  tufted  or  ragged  the  stronger  the  coming  wind 
will  prove. 

Unusual  gaudy  hues  with  hard  definite  outlined  clouds  foretell 
rain  and  probably  strong  wind. 

Hard-edged  oily-looking  clouds  indicate  wind  and  small  inky- 
looking  clouds  foretell  rain. 

Clouds  are  different  in  form  and  character,  and  accordingly 
have  been  classified  as  follows : 

Cirrus, — Is  the  most  elevated  of  all,  thin  and  long-drawn 
looking  like  carded  wool  or  hair  or  like  curly  or  fleecy  patches. 
It  is  the  Cat*s  tail  of  the  sailor,  and  the  Mare*s  tail  of  the  lands- 


808 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


y 


WEATHER  AT  SEA 


809 


¥iV 


■\i\ 


»  1 


¥ 


% 


11 


man.  Its  summer  speed  averages  67  miles  per  hour,  while  in 
winter  it  is  78  miles  per  hour,  and  has  been  observed  makme 
182  to  200  miles  per  hour. 

Cumulus.—ls  in  large  masses  of  hemispherical  form  above 
and  flat  below,  one  piled  above  another  and  often  afford  rain 
and  thunder  gusts.  Their  tops  in  summer  travel  on  an  average 
of  34  miles  per  hour,  and  in  winter  47  miles  per  hour. 

Stratus.— Is  in  layers  or  bands  extending  horizontally,  and  has 
an  average  speed  in  summer  of  13  miles  per  hour  and  in  winter 
of  24  miles  per  hour. 

Mm&i/s.— Has  a  uniform  gray  tint  and  ragged  edges,  it  covers 
the  sky  m  seasons  of  continuous  rain  and  is  the  proper  rain  cloud 
1  ^ir^^,^^'""'^^^-— Like  the  cirrus  of  these  broken  fleece-like 
clouds,  but  the  parts  are  more  or  less  rounded  and  reeularlv 
grouped.    It  is  the  mackerel  sky. 

Cirro-stratus.— ^The  cirrus  coalesce  in  long  strata. 

Cumulo-Stratus.— Between  cumulo  and  stratus  often  of  a 
black  or  bluish  tint  at  the  horizon. 

"  Mackerel  sky 
Twelve  hours  dry. 

The  higher  the  clouds- 
The  finer  the  weather. 

When  clouds  appear  like  rocks  and  towers. 
The  Earth*s  refreshed  by  frequent  showers." 

Thunder  and  Lightning.— Thunder  rolls  because  lightning  is 
an  instant  discharge,  the  sounds  reaching  us  progressively  from 
lower  to  upper  strata  of  the  air.  The  occurrence  of  thunder  and 
lightnmg  is  practically  simultaneous,  but  an  interval  elapses  be- 
fore the  thunder  is  heard  due  to  the  distance.  To  calculate  the 
distance  approximately  allow  one  mile  for  every  five  seconds  in- 
terval. If  lightning  is  at  a  distance  of  or  more  than  fifteen 
miles  thunder  will  not  be  heard. 

Lightning  owing  to  the  different  types  of  flashes  has  been 

classified  as  follows  : 

Streak:  A  plain  broad  smooth  streak  or  flash. 

Sinuous:  A  flash  following  some  general  direction,  but  the  line 
is  sinuous,  bending  from  side  to  side. 

Ramified:  Part  of  the  flash  appears  to  branch  off  from  the  main 
stem  like  branches  of  a  tree. 

Ball:  Wanders  without  definite  course  and  forms  irregular  loops. 

Beaded:  A  series  of  bright  beads  along  streak  lightning. 

Dark  flashes :  Not  understood,  but  believed  to  be  a  photo- 
graphic effect  within  the  camera  as  it  is  only  noted  in  pho- 
tographs.    Physics  of  the  Air,  p.  379. 

Heat  Lightning:  Is  distant  lightning  flashes  below  the  horizon, 
illuminating  the  higher  strata  of  clouds  and  too  far  away 
for  its  thunder  to  be  heard. 


Sun  and  Sky.* — The  sun  regulates  the  weather,  it  gives  rise 
to  winter  and  summer;  by  evaporation  it  raises  the  aqueous 
vapor  into  the  air  and  this  vapor  by  cooling  causes  clouds,  rain, 
snow  and  hail.  The  sun  is  the  primary  cause  of  the  difference 
in  atmospheric  pressure  and  in  this  way  produces  wind. 

The  following  are  a  few  simple  indications  of  the  color  and 
appearance  of  sky  at  sunset  and  simrise  and  of  the  sky  overhead. 

If  the  sun  sets  in  a  sky  slightly  purple  and  the  atmosphere  at 
the  zenith  is  a  bright  blue,  we  may  rely  upon  fine  weather. 

If  the  Sim  is  bright  at  noon  it  will  be  red  at  night. 

Whether  clear  or  cloudy,  a  rosy  sky  at  sunset  presages  fine 
weather. 

If  before  sunset  the  sun  appears  diffuse  and  of  a  brilliant  white, 
it  foretells  storms. 

When  after  sunset  the  western  sky  is  of  a  whitish  yellow, 
extending  a  great  height,  it  indicates  probably  rain  during  the 
night  or  next  day.  Gaudy  or  unusual  hues,  with  hard  definitely 
outlined  clouds,  foretell  rain  and  probably  wind. 

The  sun  setting  after  a  fine  day  behind  a  heavy  bank  of  clouds, 
with  a  falling  barometer  is  generally  indicative  of  rain  or  snow 
according  to  the  season,  either  in  the  night  or  next  morning. 
Setting  in  dark  clouds  expect  rain  the  next  day. 

A  bright  yellow  sky  at  sunset  indicates  wind  and  a  pale  yellow 
sky  at  sunset  indicates  rain. 

By  the  prevalence  of  any  kind  of  red  or  yellow  or  other  tints, 
the  coming  weather  may  be  foretold. 

A  dark  Indian  red  indicates  rain. 

A  sickly  looking  greenish  hue  indicates  wind  and  rain. 

A  low  dawn  is  when  the  day  breaks  on  or  near  the  horizon,  the 
first  streaks  of  light  being  very  low  down. 

A  high  dawn  is  when  the  first  indications  of  daylight  are  seen 
above  a  bank  of  clouds  and  indicates  wind. 

When  the  sun  in  the  morning  is  breaking  through  clouds  and 
scorching,  a  thunderstorm  follows  in  the  afternoon. 

A  red  sky  in  the  morning  indicates  considerably  wind  and  rain. 

A  gray  sky  in  the  morning  indicates  fine  weather. 

A  dark  gloomy  blue  sky  overhead  in  the  day  indicates  wind 
but  light. 

A  bright  blue  sky  indicates  fine  weather.  A  solar  halo  indi- 
cates bad  weather  and  when  the  sun  appears  to  draw  water,  rain 
follows  soon. 

*The  character  of  the  day,  as  determined  by  the  Weather  Btireau,  is  divided 
into  three  groups.  A  day  when  the  sky  is  three-tenths  or  less  covered  with 
clouds,  on  the  average,  is  recorded  as  clear;  from  four-tenths  to  seven-tenths 
as  partly  cloudy;  and  eight-tenths  or  more  as  cloudy.  The  degree  of  cloudi- 
ness is  determined  by  a  number  of  eye  observations  throughout  the  day. 


« 


810 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


WEATHER  AT  SEA 


811 


^ 


■■i  ' 


Radio  Weather  Forecasts* 

The  forecasting  of  weather  along  the  seaboard  by  the  U.  S. 
Weather  Bureau  has  become  a  service  of  exceptional  value. 
Seamen  of  the  present  day  are  well  informed  by  radio  of  the 
general  weather  conditions  expected  over  an  extensive  range  of 
the  ocean.  The  further  development  of  this  valuable  service  is 
being  urged  and  the  ship  lanes  of  the  world,  with  their  many 
observers,  may  soon  be  plotted  each  hour  of  the  day  and  the 
weather  foretold  with  scientific  accuracy. 

Ships  with  wireless  are  in  a  position  to  gather  weather  reports 
from  other  ships,  and  with  greater  meteorological  knowledge,  to 
plot  weather  charts,  locate  storm  centers  and  forecast  the  condi- 
tions to  be  expected.  Two  or  more  observers  in  a  hiuricane, 
or  typhoon,  area,  exchanging  data,  would  be  of  great  mutual 
assistance. 

IV 

Winds 
(Adapted  From  Bowditch) 

To  better  understand  how  the  air  can  be  set  in  motion  by 
differences  of  pressure  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  clear  conception 
of  the  nature  of  the  air  itself. 

The  atmosphere  which  completely  envelops  the  earth  may  be 
considered  as  a  fluid  sea  at  the  bottom  of  which  we  live,  and 
which  extends  upward  to  a  considerable  height,  probably  200 
miles,  constantly  diminishing  in  density  as  the  altitude  increases. 

The  air,  or  material  of  which  this  atmosphere  is  composed,  is  a 
transparent  gas,  which,  like  all  other  gases,  is  perfectly  elastic 
and  highly  compressible.  Although  extremely  light,  it  has  a 
perfectly  definite  weight,  a  cubic  foot  of  air,  at  ordinary  pressure 
and  temperature,  weighing  1.22  ounces,  or  about  one  seven 
hundred  and  seventieth  part  of  the  weight  of  an  equal  volume  of 
water.  In  consequence  of  this  weight  it  exerts  a  certain  pressure 
upon  the  surface  of  the  earth,  amounting  on  the  average  to  15 
pounds  for  each  square  inch.  To  accurately  measure  this 
pressure,  which  is  constantly  undergoing  slight  changes,  we 
ordinarily  employ  a  mercurial  barometer,  an  instrument  in  which 
the  weight  of  a  column  of  air  of  given  cross  section  is  balanced 
against  that  of  a  column  of  mercury  having  an  equal  cross  sec- 
tion; and  instead  of  saying  that  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
is  a  certain  number  of  pounds  on  each  square  inch,  we  say  that 
it  is  a  certain  number  of  inches  of  mercury,  meaning  thereby 

*See  W.  B.  Bulletins  of  May  16tli  and  May  28th,  1921,  and  subsequent 
issues  for  full  instructions  as  to  radio  forecasts.  Impr6vement  is  so  rapid 
instructions  are  not  printed  here.  Bulletins  are  free  to  mariners  at  W.  B. 
Stations. 


that  it  is  equivalent  to  the  pressure  of  a  column  of  mercury  that 
many  inches  in  height,  and  one  square  inch  in  cross  section. 

All  gases,  air  included,  are  highly  sensitive  to  the  action  of 
heat,  expanding  or  increasing  in  volume  as  the  temperature  rises, 
contracting  or  diminishing  in  volume  as  the  temperature  falls. 
Suppose  now  that  the  atmosphere  over  any  considerable  region 
of  the  earth's  surface  is  maintained  at  a  higher  temperature  than 
that  of  its  surroundings.  The  warmed  air  will  expand,  and  its 
upper  layers  will  flow  off  to  the  surrounding  regions,  cooling  as 
they  go.  The  atmospheric  pressure  at  sea  level  throughout  the 
heated  areas  will  thus  be  diminished,  while  that  over  the  circum- 
jacent cooler  areas  will  be  correspondingly  increased.  As  the 
result  of  this  difference  of  pressure,  there  will  be  movement  of 
the  surface  air  away  from  the  region  of  high  pressure  and 
towards  the  region  of  low,  somewhat  similar  to  the  flow  of  water 
which  takes  place  through  the  connecting  bottom  sluice  as  soon 
as  we  attempt  to  fill  one  compartment  of  a  divided  vessel  to  a 
slightly  higher  level  than  that  found  in  the  other. 

A  difference  of  atmospheric  pressure  at  sea  level  is  thus  im- 
mediately followed  by  a  movement  of  the  surface  air,  or  by 
winds;  and  these  differences  of  pressure  have  their  origin  in 
differences  of  temperature.  If  the  atmosphere  were  everjrwhere 
of  uniform  temperature  it  would  lie  at  rest  on  the  earth's  surface 
— sluggish,  torpid  and  oppressive — and  there  would  be  no  winds. 
This,  however,  is  fortunately  not  the  case.  The  temperature  of 
the  atmosphere  is  continually  or  periodically  higher  in  one  region 
than  in  another,  and  the  chief  variations  in  the  distribution  of 
temperature  are  systematically  repeated  year  after  year,  giving 
rise  to  like  systematic  variations  in  the  distribution  of  pressure. 

The  Normal  Distribution  of  Pressure, — The  winds,  while  thus 
due  primarily  to  differences  of  temperature,  stand  in  more  direct 
relation  to  differences  of  pressure,  and  it  is  from  this  point  of 
view  that  they  are  ordinarily  studied. 

In  order  to  furnish  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  distribution  of 
atmospheric  pressure  over  the  earth's  surface,  charts  have  been 
prepared  showing  the  average  reading  of  the  barometer  for  any 
given  period,  whether  a  month,  a  season,  or  a  year,  and  covering 
as  far  as  possible  the  entire  globe.    These  are  as  isobaric  charts. 

The  relation  as  existing  between  the  distribution  of  atmospheric 
pressure  and  the  direction  of  the  wind  is  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance.   It  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows : 

In  the  northern  hemisphere  stand  with  the  back  to  the  wind ; 
in  this  position  the  region  of  high  barometer  lies  on  your  right 
hand  and  somewhat  behind  you ;  the  region  of  low  barometer  on 
your  left  hand  and  somewhat  in  front  of  you. 

In  the  southern  hemisphere  stand  with  the  back  to  the  wind ; 
in  this  position  the  region  of  high  barometer  lies  on  your  left 


\^ 


812 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


WEATHER  AT  SEA 


813 


hand  and  somewhat  behmd  you ;  the  region  of  low  barometer  on 
your  right  hand  and  somewhat  in  front  of  you. 

This  relation  holds  absolutely,  not  only  in  the  case  of  the 
general  distribution  of  pressure  and  circulation  of  the  atmos- 
phere, but  also  in  the  case  of  the  special  conditions  of  high  and 
low  pressure  which  usually  accompany  severe  gales. 

The  Trade  Winds. — ^The  Trade  Winds  blow  from  the  tropical 
belts  of  high  pressure  towards  the  equatorial  belt  of  low  pres- 
sure— in  the  northern  hemisphere  from  the  northeast,  in  the 
southern  hemisphere  from  the  southeast.  Over  the  eastern  half 
of  each  of  the  great  oceans  they  extend  considerably  farther 
from  the  line  and  their  original  direction  inclines  more  towards 
the  pole  than  in  mid-ocean,  where  the  latter  is  almost  easterly. 
They  are  ordinarily  looked  upon  as  the  most  constant  of  winds, 
but  while  they  may  blow  for  days  or  even  for  weeks  with  slight 
variation  in  direction  or  strength,  their  imiformity  should  not  be 
exaggerated.  There  are  times  when  the  trade  winds  weaken 
or  shift.  There  are  regions  where  their  steady  course  is  de- 
formed, notably  among  the  island  groups  of  the  South  Pacific, 
where  the  trades  during  January  and  February  are  practically 
non-existent.  They  attain  their  highest  development  in  the 
South  Atlantic  and  in  the  South  Indian  Ocean,  and  are  every- 
where fresher  during  the  winter  than  during  the  summer  season. 
They  are  rarely  disturbed  by  cyclonic  storms,  the  occurrence 
of  the  latter  within  the  limits  of  the  trade  wind  region  being 
furthermore  confined  in  point  of  time  to  the  late  summer  and 
autumn  months  of  the  respective  hemispheres,  and  in  scene  of 
action  to  the  western  portion  of  the  several  oceans.  The  South 
Atlantic  Ocean  alone,  however,  enjoys  complete  immunity  from 
tropical  cyclonic  storms. 

The  Doldrums, — ^The  equatorial  girdle  of  low  pressure  occu- 
pies a  position  between  the  high-pressure  belt  of  the  northern 
and  the  similar  belt  of  the  southern  hemisphere.  Throughout 
the  extent  of  this  barometric  trough  the  pressure,  save  for  the 
slight  diurnal  oscillation,  is  practically  uniform,  and  decided 
barometric  gradients  do  not  exist.  Here,  accordingly,  the  winds 
sink  to  stagnation,  or  rise  at  most  only  to  the  strength  of  fitful 
breezes,  coming  first  from  one  point  of  the  compass,  then  from 
another,  with  cloudy,  rainy  s^  and  frequent  thunderstorms. 
The  region  throughout  which  these  conditions  prevail  consists  of  a 
wedge-shaped  area,  the  base  of  the  wedge  resting  in  the  case  of 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  in  the  case  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean  on  the  coast  of  America,  the  axis  extending  west- 
ward. The  position  and  extent  of  the  belt  vary  somewhat  with 
the  season.  Throughout  February  and  March  it  is  found  im- 
mediately north  of  the  equator  and  is  of  inappreciable  width, 
vessels  following  the  usual  sailing  routes  frequently  passing  from 


trade  to  trade  without  interruption  in  both  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Pacific  Oceans.  In  July  and  August  it  has  migrated  to  the 
northward,  the  axis  extending  east  and  west  along  the  parallel 
of  7°  north,  and  the  belt  itself  covering  several  degrees  of  lati- 
tude, even  at  its  narrowest  point.  At  this  season  of  the  year, 
also,  the  southeast  trades  blow  with  diminished  freshness  across 
the  equator  and  well  into  the  northern  hemisphere,  being  here 
diverted,  however,  by  the  effect  of  the  earth's  rotation,  into 
southerly  and  southwesterly  winds,  the  so-called  southwest 
monsoon  of  the  African  and  Central  American  coasts. 

The  Horse  Latitudes, — On  the  outer  margin  of  the  trades, 
corresponding  vaguely  with  the  summit  of  the  tropical  ridge  of 
high  pressure  in  either  hemisphere,  is  a  second  region  through- 
out which  the  barometric  gradients  are  faint  and  undecided,  and 
the  prevailing  winds  correspondingly  light  and  variable,  the  so- 
called  horse  latitude Sy  or  calms  of  Cancer  and  of  Capricorn. 
Unlike  the  doldrums,  however,  the  weather  is  here  clear  and 
fresh,  and  the  periods  of  stagnation  are  intermittent  rather  than 
continuous,  showing  none  of  the  persistency  which  is  so  charac- 
teristic of  the  equatorial  region.  The  explanation  of  this  differ- 
ence will  become  obvious  as  soon  as  we  come  to  study  the  nature 
of  the  daily  barometric  changes  of  pressure  in  the  respective 
regions,  these  in  the  one  case  being  marked  by  the  uniformity  of 
the  torrid  zone,  in  the  other  sharing  to  a  limited  extent  in  the 
wide  and  rapid  variations  of  the  temperate. 

The  Prevailing  Westerly  Winds, — On  the  exterior  or  polar 
side  of  the  tropical  maxima  the  pressure  again  diminishes,  the 
barometric  gradients  being  now  directed  towards  the  pole;  and 
the  currents  of  air  set  in  motion  along  these  gradients,  diverted 
to  the  right  and  left  of  their  natural  course  by  the  earth's  rota- 
tion, appear  in  the  northern  hemisphere  as  southwesterly  winds, 
in  the  southern  hemisphere  as  northwesterly — the  prevailing 
westerly  winds  of  the  temperate  zone. 

Only  in  the  southern  hemisphere  do  these  winds  exhibit  any- 
thing approaching  the  persistency  of  the  trades,  their  course  in 
the  northern  hemisphere  being  subject  to  frequent  local  inter- 
ruption by  periods  of  winds  from  the  eastern  semicircle.  Thus 
the  tabulated  results  show  that  throughout  the  portion  of  the 
North  Atlantic  included  between  the  parallels  40°-50°  North,  and 
the  meridians  10°-50°  West,  the  winds  from  the  western  semi- 
circle (South— NNW.)  comprise  about  74  per  cent  of  the  whole 
number  of  observations,  the  relative  frequency  being  somewhat 
higher  in  winter,  soniewhat  lower  in  summer.  The  average 
force,  on  the  other  hand,  decreases  from  force  6  to  force  4  Beau- 
fort scale,  with  the  change  of  season.  Over  the  sea  in  the 
southern  hemisphere  such  variations  are  not  apparent;  here  the 
westerlies  blow  through  the  entire  year  with  a  steadiness  little 


814 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


WEATHER  AT  SEA 


815 


.if 
t 


t  . 


less  than  that  of  the  trades  themselves,  and  with  a  force  which, 
though  fitful,  is  very  much  greater,  their  boisterous  nature  giving 
the  name  of  the  "  Roaring  Forties  "  to  the  latitudes  in  which 
they  are  most  frequently  observed. 

The  explanation  of  this  striking  difference  in  the  extra-tropical 
wmds  of  the  two  halves  of  the  globe  is  found  in  the  distribution 
of  atmospheric  pressure,  and  in  the  variations  which  this  latter 
undergoes  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  In  the  landless  south- 
ern hemisphere  the  atmospheric  pressure  after  crossing  the 
parallel  of  30°  South  diminishes  almost  uniformly  towards  the 
pole,  and  is  rarely  disturbed  by  those  large  and  irregular  fluctu- 
ations which  form  so  important  a  factor  in  the  daily  weather  of 
the  northern  hemisphere.  Here,  accordingly,  a  system  of  polar 
gradients  exists  quite  comparable  in  stability  with  the  equa- 
torial gradients  which  give  rise  to  the  trades;  and  the  poleward 
movement  of  the  air  in  obedience  to  these  gradients,  constantly 
diverted  to  the  left  by  the  effect  of  the  earth's  rotation,  consti- 
tutes the  steady  westerly  winds  of  the  south  temperate  zone. 

The  Monsoon  Winds, — The  air  over  the  land  is  warmer  in 
summer  and  colder  in  winter  than  that  over  the  adjacent  oceans. 
During  the  former  season  the  continents  thus  become  the  seat 
of  areas  of  relatively  low  pressure;  during  the  latter  of  relatively 
high.  Pressure  gradients,  directed  outward  during  the  winter, 
inward  during  the  summer,  are  thus  established  between  the 
land  and  the  sea,  which  exercise  the  greatest  influence  over  the 
winds  prevailing  in  the  region  adjacent  to  the  coast.  Thus,  off 
the  Atlantic  seaboard  of  the  United  States  southwesterly  winds 
are  most  frequent  in  summer,  northwesterly  winds  in  winter; 
while  on  the  Pacific  coast  the  reverse  is  true,  the  wind  here 
changing  from  northwest  to  southwest  with  the  advance  of  the 
colder  season. 

The  most  striking  illustration  of  winds  of  this  class  is  presented 
by  the  monsoons  {Mausunij  season)  of  the  China  Sea  and  of  the 
Indian  Ocean.  In  January  abnormally  low  temperatures  and 
high  pressure  obtain  over  the  Asiatic  plateau,  high  temperatures 
and  low  pressiure  over  Australia  and  the  nearby  portion  of  the 
Indian  Ocean.  As  a  result  of  the  baric  gradients  thus  estab- 
lished, the  southern  and  eastern  coast  of  the  vast  Asiatic  conti- 
nent and  the  seas  adjacent  thereto  are  swept  by  an  outflowing 
current  of  air,  which,  diverted  to  the  right  of  the  gradient  by  the 
earth's  rotation,  appears  as  a  northeast  wind,  covering  the  China 
Sea  and  the  northern  Indian  Ocean.  Upon  entering  the  southern 
hemisphere,  however,  the  same  force  which  hitherto  deflected 
the  moving  air  to  the  right  of  the  gradient  now  serves  to  deflect 
it  to  the  left;  and  here,  accordingly,  we  have  the  monsoon 
appearing  as  a  northwest  wind,  covering  the  Indian  Ocean  as  far 
south  as  10°,  the  Arafura  Sea,  and  the  northern  coast  of  Australia. 


In  July  these  conditions  are  precisely  reversed.  Asia  is  now 
the  seat  of  high  temperature  and  correspondingly  low  pressure, 
Australia  of  low  temperature  and  high  pressure,  although  the 
departure  from  the  annual  average  is  by  no  means  so  pronounced 
in  the  case  of  the  latter  as  in  that  of  the  former.  The  baric 
gradients  thus  lead  across  the  equator  and  are  addressed  toward 
the  interior  of  the  greater  continent,  giving  rise  to  a  system  of 
winds  whose  direction  is  southeast  in  the  southern  hemisphere, 
southwest  in  the  northern. 

The  northeast  (winter)  monsoon  blows  in  the  China  Sea  from 
October  to  April,  the  southwest  (summer)  monsoon  from  May 
to  September.  The  former  is  marked  by  all  the  steadiness  of 
the  trades,  often  attaining  the  force  of  a  moderate  gale ;  the  latter 
appears  as  a  light  breeze,  unsteady  in  direction,  and  often  sinking 
to  a  calm.  Its  prevalence  is  frequently  interrupted  by  tropical 
cyclonic  storms,  locally  known  as  typhoons^  although  the  occur- 
rence of  these  latter  may  extend  well  into  the  season  of  the 
winter  monsoon. 

Land  and  Sea  Breezes. — Corresponding  with  the  season  con- 
trast of  temperature  and  pressure  over  land  and  water,  there  is 
likewise  a  diurnal  contrast  which  exercises  a  similar  though  more 
local  effect.  In  summer  particularly,  the  land  over  its  whole  area 
is  warmer  than  the  sea  by  day,  colder  than  the  sea  by  night,  the 
variations  of  pressure  thus  established,  although  insignificant, 
sufficing  to  evoke  a  system  of  littoral  breezes  directed  landward 
during  the  daytime,  seaward  during  the  night,  which,  in  general, 
do  not  penetrate  to  a  distance  greater  than  30  miles  on  and  off 
shore,  and  extend  but  a  few  hundred  feet  into  the  depths  of  the 
atmosphere. 

The  sea  breeze  begins  in  the  morning  hours— from  9  to  11 
o'clock— as  the  land  warms.  In  the  late  afternoon  it  dies  away. 
In  the  evening  the  land  breeze  springs  up,  and  blows  gently  out 
to  sea  until  morning.  In  the  tropics  this  process  is  repeated  day 
after  day  with  great  regularity.  In  the  temperate  zones  these 
land  and  sea  breezes  are  often  masked  by  winds  of  cyclonic 
origin. 

The  Mistral  is  a  cold  dry  northwest  wind  blowing  in  the  Gulf 
of  Lyons  and  vicinity. 

The  Sirocco  comes  off  the  high  land  of  Africa  carrying  the  dry 
air  of  the  Sahara  across  the  Mediterranean. 

Thfe  Tramontana  or  Gli  Secchi  blows  down  the  Adriatic.  It  is 
a  dangerous  wind  to  small  powered  craft  and  sailers  in  that 
ancient  sea. 

The  Levanter  is  a  prevailing  easterly  wind  on  the  African  coast 
m  summer. 

The  Harmattan  is  a  hot  east  wind  blowing  off  the  land  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa  often  laden  with  dust  filling  the  air  with  a 
thick  haze  a  long  way  off  the  coast. 


I: 


Li  I 


816 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


The  Solano  is  another  African  wind  blowing  across  the  sea  to 
Spain  and  is  also  charged  with  dust. 

Many  local  names  are  found  in  the  great  inland  sea  where  sail- 
ors first  began.  Solano,  Bentu  de  Sole  and  Chocolatero  for 
east  winds.  Mezzo  giorno.  Simoom,  and  Siume  for  southerly 
winds.  Ponente,  and  Liberator  for  west  winds.  Gregale  and 
Bora  for  northeast  winds.  Sirocco  Maledetto  (evil),  Levante, 
Molezzoj  and  Furiante  (when  strong)  for  the  southeast  winds. 
Vendavales,  Lebeches,  Virazones,  Labachades  (when  squally), 
Ouragani  (when  tempestuous),  Labbetch,  and  Siffanto  for  south- 
west winds.  Mistral,  Mistrasau,  Bize,  Grippe,  Vent  de  cers, 
Maestrale,  and  Mamatate  (when  light)  for  northwest  winds. 
Provenzaley  for  north,  northwest  winds.  Imbattu  for  sea- 
breezes  Rampinu  for  land-breezes.  Raggiature  for  land 
squalls.  Burrasche  and  Raffiche  for  hard  squalls.  Bonaccia 
for  calms,  and  Golfada  for  hard  gales. 

The  Nortes  are  northerly  gales  blowing  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Pamperos  are  severe  southwesterly  gales  from  the  great 
prairies  of  Argentine  southward  of  the  River  Plate.  They  blow 
with  the  violence  of  a  hurricane  expending  themselves  in  the 
South  Atlantic.  In  the  old  days  no  Cape  Horn  voyage  was 
complete  without  at  least  one  pampero. 

Papagayo  and  Tehuantepec  are  local  names  for  strong  gales 
blowing  in  a  northeasterly  direction  off  the  coasts  of  Nicaragua 

and  Guatemala. 

Willi  Waws  are  strong  wind  gusts  blowing  down  from  the 
steep  mountain  sides  in  the  Magellan  Straits,  Gibraltar,  and 
any  place  where  high  steep  hills  hedge  in  the  land  bordering  the 
sea.  These  are  erratic  winds  and  very  dangerous  as  they  may 
sweep  along  at  a  terrific  rate  a  short  distance  above  the  surface 
of  the  water,  giving  no  sign  of  their  approach  to  the  sailor.  In 
Magellan  they  are  often  detected  by  the  snow  particles  swept 
off  the  mountains,  and  appear  a  white  blur. 

Squalls  are  sudden  violent  gusts  of  wind  of  greater  or  less 
duration.  Clouds  and  sea  generally  herald  their  approach. 
A  black  squall  is  dark  and  threatening  and  generally  attended 
with  rain.  A  white  squall  is  a  furious  blow  often  met  with  on 
the  African  Coast  unannounced  by  any  other  sign  than  the 
white  caps,  and  by  a  rushing  sound,  and  often  by  a  whitish 
haze.    Rain  generally  follows  it. 

V 

Pilot  Charts 

Merchant  seamen  of  all  nations  have  cause  to  be  grateful  to  the 
Government  of  the  United  States  for  the  invaluable  assistance 


J 


WEATHER  AT  SEA 


817 


rendered  them  by  the  pilot  charts  issued  by  the  Hydrographic 
Office  of  the  U.  S.  Navy.  Indeed  every  branch  of  the  vast 
business  of  shipping  derives  incalculable  benefit  from  this 
service  so  freely  rendered  and  so  ably  planned  and  carried  out. 
It  is  really  the  most  monumental  system  of  international  co- 
operation in  existence  today.  Thousands  of  vessels,  in  all 
parts  of  the  world  are  daily  adding  their  fund  of  standardized 
observations  to  the  general  knowledge  of  the  weather.* 

These  observations,  tabulated  and  digested  by  the  Weather 
Bureau  of  the  United  States,  in  conjunction  with  the  systematized 
observations  of  this  service  itself,  stretching  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Pacific,  form  the  basis  for  the  pilot  charts  issued  by  the 
Hydrographic  Office.  The  tidal  and  current  data,  and  other 
information  sent  in  by  sea  observers  is  worked  over  by  the 
experts  of  this  office  and  forms  the  basis  for  the  vast  amount 
of  useful  information  plotted  on  these  charts.  The  following 
notice  is  printed  on  the  pilot  charts : 

Reports  on  Features  of  Pilot  Charts  and  to  Whom  Made 

That  mariners  may  be  fully  informed  as  to  the  participation 
of  the  Hydrographic  Office,  Navy  Department,  and  the  Weather 
Bureau,  Department  of  Agriculture,  in  the  collection  and  com- 
pilation of  data  for  the  several  Pilot  Charts,  and  that  they  may 
know  to  which  office  to  send  observations,  attention  is  called  to 
the  following : 

Hydrographic  Office, — ^The  Hydrographic  Office  collects  and 
compiles  data  on  the  following  features,  reports  upon  which 
should  be  made  to  the  nearest  of  the  Branch  Hydrographic 
Offices  (in  order  that  no  time  may  be  lost  in  transmission  and 
publication,  and  that  said  Branch  Hydrographic  Offices  may  keep 
in  touch  with  all  observers  arriving  in  their  respective  districts) 
or  to  the  Hydrographic  Office  in  Washington: 


Ice,  coastwise,  field,  and  berg. 

Derelicts. 

Wrecks. 

Floating  wreckag:^,  etc. 

Buoys  adrift. 

Location  of  fishing  banks,  whales, 

and  seals. 
Currents,  ocean  and  tidal. 


Rocks,  shoals,  and  other  dangers. 

Radio  telegraph  stations. 

Gale    and   storm   signals   of   foreign 

countries. 
All  questions  relating  to  navigation  and 

seamanship. 
Maneuvering   vessels   at   sea   during 


storms. 

*The  British  Meteorological  Office  also  issues  monthly  weather  charts,  but 
their  information  is  still  behind  that  of  the  American  charts. 


f 


818 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


WEATHER  AT  SEA 


819 


'.f 


rt'i 


Variation  of  the  compass. 
Steam  and  sail  routes. 
Discolored  water. 

Navigational  methods,  charts,  books, 
and  instruments. 


Great  sea  waves. 
Soundings. 
Sailing  directions. 
Seismic  shocks  at  sea. 
Port  facilities. 
Calming  seas  with  oil. 


Changes  in  aids  to  navigation. 

Weather  Bureau, — The  Weather  Bureau  collects  and  com- 
piles data  upon  the  following  features  that  appear  on  the  Pilot 
Charts,  reports  upon  which  should  be  made  to  said  Bureau: 

Pressure,  barometric. 

Temperature  of  air. 

Winds,  average  direction  and  force  of. 


Calms,  percentage  of. 
Gales,  percentage  of. 
Trade-wind  limits. 


Fog,  percentage  of. 

Storm  tracks,  course  of  and  rate  of 

travel. 
Statement  of  past  average  conditions 

of  wind  and  weather. 
Rains,  equatorial  region. 

Every  person  interested  in  this  important  branch  of  human 
progress  should  read  a  pamphlet  called  "  The  Marine  Meteoro- 
logical Service  of  the  United  States,"  by  W.  E.  Hurd,  sent  free 
of  charge  by  the  Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C, 
upon  application. 

VI 

Data  on  Cyclonic  Storms 

Prepared  by  the  Hydrographic  Office,  U.  S.  Navy 

Early  Indications  of  the  Approach  of  a  Storm 

The  occurrence  of  tropical  cyclonic  storms  is  confined  to  the 
summer  and  autumn  months  of  the  respective  hemispheres  and 
to  the  western  parts  of  the  several  oceans — the  North  Atlantic, 
North  Pacific,  South  Pacific,  and  Indian  oceans.  They  are 
unknown  in  the  South  Atlantic.  The  Arabian  Sea  and  Bay  of 
Bengal  are  also  visited  by  cyclonic  storms,  which  occur  most 
frequently  in  May  and  October. 

In  the  Atlantic  the  occurrence  of  these  storms  is  confined 
almost  exclusively  to  the  period  June-November,  attaining  a 
maximum  frequency  in  September  and  October.  The  number 
actually  occurring  is  probably  somewhat  greater  than  the  number 
recorded.  The  limited  area  of  the  storm  within  the  Tropics 
(the  diameter  of  the  area  of  violent  winds  is  here  frequently  less 
than  100  miles)  and  the  scarcity  of  observing  vessels  in  the 


region  throughout  which  the  storms  manifest  their  greatest 
activity  make  it  probable  that  a  considerable  percentage  escape 
observation.  The  occurrence  during  the  eleven-year  period, 
1890-1900,  according  to  the  records  of  the  United  States  Hydro- 
graphic  Office,  was  as  follows: 

Occurrence  of  West  India  Hurricanes* 


o 

M 

H 

s 

M 

0 
2 

1 
2 
3 
0 

M 
1 

0 

1 
1 

4 
1 

M 

0 
0 

4 
0 
2 

1 

m 

0 
0 
0 
2 
3 
0 

M 

0 
0 
0 

1 
1 

0 

M 

0 
0 
0 
3 
1 
0 

M 

0 
0 
0 

1 

2 
0 

1 

H 

0 
0 
0 
3 
0 
0 

1 

s 

M 

3 

o 
H 

June 

0 
0 

1 

2 
1 
2 

0 
0 

1 

2 

4 
0 

0 
0 
0 
2 
1 
0 

1 

July 

2 

August 

8 
19 

September 

October 

22 

November 

4 

Figure  1  shows  in  general  the  path  of  a  storm  in  the  North 
Atlantic. 

In  south  latitude  the  storm  season  is  from  September  to  May, 
February  and  March  being  the  worst  months.  It  would  thus 
appear  that  in  both  hemispheres  the  storm  season  corresponds 
to  the  time  when  the  sun  is  approaching  the  equator  on  its  return 
from  the  greatest  declination  north  or  south.  Fig.  2  shows  the 
general  path  of  a  storm  in  the  South  Pacific. 

During  the  season  of  tropical  storms  whatever  interferes  with 
the  regularity  of  the  diurnal  oscillation  of  the  barometer  should 
be  considered  an  indication  of  a  change  of  weather.  The 
barometer  is  by  no  means  an  infallible  guide  for  warnings  much 
in  advance,  but  after  the  beginning  of  the  storm  it  will  more  or 
less  accurately  indicate  the  rapidity  of  approach  and  distance  from 
the  center,  and  its  indications  should  in  no  case  be  disregarded. 

One  of  the  earliest  indications  of  the  approach  of  a  tropical 
storm  is  the  appearance  of  the  sky  and  general  clearness  of  the 
atmosphere.  Tropical  cyclonic  storms  are  almost  invariably 
preceded  by  a  day  of  unusual  clearness,  when  distant  objects 
not  usually  visible  stand  out  with  great  distinctness.  The 
temperature  at  such  times  is  more  than  usually  oppressive. 

This  is  frequently  accompanied  by  an  unusually  high  barom- 
eter. Later  it  may  be  followed  by  a  restless  oscillating  or 
pumping  of  the  mercury  caused  by  the  disturbed  condition  of  the 

*Over  a  thirty-five  year  period  West  India  hurricanes  have  occurred  as 
follows— May,  1;  June,  8;  July,  5;  August,  23;  September,  43;  October,  42; 
November,  2.    According  to  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  Records. 


^^ 


820 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


WEATHER  AT  SEA 


821 


i^ 


n  V 


atmosphere.    Then  the  sky  becomes  overcast  and  remains  so 
at  first  with  a  delicate  cirrus  haze,  which  shows  no  disposition 
to  clear  away  at  sunset,  but  which  later  becomes  graduaUy 


Fig.  1.    The  Average  Path  of  a  Cyclone  in  the  North  Atlantic, 

more  and  more  dense  until  the  dark  mass  of  the  true  hurricane 
cloud  appears  upon  the  horizon.  From  the  main  body  of  this 
cloud  portions  are  detached  from  tune  to  time  and  drift  across 


the  sky,  their  progress  marked  by  squalls  of  rain  and  wind  of 
increasing  force.  Rain,  indeed,  forms  one  of  the  most  prominent 
features  of  the  storm.    In  the  outer  portions  it  is  fine  and  mist- 


Fig.  2,    Average  cyclone  path  South  Pacific 

like,  with  occasional  showers  these  latter  increasing  in  fre- 
quency and  in  copiousness.  In  the  neighborhood  of  the  center 
it  falls  in  torrents.  The  rain  area  extends  farther  in  advance  of 
the  storm  than  in  the  rear. 


1 


?• 


■*><■ 


f." 


822 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


A  long  swell  from  the  direction  of  the  storm  frequently  sets  in 
before  any  other  indications  become  marked. 

When  the  sky  first  becomes  overcast  with  the  characteristic 
veil  of  cirrus  the  storm  center  will  most  probably  lie  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  greatest  density  of  the  cloud. 

When  the  hurricane  cloud  appears  over  the  horizon  it  will  be 
densest  at  the  storm  center. 

By  this  time  the  barometer  will  usually  be  showing  unmistak- 
able evidence  of  a  fall,  and  one  may  confidently  look  for  a  storm 
and  begin  observations  to  determine  the  location  of  its  center 
and  the  direction  in  which  it  is  moving. 

Surroimding  the  actual  storm  area  is  a  territory  of  large  extent 
throughout  which  the  barometer  reads  a  tenth  of  an  inch  or  more 
below  the  average,  the  pressure  diminishing  toward  the  central 
area,  but  with  no  such  rapidity  as  is  noted  within  that  area  itself. 
Throughout  the  outer  ring  imsettled  weather  prevails.  The  sky 
is  ordinarily  covered  with  a  light  haze,  which  increases  in  density 
as  the  center  of  the  storm  approaches.  Showers  are  frequent. 
Throughout  the  northern  semicircle  of  this  area  (in  the  northern 
hemisphere)  the  wind  rises  to  force  6  or  8— the  "  reinforced 
trades  " — and  is  accompanied  by  squalls;  throughout  the  other 
semicircle  unsettled  winds,  generally  from  a  southeasterly  direc- 
tion, prevail. 

Position  of  Center 

It  is  very  important  to*determine  as  early  as  possible  the  loca- 
tion and  direction  of  travel  of  the  center. 

While  this  can  not  be  done  with  absolute  accuracy  with  one 
set  of  observations,  a  sufficiently  close  approximation  can  be 
arrived  at  to  enable  the  vessel  to  maneuver  to  the  best  advantage. 

Since  the  wind  circulates  against  the  sun  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  the  rule  in  that  hemisphere  is  to  face  the  wind  and 
the  storm  center  will  be  on  the  right  hand.  In  the  southern 
hemisphere,  under  the  same  circumstances,  the  center  is  to  the 
left.  If  the  wind  traveled  in  exact  circles,  the  center  would  be 
eight  points  to  the  right  when  looking  directly  in  the  wind's  eye. 
We  have  seen,  however,  that  the  wind  follows  more  or  less  a 
spiral  path  inwards,  which  brings  the  center  from  eight  to  twelve 
points  to  the  right  of  the  direction  of  the  wind. 


WEATHER  AT  SEA 


823 


The  number  of  points  to  the  right  may  vary  during  the  same 
storm,  and  as  the  wind  usually  shifts  in  squalls  its  direction 
should  be  taken  just  after  a  squall. 


Fig.  3 


The  center  will  bear  more  nearly  eight  points  from  the  direc- 
tion of  the  lower  clouds  than  from  that  of  the  surface  wind. 

Ten  points  to  the  right  (left  in  South  latitude)  when  facing  the 
wind  is  a  good  average  allowance  to  make,  but  a  larger  allowance 


824 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


WEATHER  AT  SEA 


■  i 


M 


should  be  made  when  in  front  of  the  storm  center  than  when  in 
its  rear. 

The  approximate  direction  of  the  storm  center  is  a  compara- 
tively easy  matter  to  determine.  The  direction  in  which  it  is 
moving  may  be  estimated  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy  from  the 
charted  paths  of  similar  storms  which  have  been  observed 
before.  It  will  be  seen  from  Fig.  3,  "  Hurricane  Tracks  in  the 
North  Atlantic,"  that  in  this  region  the  storms  follow  in  general  a 
northwesterly  course  until  between  latitudes  25°  and  30°,  when 
they  recurve  and  go  to  the  eastward  of  north.  In  the  North 
Pacific  they  follow  the  same  general  course  on  the  coast  of 
Asia,  but  recurve  as  a  rule  in  lower  latitudes  than  in  the  Atlantic. 
(See  Fig.  4.) 

The  average  tracks  of  the  different  classes  of  t3rphoons  are  the 
result  of  a  study  of  244  of  these  storms  which  occurred  during 
the  period  1884-1897,  and  are  taken  from  the  report  of  the 
Director  of  the  Hongkong  Observatory  for  1897.  The  relative 
frequency  of  each  class,  and  the  period  during  which  it  is  apt  to 
occur,  are  given  in  the  following  table  (see  also  Pilot  Chart  of 
the  North  Pacific  for  July,  1898)  :* 


Class 

Frequency 

Period 

Per  cent. 

Jaa 

10 

Middle  of  June  to  end  of  September. 

Jafi 

12 

Middle  of  July  to  middle  of  October. 

lb 

0 

Late  in  the  year. 

Ic 

4 

Jime  to  the  end  of  September. 

Id 

2 

May  to  September,  inclusive. 

lla 

2 

July,  August,  and  September. 

Ub 

7 

August  and  September. 

Uc 

3 

Jime  to  September.    Maximimi  in  July. 

Ud 

4 

July  and  August. 

ma 

IV2 

October  and  November. 

mb 

1 

October. 

mc 

4 

July,  August,  and  September. 

Uld 

15 

June  to  October.    Most  frequent  in  August  and  Sep- 

• 

tember. 

me 

12^/2 

May  to  December. 

IVaa 

81/2 

May  to  December.    Rare  in  August. 

IVfliS 

3 

Beginmng  and  end  of  typhoon  season. 

IV6 

41/2 

September  1  to  December  1.  Most  common  in 
November. 

IVc 

4 

Beginning  and  end  of  typhoon  season.  Most  fre- 
quent in  May. 

INd 

1 

April  and  December. 

*The  reader  is  referred  to  Atlas  Of  Typhoon  Tracks,  1893-1918,  by  Louis 
Froc,  S.  J.,  Director,  Zi-ka-wei  Observatory,  China.  Printed  in  Weather 
of  the  Oceans,  Aug.,  1920.     See  page  875. 


Fig,  4 


Jm 


826 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


WEATHER  AT  SEA 


827 


m 


The  distance  away  from  the  storm  center  can  only  be  estimated 
very  imperfectly.  The  following  old  table  from  Piddington*s 
"  Horn  Book  "  may  serve  as  a  slight  guide  to  this  end,  but  too 
much  reliance  can  not  be  placed  upon  it : 

Average  fall  of  barometer  per  hour.  Distance  in  miles  from  center. 

From  0.02  to  0.06  inch From  250  to  150. 

From  0.06  to  0.08  inch From  150  to  100. 

From  0.08  to  0.12  inch From  100  to    80. 

From  0.12  to  0.15  inch From   80  to    50. 

With  storms  of  varying  area  and  different  intensities  the  lines 
of  equal  barometric  pressure  (isobars)  must  lie  much  closer 
together  in  some  cases  than  in  others,  so  that  it  is  quite  impossible 
to  more  than  guess  at  the  distance  of  the  center  by  the  height 
of  the  mercury  or  its  rate  of  fall. 

At  the  same  time  storms  travel  at  varying  rates  of  progression. 
In  the  Tropics  this  ranges  from  5  to  20  miles  per  hour,  always 
decreasing  as  the  storm  track  turns  northward  and  recurves, 
increasing  again  as  it  reaches  the  North  Atlantic,  where  it  may 
amount  to  as  much  as  50  miles  per  hour.  Within  the  Tropics 
the  storm  area  is  small,  the  region  of  violent  winds  seldom 
extending  more  than  150  miles  from  the  center.  The  barometer, 
however,  falls  rapidly  as  one  progresses  from  the  circumference 
toward  the  center,  a  difference  of  2  inches  having  been  observed 
in  this  distance. 

The  winds  accordingly  blow  with  greater  violence  and  are 
more  symmetrically  disposed  around  the  center  than  is  the  case 
in  higher  latitudes.  After  the  storm  has  recurved  it  usually 
widens  out  and  becomes  less  severe,  and  its  velocity  of  trans- 
lation increases  as  its  rotational  energy  grows  more  moderate. 
Its  center  is  no  longer  a  well-defined  area  of  small  size  marked 
by  a  patch  of  clear  sky  and  near  which  the  winds  blow  with  the 
greatest  violence.  Out  of  the  Tropics  the  strongest  winds  are 
often  found  at  some  distance  from  the  center. 

The  central  patch  of  blue  sky,  or  "  BulPs-Eye,"  is  almost  uni- 
versal in  tropical  storms,  but  seldom,  if  ever,  occurs  out  of  the 
Tropics.  It  would  appear  to  be  due  to  the  increased  intensity 
of  rotation,  and  as  this  intensity  falls  off  the  Eye  disappears. 

As  the  storms  of  greatest  intensity  are  usually  of  compara- 


tively small  area  with  slow  rates  of  progression  it  follows  that 
could  we  have  definite  and  early  information  of  their  position 
and  prospective  paths  it  would  be  an  easy  matter  to  avoid  the 
locality  of  greatest  severity. 

This,  however,  is  clearly  not  possible.  Even  with  the  advan- 
tage of  many  simultaneous  observations  at  stations  some  dis- 
tance apart,  such  as  can  be  obtained  on  land  by  a  regularly 
organized  service,  it  is  impossible  to  foretell  with  certainty  the 
path  of  the  approaching  storm. 

The  isolated  observer  on  board  ship  then  can  do  no  more  than 
exercise  a  wise  discretion  and  act  according  to  his  best  judgment, 
being  guided  by  such  observations  as  he  has  at  hand.  See  page 
810. 

Handling  the  Ship  within  Storm  Area 

If  from  the  weather  indications  given  above,  and  such  others 
as  his  experience  has  taught  him,  the  navigator  is  led  to  believe 
in  the  approach  of  a  storm,  he  should  at  once — 

First.     Determine  the  bearing  of  the  center. 

Second.    Estimate  its  distance. 

Third.     Plot  its  apparent  path. 

The  first  two  of  the  above  determinations  will  locate  the  approx- 
imate position  of  the  center,  which  should  be  marked  on  the 
chart.  The  relation  between  the  position  of  the  ship  and  the 
position  and  prospective  track  of  the  center  will  indicate  the 
proper  course  to  pursue. 

Should  the  ship  be  ahead  of  the  storm  center  it  may  be 
assumed  that  the  latter  will  draw  nearer  more  or  less  directly. 
It  then  becomes  of  the  utmost  importance  to  determine  its 
path  and  so  learn  whether  the  vessel  is  in  the  right  or  left  semi- 
circle of  the  storm  area. 

The  right  and  left  semicircles  lie  on  the  right  and  left  hands, 
respectively,  of  an  observer  standing  on  the  storm  track  and 
facing  in  the  direction  the  center  is  moving.  Owing  to  the 
difference  in  the  direction  of  rotation  of  storms  north  and  south 
of  the  equator  that  semicircle  which  lies  between  the  path  and 
the  equator  in  both  the  northern  and  the  southern  hemispheres 
prior  to  the  storms  recurving  (the  left-hand  semicircle  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  and  the  right-hand  in  the  southern),  is  not 
so  liable  to  the  severest  winds ;  and,  when  in  it,  it  is  easier  to 


828 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


WEATHER  AT  SEA 


829 


I 


avoid  the  storm  center.  For  this  reason  it  is  caUed  the  navigable 
semicircle,  the  right  semicircle  (left  in  south  latitudes)  on  the 
other  hand  is  called  the  dangerous  semicircle.* 

In  order  to  determine  the  path  of  the  storm  and  consequently 
in  which  semicircle  the  ship  finds  herself,  it  is  necessary  to  wait 
until  the  wind  shifts,  f  When  this  occurs,  plot  a  new  position  of 
the  center  10  points  to  the  right  of  the  new  direction  of  the  wind 
as  before,  and  the  line  joining  these  two  positions  will  be  the 
probable  path  of  the  storm.  If  the  ship  has  not  been  stationary 
during  the  time  between  the  two  sets  of  observations  (as  will 
indeed  never  be  the  case  unless  at  anchor),  allowance  must  be 
made  for  the  course  and  distance  she  has  traveled  in  the  interim. 

Two  bearings  of  the  center  with  an  interval  between  of  from 
two  to  three  hours  will,  in  general,  be  sufficient  to  determine  the 
course  of  the  storm,  provided  an  accurate  account  is  kept  of  the 
ship's  way,  but  if  the  storm  be  moving  slowly  a  longer  interval 
will  be  necessary. 

Should  the  wind  not  shift,  but  continue  to  blow  steadily  with 
increasmg  force,  and  with  a  falling  barometer,  it  may  be  assumed 
that  the  vessel  is  on  or  near  the  storm  track.  Owing  to  the  slow 
advance  of  storms  in  the  Tropics,  a  vessel  might  come  within  the 
disturbed  area  through  overtaking  the  center.  In  such  a  case  a 
slight  decrease  in  speed  would  probably  be  all  that  would  be 
necessary,  but  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  storm  path 
is  by  no  means  constant  either  in  speed  or  direction,  and  that 
it  is  particularly  liable  to  recurve  away  from  the  equator. 

In  the  cyclones  of  the  Southern  Indian  ocean  the  best  observers 
claim  that  the  wind  seldom,  if  ever,  blows  around  the  center. 
Instead  of  following  the  usual  inward  spiral  path,  the  north- 
easterly and  easterly  winds  of  these  storms  blow  almost  directly 
toward  the  center  and  upward,  rather  than  around  it. 

Should  the  position  of  the  vessel  lie  in  advance  of  the  storm 
center,  the  procedure  to  be  followed  will  depend  upon  whether 
she  is  in  the  dangerous  or  navigable  semicircle.  The  object  in 
both  cases  should  be  to  keep  as  far  as  possible  from  the  center. 
Knowing  the  direction  of  rotation  of  storms  in  both  hemispheres, 

*Some  seamen  consider  the  right  hand  semicircle  safer  for  steamers. 
Wind  is  steadier,  sea  less  confused. 

tNot  always  good.  A  ship  caught  in  a  southeast  wind,  if  storm  centre  is 
advancing  slowly,  might  be  blown  into  storm  track. 


it  will  be  clear  that  points  lying  on  the  right  of  the  storm  track 
(right  semicircle)  will,  as  the  center  approaches  and  passes,  find 
the  wind  hauling,  in  the  direction  north,  east,  south,  west. 

On  the  left  of  the  track  (left  semicircle)  the  wind  will  shift  in 
the  reverse  direction.  Shifts  of  the  wind  usually  come  in  heavy 
squalls,  during  which  the  wind  will  blow  from  the  new  direction, 
even  though  it  may  apparently  shift  back  temporarily  during  the 
lull  immediately  following. 

N 


It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  shifts  of  wind  will  only  occur 
in  the  above  order  when  the  vessel  is  stationary.  When  the 
course  and  speed  are  such  as  to  maintain  a  constant  relative 
bearing  between  the  ship  and  storm  center,  there  will  be  no 
shift  of  wind.  Should  the  vessel  be  outrunning  the  storm,  the 
wind  will  indeed  shift  in  the  opposite  direction  to  that  given,  and  a 
navigator  in  the  right  semicircle,  for  instance,  and  judging  only 
by  the  shifts  of  wind  without  taking  into  account  his  own  run, 
might  imagine  himself  on  the  opposite  side.    In  such  a  case  the 


830 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


V/EATHER  AT  SEA 


831 


1.1  ■; 

>  .Or     • 
f,     * 

lii  : 


barometer  must  be  the  guide.    If  it  falls,  one  is  approaching  the 
center;  if  it  rises,  one  is  receding. 

An  examination  of  Fig.  5  shows  how  this  is.  A  vessel  hove 
to  at  the  position  marked  &,  and  being  passed  by  the  storm  center, 
will  occupy  successive  positions  in  regard  to  the  center  from  b 
to  M,  and  will  experience  shifts  of  wind,  as  shown  by  the  arrows, 
from  East  through  South  to  SW.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
storm  center  be  stationary  or  moving  slowly  and  a  vessel  be 
overtaking  it  along  the  line  from  64  to  6,  the  wind  will  back  from 
SW.  to  East,  and  is  likely  to  convey  an  entirely  wrong  impression 
as  the  location  and  movement  of  the  center. 

Hence  it  is  recommended  that  a  vessel  suspecting  the  approach 
or  proxunity  of  a  cyclonic  storm  should  stop  (if  a  sailing  ship 
heave  to  on  the  starboard  tack)  for  a  while  until  the  path  of  the 
center  is  located  by  observing  the  shifts  of  the  wind  and  the 
behavior  of  the  barometer. 

If  the  wind  remains  steady  in  direction  and  increases  in  force 
in  heavy  squalls  while  the  barometer  falls,  the  vessel  is  probably 
on  or  near  the  track  of  the  storm  and  in  advance  of  the  center. 

In  this  position,  with  plenty  of  sea  room,  the  proper  course  is 
to  run  with  the  wind  well  on  the  starboard  quarter,  if  north  of 
the  equator,  and  on  the  port  quarter  if  south.  The  vessel  will 
thus  be  in  the  navigable  semicircle  and  be  constantly  increasing 
her  distance  from  the  center.  The  wind  will  draw  more  forward 
as  she  recedes  from  the  center,  but  the  course  first  set  should  be 
adhered  to  until  well  clear. 

The  procedure  is  the  same  if  the  observations  place  the  ship 
anywhere  within  the  navigable  semicircle. 

The  most  critical  situation  is  that  of  a  vessel  finding  herself  in 
the  forward  quadrant  of  the  dangerous  semicircle,  particularly 
if  at  some  distance  from  the  center,  where  the  wind  shifts  but 
slowly  and  the  barometer  indications  are  undecided. 

The  general  object,  however,  of  putting  as  much  distance  as 
possible  between  oneself  and  the  storm  center  should  be  kept  in 
view.  With  steamers  this  may  not  be  difficult,  although,  should 
the  storm  be  recurving,  the  course  first  set  may  have  to  be  sub- 
sequently altered  in  order  to  continue  to  draw  away.  A  sailing 
vessel  will  be  set  by  the  wind  directly  toward  the  path  of  the 
storm  and  may  become  involved  with  the  center  without  being 


able  to  avoid  it.  If  so  caught  in  the  dangerous  semicircle,  a 
sailing  vessel  should  haul  by  the  wind  on  the  starboard  tack 
(on  the  port  tack  in  south  latitude),  keep  coming  up  as  the  wind 
draws  aft,  and  carry  sail  as  long  as  the  weather  permits.  If 
obliged  to  heave  to,  do  so  on  the  starboard  tack  in  north  latitude 
and  on  the  port  tack  in  south  latitude. 

This  maneuver,  while  it  may  not  carry  a  vessel  clear  of  the 
storm  track,  will  make  the  best  of  a  bad  situation. 

A  vessel  so  hove  to  will  find  the  shifts  of  wind  drawing  aft, 
enabling  her  to  come  up  to  them  instead  of  being  headed  off, 
as  would  be  the  case  on  the  other  tack. 

Moreover,  since  the  sea  changes  its  direction  less  rapidly  than 
the  wind,  the  vessel  will  come  up  more  nearly  head  on  to  the  old 
sea,  instead  of  having  it  more  abeam  as  on  the  opposite  tack. 

A  general  rule  for  heaving  to  is  always  heave  to  on  whichever 
tack  permits  the  shifts  of  wind  to  draw  aft. 

If,  in  spite  of  all  endeavors,  the  storm  center  should  pass 
directly  over  a  vessel  she  will  experience  a  short  period  of  calm, 
but  the  seas  will  be  high,  confused,  and  dangerous,  being  swept 
in  from  all  directions.  After  a  short  interval  the  wind  will  burst 
with  hurricane  force  from  a  point  directly  opposite  to  that  from 
which  it  was  blowing  before,  and  the  vessel  must  be  prepared  to 
meet  it  and  to  avoid  being  caught  aback. 

Should  steamers  find  it  necessary  to  heave  to  the  method  of 
doing  so  must  depend  upon  the  position  within  the  storm  area. 
Many  steamers  find  it  preferable  to  heave  to  stern  to  sea,  with 
engines  turning  over  slowly,  and  drive  before  it. 

Should  this  course  be  followed  in  the  dangerous  semicircle  a 
steamer  would  in  all  probability  be  running  directly  into  the 
center  of  the  storm,  where  the  high  and  confused  seas  would  be 
more  than  likely  to  inflict  damage.  When  obliged  to  heave  to 
in  the  dangerous  semicircle  steamers  should  keep  the  wind  a 
little  on  the  starboard  bow  in  north  latitude,  and  on  the  port 
bow  in  south  latitude,  and  make  as  much  headway  as  the  con- 
ditions will  allow. 

The  situation  is  complicated  in  the  southern  Indian  Ocean  by 
the  presence  of  the  belt  of  intensified  southeast  trades  to  the 
southward  of  the  storm  tracks,  in  which  belt  the  wind  may  in- 
crease in  force  with  a  falling  barometer,  while  remaining  steady 
30 


^^NI 


832 


ll'i 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


WEATHER  AT  SEA 


833 


in  direction.  Under  such  conditions  there  are  no  means  of 
telling  whether  one  is  withm  the  storm  area  proper  or  merely  in 
the  belt  of  intensified  trades. 

K,  in  the  latter  case,  one  were  to  heave  to  there  is  a  good 
chance  of  being  caught  by  the  storm  recurving  or  at  the  best 
undergoing  a  needless  loss  of  time.  On  the  other  hand,  to  run 
off  to  the  northwestward  may  bring  one  directly  in  the  path  of  the 
storm. 

A  rule  which  in  practice  has  been  found  to  meet  the  situation 
fairly  well  is  as  follows :  If  well  to  the  eastward  of  Mauritius  and 
the  indications  point  to  being  either  in  the  southwest  quadrant 
of  a  storm  or  in  the  intensified  trades,  with  no  means  of  deter- 
mining which,  one  should  follow  the  regular  rule  and  heave  to, 
making  as  much  southing  as  possible.  K,  however,  one  is  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Mauritius,  one  should  run  to  the  north- 
westward and  endeavor  to  get  between  that  island  and  Mada- 
gascar, where  usually  better  weather  will  be  found.  The 
attempt  to  cross  the  track  ahead  of  a  storm  in  the  Indian  Ocean 
may  be  made  with  better  chance  of  success  there  than  else- 
where, since  the  storms  of  this  region  appear  to  travel  more 
slowly  than  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 

Figure  5  represents  a  cyclonic  storm  in  the  northern  hemis- 
phere after  recurving.  For  simplicity  the  area  of  low  barometer 
is  made  perfectly  circular  and  the  center  is  assumed  to  be  ten 
points  to  the  right  of  the  direction  of  the  wind  at  all  points  within 
the  disturbed  area.  Let  us  assume  that  the  center  is  advancing 
about  NNE.,  in  the  direction  of  the  long  arrow,  shown  in  heavy 
full  line.  The  ship  a  has  the  wind  at  ENE.;  she  is  to  the  left 
of  the  track,  or  technically  in  the  navigable  semicircle.  The 
ship  b  has  the  wind  at  ESE.  and  is  in  the  dangerous  semicircle. 
As  the  storm  advances  these  ships,  if  lying  to,  a  upon  the  port 
tack,  b  upon  the  starboard  tack,  as  shown,  take  with  regard  to 
the  storm  center  the  successive  positions  a  a,  etc.,  b  &,  etc.,  the 
wind  of  ship  a  shifting  to  the  left,  of  ship  b  to  the  right,  or  in 
both  cases  drawing  aft,  and  thus  diminishing  the  probability  of 
either  ship  being  struck  aback,  a  danger  to  which  a  vessel  l3dng 
to  on  the  opposite  tack  (i.  e.,  the  starboard  tack  in  the  left-hand 
semicircle  or  the  port  tack  in  the  right-hand  semicircle)  is  con- 
stantly exposed,  the  wind  in  the  latter  case  tending  constantly  to 


draw  forward.  The  ship  b  is  continually  beaten  by  wind  and  sea 
toward  the  storm  track.  The  ship  a  is  drifted  away  from  the 
track  and  should  she  be  able  to  carry  sail  would  soon  find  better 
weather  by  running  off  to  the  westward. 

Rules  for  Maneuvering 
The  rules  for  maneuvering  may  be  summed  up  as  follows: 

Northern  Hemisphere 

Right  or  Dangerous  Semicircle, — Steamers:  Bring  the  wind 
on  the  starboard  bow,  make  as  much  way  as  possible,  and  if 
obliged  to  heave  to  do  so  head  to  the  sea.  Sailing  vessels: 
Keep  close  hauled  on  the  starboard  tack,  make  as  much  way  as 
possible,  and  if  obliged  to  heave  to  do  so  on  the  starboard  tack. 

Left  or  Navigable  Semicircle. — Steam  and  sailing  vessels: 
Bring  the  wind  on  the  starboard  quarter,  note  the  course  and 
hold  it.  If  obliged  to  heave  to  steamers  may  do  so  stern  to  sea; 
sailing  vessels  on  the  port  tack. 

On  the  Storm  Track  in  Front  of  Center. — Steam  and  sailing 
vessels:  Run  for  the  left  semicircle  with  wind  on  starboard 
quarter,  and  when  in  that  semicircle  maneuver  as  above. 

On  the  Storm  Track  in  Rear  of  Center. — Avoid  it  by  the  best 
practicable  route,  having  due  regard  for  the  storms  recurving 
to  the  northward  and  eastward. 

Southern  Hemisphere 

Left  or  Dangerous  Semicircle, — Steamers :  Bring  the  wind  on 
the  port  bow,  make  as  much  way  as  possible,  and  if  obliged  to 
heave  to  do  so  head  to  sea.  Sailing  vessels :  Keep  close  hauled 
on  the  port  tack,  make  as  much  way  as  possible,  and  if  obliged 
to  heave  to  do  so  on  the  port  tack. 

Right  or  Navigable  Semicircle. — Steam  and  sailing  vessels: 
Bring  the  wind  on  the  port  quarter,  note  the  course  and  hold  it. 
If  obliged  to  heave  to,  steamers  may  do  so  stern  to  sea;  sailing 
vessels  on  the  starboard  tack. 


834 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


\ 


WEATHER  AT  SEA— NORTH  ATLANTIC 

vn 


835 


Weather  on  the  Oceans  of  the  World 

From  data  compiled  by  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  as  published  on  Pilot 
Charts  issued  by  the  U.  S.  Hydrographic  Office, 

From  the  millions  of  observations  taken  since  the  work  of 
systematic  study  was  founded  by  Maury,  many  valuable  deduc- 
tions have  been  made  with  regard  to  the  weather  at  sea. 

The  monthly  forecasts  based  upon  these  observations  are 
printed  in  Standard  Seamanship  with  the  hope  that  they  will  be 
more  useful  in  this  form  than  when  widely  scattered  on  the 
pilot  charts  where  they  are  printed  for  the  current  month.  Here 
the  reader  may  easily  follow  changes  from  month  to  month 
by  referring  to  the  pilot  chart  at  hand,  or  to  the  general  ocean 
chart  of  any  area  under  investigation. 

NORTH  ATLANTIC  OCEAN 

Average  Conditions  of  Wind  and  Weather 
January 

Pressure. — The  range  of  pressure  is  the  same  as  for  December.  The  minimum 
29.60  inches,  marks  the  vicinity  of  the  Iceland  Low;  the  maximum,  30.20  inches, 
appears  as  two  small  areas,  one  east  of  the  19th  meridian  between  the  29th  and 
39th  parallels,  the  other  in  mid-ocean  between  latitudes  25°  and  30°  N.  A  belt 
of  moderately  low  piessure  along  the  Equator  averages  29.90  inches. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  has  risen  slightly  near  the  British  Isles  and 
off  the  coasts  of  France  and  Portugal  and  ranges  over  this  region  between  40° 
and  55°.  Elsewhere  it  has  fallen  3°  to  8°.  Along  the  American  coast  the  tempera- 
ture ranges  from  20°  at  Cape  Ray  to  67°  at  Key  West.  It  is  75°  to  78°  in  the 
Caribbean  Sea  and  80°  or  slightly  higher  over  the  extreme  southern  part  of  the 
ocean.     Along  the  northern  trans-Atlantic  routes  the  mean  is  from  30°  to  50°. 

Westerly  Winds  and  Gales. — North  of  the  40th  parallel  westerly  winds,  force  6, 
predominate  from  coast  to  coast.  Between  the  40th  and  35th  parallels  the  wester- 
lies prevail  from  the  American  coast  to  the  Azores;  between  the  30th  and  35th 
parallels  they  extend  eastward  to  the  45th  meridian.  Over  this  region  the  per- 
centage of  southwesterly  to  northwesterly  gales  has  increased  with  the  approach 
of  midwinter,  reaching  their  greatest  development  during  this  month.  The  highest 
percentages,  30  to  39,  occur  west  of  Scotland.  Frequent  snow  squalls,  with  winds 
that  sometimes  attain  hunicane  force,  accompany  the  passage  of  lows  along  the 
northern  trans-Atlantic  routes. 

The  Trade  Winds. — The  northeast  trades  are  fairly  constant  over  most  of  the 
ocean  south  of  the  26th  parallel,  but  low  with  greatest  steadiness  between  the 
5th  and  20th  parallels.  The  southeast  trades,  force  3  to  4,  extend  about  2  degrees 
north  of  the  Equator  between  15°  and  40°  west  longitude.  Southwesterly  winds 
prevail  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea. 

Calms. — The  highest  percentage  of  calms,  17  to  30,  occurs  east  of  the  20th 
meridian  between  latitudes  5°  and  10°  N.  The  percentage  is  11  to  15  south  of 
the  5th  parallel  between  longitudes  35°  W.  and  0°,  and  8  to  11  immediately  south 
of  the  area  of  high  pressure  in  mid-ocean.  Throughout  the  West  Indies  the  per- 
centage is  6  to  9. 

Northers. — Northers  sometimes  occur  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  along  the 
coast  southward  to  Colon.  These  storms  are  generally  preceded  by  a  slight  fall 
in  the  barometer,  but  the  gale  itself  is  accompanied  by  a  rapid  rise. 

Fog. — The  maximum  area,  30  to  35  per  cent  of  days  with  fog,  continues  south- 
east of  Newfoundland.  An  elongated  area,  percentage  10  to  15,  occurs  east  of 
the  30th  meridian  and  north  of  the  41st  parallel.  South  of  this  parallel,  except 
along  the  American  coast  to  Hatteras,  the  ocean  is  practically  free  from  fog. 

February 

Pressure. — There  has  been  little  change  in  the  pressure  distribution  since 
January.    The  Iceland  Low  remains  unchanged,  the  isobar  of  29.60  inches  appear- 


836 


STANDARD    SEAMANSHIP— NORTH  ATLANTIC 


WEATHER  AT  SEA— NORTH  ATLANTIC 


837 


it;' 


ing  north  of  the  55th  parallel.  The  crest  of  the  Azores  High,  30.20  inches,  occupies 
an  elongated  area  in  middle  latitudes  south  of  those  islands.  A  shallow  trough  of 
low  pressure,  29.90  inches,  extends  along  the  Equator. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  along  the  American  coast  ranges  from  15° 
at  Belle  Isle  to  70°  at  Key  West,  a  slight  fall  having  occurred  in  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence  and  a  slight  rise  off  the  South  Atlantic  States.  In  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
it  is  between  75°  and  78°,  and  about  80°  near  the  Equator.  Off  the  European  and 
African  coasts  the  temperature  ranges  between  40°  and  80°,  and  along  the  noithern 
trans-Atlantic  routes  between  30°  and  50°. 

Westerly  Winds  and  Gales. — Westerly  winds,  force  5  to  6,  pievail  over  the 
ocean  north  of  the  35th  parallel.  The  percentage  of  gales  has  fallen  north  of  the 
45th  parallel  and  has  risen  between  the  35th  and  45th  parallels.  Frequent  snow 
squalls,  with  winds  that  sometimes  attain  hurricane  force,  accompany  the  passage 
of  lows  along  the  northern  trans-Atlantic  routes. 

The  Trade  Winds. — The  northeast  trades  cover  most  of  the  ocean  south  of  the 
25th  parallel  and  extend  almost  to  the  Equator.  Along  the  African  coast  they 
prevail  as  far  north  as  the  30th  parallel. 

The  southeast  trades  extend  slightly  north  of  the  Equator  between  the  15th 
and  30th  meridians,  but  they  are  weak  and  frequently  fall  to  a  calm. 

Southwesterly  winds  prevail  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea. 

Calms. — The  highest  percentage  of  calms,  15  to  25,  occurs  between  the  north- 
east and  southeast  trades  east  of  the  30th  meridian.  The  percentage  is  also  high 
over  most  of  the  region  between  the  20th  and  30th  parallels. 

Northers. — Northers  sometimes  occur  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  along  the 
coast  southward  to  Colon.  These  storms  are  generally  preceded  by  a  slight  fall 
in  the  barometer,  but  the  gale  itself  is  accompanied  by  a  rapid  rise. 

Fog. — The  maximum  area,  30  to  35  per  cent  of  days  with  fog,  continues  south- 
east of  Newfoundland.  An  elongated  area,  percentage  10  to  15,  occurs  northeast 
of  the  Azores.  A  small  area,  percentage  10  to  15,  is  found  in  mid-ocean  north  of 
the  50th  parallel.  The  ocean  is  practically  free  from  fog  along  the  northern  trans- 
Atlantic  routes  between  the  10th  and  40th  meridians,  and  also  ovei  the  region  south 
of  the  40th  parallel,  except  along  the  American  coast  to  Hatteras. 

March 

Pressure. — The  crest  of  the  high  pressure  area  south  of  the  Azores  has  decreased 
from  30.20  to  30.15  inches  since  February.  The  high  pressure  has  also  decreased 
in  extent;  its  central  area  now  lies  between  the  17th  and  42d  meridians.  The 
Iceland  Low  is  filling  in  with  the  approach  of  spring,  and  the  pressure  has  increased 
from  29.60  to  29.70  inches  north  of  the  55th  parallel.  The  trough  of  low  pressure 
along  the  Equator  has  remained  practically  unchanged  since  February,  ranging 
about  29.90  inches. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  over  the  northern  trans- Atlantic  routes  and 
off  the  north  Atlantic  States  has  risen  3°  to  8°  since  February,  the  greatest  rise 
occurring  in  the  fog  area  adjacent  to  the  American  coast.  The  mean  temperature 
over  the  western  part  of  the  ocean  ranges  from  30°  off  Nova  Scotia  to  80°  near  the 
Equator.  Over  the  eastern  part  of  the  ocean  it  ranges  from  40°  off  Scotland  to  80° 
south  of  Freetown,  while  along  the  northern  trans-Atlantic  routes  it  ranges  between 
35°  and  55°. 

Prevailing  Westerlies  and  Gales. — The  percentage  of  westerly  winds  is  high 
north  of  the  40th  parallel.  Westerly  winds  are  also  found  as  far  south  as  the  30th 
parallel  between  the  45th  and  70th  meridians.  West  of  the  70th  meridian  the 
winds  are  north  and  northwest,  with  northwesterly  gales.  The  percentage  of 
gales  over  the  region  of  westerly  winds  is  moderate  to  high,  being  1 1  to  22  per  cent 
along  the  northern  trans-Atlantic  routes,  and  slightly  higher  north  of  the  55th 
parallel. 

There  has  been  a  general  decrease  in  the  percentage  of  gales  since  February 
over  most  of  the  ocean  north  of  the  35th  parallel,  and  a  slight  increase  over  most 
of  the  region  south  of  it. 

The  Trade  Winds. — The  northeast  trades  occupy  most  of  the  ocean  south  of 
the  25th  parallel.  They  extend  farther  north  over  the  Canary  Islands,  though  their 
development  in  this  region  is  not  so  marked.  Along  the  African  coast  in  the 
latitude  of  trades  the  winds  are  north-northeast,  from  3  to  4,  but  west  of  longitude 
20  they  are  northeast  to  east-northeast;  force  4  to  5.  In  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  east 
to  southeast  trades  prevail.  Light  southeast  trades  appear  2  or  3  degrees  north 
of  the  Equator  between  the  15th  and  30th  meridians.  In  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  south- 
west winds  of  force  2  to  3  prevail. 


Calms.— The  highest  percentage  of  calms  is  off  the  African  coast  near  la  itude 
7  deerees  N.  where  it  is  26.  The  percentage  is  also  high  south  of  the  5th  parallel, 
between  the  10th  and  35ta  parallels,  between  the  10th  and  35th  meridians,  where  it  is 
13  to  24.  Over  the  northern  Gulf  of  Mexico  the  percentage  is  from  8  to  11,  and 
over  the  crest  of  the  high  pressure,  6  to  11.  ,  .«  .    ^^  ^    *j 

Jfoa.— South  of  Newfoundland  there  is  a  small  area  of  40  to  45  per  cent  of  days 
with  fog,  an  increase  of  10  per  cent  over  that  of  February,  but  the  percentage 
decreases  rapidly  outward  in  all  directions.  From  Cape  Cod  to  Cape  Henry  the 
percentage  is  20,  thence  southward  to  Hatteras  it  is  10.  Occasional  fogs  occur 
farther  south  along  the  CaroUna  coast.  Very  Uttle  fog  is  observed  between  the 
20th  and  40th  meridians.  The  percentage  is  low  southwest  of  the  British  Isles 
and  is  only  10  to  15  per  cent  in  the  Irish  sea. 

Ice. — Icebergs  may  be  expected  early  in  the  month. 

April 

Pressure. — The  Iceland  Low  has  decreased  in  intensity  since  March.  The 
minimum  pressure,  29.75  inches,  lies  between  the  55th  and  60th  parallels.  The 
central  area  of  the  Azores  High,  pressure  30.15,  has  contracted  since  March  and 
now  lies  between  latitudes  28°  and  36°  N.  and  longitudes  35°  and  25°  W.  In  the 
extreme  southern  part  of  the  ocean  the  pressure  is  29.90  inches. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  has  risen  over  practically  the  entire  ocean  since 
March.  The  greatest  rise  occurred  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  off  the  New  England 
coast,  where  the  greatest  changes  amount  to  8°  to  10°  respectively.  Along  the 
northern  trans-Atlantic  routes  the  change  is  greater  near  the  American  coast  and 
decreases  to  about  2°  in  mid-ocean,  thence  it  increases  again  to  about  4°  near  the 

British  Isles.  ,  ,  .^,     ^ 

The  temperature  ranges  between  35°  and  55°  along  the  northern  trans-Atlantic 
routes.  Over  the  northern  waters  of  Newfoundland  the  temperature  is  near 
freezing;  southward  to  latitude  35°  there  is  a  rapid  rise  to  60°;  south  of  this 
latitude  there  is  a  gradual  rise  to  80°  in  the  Caribbean  Sea.  In  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
the  temperature  ranges  between  70°  and  80°,  and  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  ocean 
it  ranges  between  45°  off  Scotland  to  80°  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea. 

Prevailing  Westerlies  and  Gales. — Westerly  winds,  force  4  to  6,  prevail  over 
most  of  the  ocean  north  of  the  35th  parallel.  The  winds  become  moderate  and 
more  variable  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Azores.  West  of  the  45th  meridian  westerly 
winds  extend  as  far  south  as  the  30th  parallel. 

There  is  a  general  decrease  in  the  percentage  of  gales  since  March  over  the 
entire  ocean,  except  along  the  southern  coast  of  Spain,  the  northern  coast  of  Africa, 
and  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  vicinity  of  the  West  Indies,  where  there  is  a 
slight  increase.-  Along  the  northern  trans-Atlantic  routes  west  of  the  English 
Channel  the  percentage  is  7  to  18,  being  highest  in  mid-ocean  and  lowest  near  the 
coasts.     Comparatively  few  gales  occur  outside  the  region  of  the  westerlies. 

The  Trade  Winds.— The  northeast  trades,  force  4  to  5,  lie  mainly  south  of  the 
26th  parallel.  East  of  the  45th  meridian  the  limit  trends  farther  northward  and 
reaches  the  Madeira  Islands.  The  southern  limit  of  these  trades  extends  to  the 
Equator,  west  of  the  40th  meridian;  but  east  of  this  meridian  it  recedes  gradually 
from  the  Equator  to  about  8°  N.  on  the  African  coast.  The  winds  of  this  system 
vary  in  direction.  East  of  the  20th  meridian  they  are  north  and  north-northeast; 
between  the  20th  and  30th  meridians,  northeast;  west  of  the  30th  meridian  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  northeast  to  east,  except  between  latitudes  20°  and  25°  N.,  where 
they  are  east-northeast  to  east-southeast.  In  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  east  to  south- 
east winds  prevail. 

During  April  the  southeast  trades  blow  feebly  and  extend  above  the  Equator 
only  to  latitude  1°  N.  between  the  15th  and  23d  meridians.  In  the  Gulf  of  Guinea 
the  winds  are  south  and  south-southwest. 

Calms. — The  aiea  between  the  southern  limit  of  the  northeast  trades  and  the 
northern  limit  of  the  southeast  trades  is  one  of  light  variable  winds,  with  12  to  30 
per  cent  of  calms.  Calms  average  10  per  cent  over  the  crest  of  the  Azores  High  and 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  Madeiras,  and  throughout  most  of  the  West  Indian  waters. 

Fog. — Southeast  of  Newfoundland,  between  latitudes  42°  and  48°  N.,  and 
longitudes  48°  and  54°  W.,  there  is  an  area  of  40  to  45  per  cent  of  days  with  fog; 
20  per  cent  occurs  along  the  American  coast  between  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Jersey; 
southward,  fog  decreases  and  practically  disappears  below  the  Carolina  coast. 
Along  the  northern  routes,  between  the  20th  and  40th  meridians,  the  percentage 
has  increased  since  March.  Southwest  of  the  Biitish  Isles  10  to  15  per  cent  occurs 
over  a  considerable  area  extending  westward  to  the  29th  meridian,  and  southward 
to  about  the  40th  parallel.  Another  area  of  10  to  15  per  cent  extends  from  latitude 
50°  N.,  northeastward  to  latitude  55°  between  longitude  38°  and  28°  W. 


838  STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP— NORTH  ATLANTIC 

May 

Pressure. — During  May  the  pressure  gradients  become  very  slight  and  summer 
conditions  begin  on  the  North  Atlantic.  The  Azores  High  has  increased  in  area 
and  strength  since  April  audits  crest,  pressure  30.20  inches,  occupies  the  region; 
between  latitudes  24°  and  36°  N.  and  longitudes  29°  and  51°  W.  The  pressure 
diminishes  to  29.90  inches  along  the  55th  parallel  and  over  the  western  portions  of 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

Temperature. — The  isotherms  are  much  farther  apart  than  during  colder 
months,  except  in  the  neighborhood  of  Nova  Scotia  and  the  Grand  Banks.  The 
difference  in  temperature,  due  to  latitude,  is  more  gradual  on  the  eastern  than  on 
the  western  side  of  the  ocean.  Along  the  American  coast  the  temperature  ranges 
between  45°  and  80°,  a  rise  of  5°  to  10°  since  April,  the  greatest  change  occurring 
north  of  Hatteras.  On  the  eastern  side  of  the  ocean  the  temperature  ranges 
between  50°  off  Ireland  and  80°  near  Freetown,  a  rise  of  3°  to  5°  off  Europe.  South 
of  the  25th  parallel  the  temperature  changes  have  been  unimportant.  The  mean 
temperature  along  the  northern  trans-Atlantic  routes  is  between  55°  and  60°. 

Prevailing  Westerlies  and  Ga/es.— North  of  the  35th  parallel  westeriy  winds 
prevail,  force  4  to  5.  Northeily  and  southerly  winds  also  occur  over  this  region, 
and  the  percentage  of  easterly  winds  is  very  low.  East  and  northeast  of  the 
Azores,  to  the  coast  of  Spain,  the  prevailing  direction  is  northerly. 

Gales  have  decreased  in  number  since  midwinter,  although  cyclones  and  anti- 
cyclones continue  to  cross  the  ocean  in  succession  in  northern  latitudes.  Between 
the  40th  and  50th  parallels  the  highest  percentage  of  gales,  8  to  13,  occurs  near 
mid-ocean.  Northward  the  percentage  decreases  between  the  50th  and  55th 
parallels,  but  increases  slightly  between  the  55th  and  60th  parallels.  Gales  are 
rare  south  of  latitude  30°  N. 

The  Trade  Winds. — Over  the  eastern  part  of  the  ocean  the  northeast  trades 
extend  northward  slightly  beyond  the  Canary  Islands,  but  west  of  the  30th  meridian 
the  northern  limit  of  these  winds  is  nearly  along  the  25th  parallel.  The  southern 
limit  is  close  to  the  Equator  on  the  American  side,  but  rises  to  latitude  12°  N.  at 
longitude  20°  W.  The  force  of  the  northeast  trades  is  4  to  5,  increasing  toward 
the  south.  Their  direction  is  northerly  off  the  African  coast,  but  is  northeast 
between  the  20th  and  30th  meridians.  Farther  westward  the  direction  is  more 
easterly,  and  north  of  the  Lesser  Antilles  it  is  southeasterly,  these  shifts  showing 
the  anticyclonic  circulation  around  the  Azores  High.  The  winds  are  generally 
east  to  northeast  in  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  east  to  southeast  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

The  southeast  trades,  force  3  to  4,  extend  from  1°  to  30°  above  the  Equator 
between  the  8th  and  42d  meridians. 

Calms — The  percentage  of  calms  is  15  to  27  in  the  region  between  the  north- 
east and  southeast  trades.  In  West  Indian  waters  and  over  the  region  between 
the  25th  and  35th  parallels  the  percentage  is  10  to  18. 

Fog. — The  fog  area  has  gradually  increased  through  the  winter  and  the  early 
spring.  An  area  of  40  to  45  per  cent  of  days  with  fog  lies  off  the  east  and  southeast 
coasts  of  Newfoundland,  and  a  smaller  area  of  the  same  percentage  is  east  of 
Cape  Cod,  south  of  Nova  Scotia.  Fog  decreases  east  of  the  45th  meridian.  It  is 
5  per  cent  west  of  Ireland,  but  southward  between  the  45th  and  50th  parallels 
and  from  the  English  Channel  westward  of  the  23d  meridian  it  is  10  to  20  per  cent. 

Hurricanes. — Only  one  West  Indian  hurricane  has  been  observed  in  May 
during  the  40-year  period,  1876  to  1915. 

June 

June  is  a  pleasant  month  over  the  North  Atlantic.  Summer  conditions  are 
well  established  and  the  weather  changes  less  than  during  any  other  month  of 
the  year. 

Pressure. — The  crest  of  the  Azores  High  has  increased  from  30.20  to  30.25 
inches  since  May  and  lies  mostly  southwest  of  these  islands.  The  gradients  are 
moderate  north  and  south  of  this  area.  The  pressure  is  lowest,  29.80  inches, 
noith  of  the  57th  paraUel. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  has  risen  generally  since  May  and  is  8°  to  10° 
higher  along  the  American  coast  noith  of  the  35th  parallel.  The  temperature  along 
the  northern  trans-Atlantic  routes  ranges  between  55°  and  65°.  The  lowest 
temperature  shown  on  the  chart  is  indicated  by  the  50°  isotherm,  which  extends 
from  slightly  north  of  Scotland  to  Newfoundland.  The  temperature  ranges  be- 
tween 75°  and  80°  on  the  American  side  of  the  Atlantic  south  of  the  35th  parallel 
and  on  the  African  side  south  of  the  20th  parallel.  Along  the  American  coast  the 
isotherms  are  crowded  much  closer  together  than  along  the  European  and  African 
coasts. 


WEATHER  AT  SEA— NORTH  ATLANTIC 


839 


The  Westerly  Winds. — North  of  the  35th  parallel  the  largest  percentage  of  the 
winds  is  from  a  westerly  direction,  except  between  Spain  and  the  central  area  of 
high  pressure,  where  the  winds  are  northerly.  Gales  have  decreased  in  percentage 
and  occur  only  5  to  7  per  cent  of  the  time  over  the  stormiest  portions  of  the  northern 
steamship  routes.  Along  the  American  coast  from  Sandy  Hook  to  Hatteras  south- 
westerly winds  occur  one-third  of  the  time. 

The  Trade  Winds. — The  northern  limit  of  the  northeast  trades  extends  in  an 
easterly  direction  from  the  Florida  coast  and  ends  slightly  northeast  of  the  Madeiras. 
The  southern  limit  of  the  northeast  trades  is  within  10°  of  the  Equator  at  the  20th 
meridian  and  within  about  6°  of  the  Equator  at  the  50th  meridian.  The  average 
force  of  the  trades  is  4  to  5.  They  are  north-northeasterly  over  the  extreme 
eastern  part  of  the  trade-wind  belt,  and  northeasterly  between  the  20th  and  30th 
meridians.  Farther  westward  they  are  mote  easterly.  West  of  the  55th  meridian 
and  north  of  the  20th  parallel  southeasteily  winds  prevail.  The  winds  are  easterly 
in  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  easterly  to  southeasterly  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

The  southeast  trades,  force  4,  blow  as  far  north  as  the  5th  parallel  in  mid-ocean. 
They  are  2°  to  3°  farther  north  than  during  May.  In  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  southerly 
winds  prevail,  with  very  little  southeasterly  tendency. 

Calms. — The  percentage  of  calms  is  highest  in  the  area  between  the  5th  and 
10th  parallels  and  east  of  the  35th  meridian,  where  it  ranges  between  24  and  37. 
It  is  high  between  the  25th  and  35th  parallels,  especially  near  the  region  of  high 
pressure  and  including  the  area  between  longitudes  25°  and  50°.  The  highest 
percentage  in  this  area  is  26. 

Fog. — The  percentage  of  fog  is  highest  in  June  and  July.  An  area  of  60  to  65 
per  cent  of  days  with  fog  lies  east  and  southeast  of  Newfoundland.  A  small  area, 
40  to  45  per  cent,  lies  south  and  east  of  Massachusetts  and  extends  eastward  to 
longitude  64°.  This  fog  area  extends  from  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Hatteras  in  a  gen- 
eral northeasterly  direction  across  the  ocean  to  France  and  the  British  Isles.  In 
European  waters  the  area  of  highest  percentage,  20  to  25,  covers  St.  Georges 
Channel  and  the  English  Channel  and  extends  westward  to  longitude  16°  W. 

Hurricanes. — The  hurricane  season  may  be  said  to  begin  in  June,  although 
only  eight  hurricanes  have  occurred  this  month  during  the  period  1876  to  1916. 
Most  of  these  storms  originated  south  of  Cuba  and  passed  into  the  eastern  part 
of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

July 

Pressure. — The  Azoies  High  occupies  its  most  northern  position  during  July 
and  its  central  area,  pressure  30.25  inches,  is  of  greatest  intensity.  The  Iceland 
Low  has  filled  up  to  some  extent,  the  isobar  of  29.80  inches  no  longer  existing. 
This  change  is  due  principally  to  the  warming  of  the  adjacent  land  surfaces  with 
the  advance  of  summer  and  the  northward  movement  of  the  Azores  High. 

There  are  minor  pressure  changes  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  Caribbean  Sea. 
The  mean  over  the  lower  portion  of  this  area  is  about  29.90  inches. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  has  risen  over  the  ocean  since  June,  except  in 
the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  where  it  has  fallen  slightly.  The  greatest  rise,  4°  to  9°,  occurs 
west  of  the  30th  meridian  between  the  30th  and  50th  parallels. 

The  lowest  temperature  shown  on  the  chart,  60°,  occurs  over  the  region  north- 
east of  Newfoundland ;  from  this  region  southward  to  latitude  33°  there  is  a  rapid 
rise  to  75°.  In  the  southwestern  pait  of  the  ocean  the  temperature  is  above  80°. 
It  is  from  60°  to  70°  along  the  northern  trans- Atlantic  routes. 

The  Northeast  Trades. — These  trades  lie  mainly  between  latitude  8°  and  28°  N., 
over  the  western  half  of  the  ocean.  Over  the  eastern  half  they  are  faither  north 
and  the  southern  and  northern  limits  touch  the  coast  at  latitudes  15°  and  38°  N., 
respectively.  These  winds  are  the  typical  northeast  trades  over  the  eastern  part 
of  the  ocean  and  in  the  Caribbean  Sea.  They  are  more  easterly  over  the  central 
pait  of  the  ocean  and  become  southeasterly  north  of  the  Antilles,  showing  the 
anticyclonic  circulation  around  the  Azores  High. 

Calms  and  Southeast  Trades. — With  the  northward  movement  of  the  doldrums 
and  the  setting  in  of  the  southwest  monsoon  off  the  African  coast,  there  has  been  a 
change  in  the  percentage  of  calms  south  of  the  15th  parallel,  and  the  greatest  per- 
centage, 30,  is  now  found  in  the  5-degree  square  immediately  south  of  the  Cape 
Verde  Islands.  The  percentage  in  this  square  has  increased  16  since  June.  The 
greatest  decrease,  26  to  32,  occurs  between  the  5th  and  10th  parallels  east  of  the 
25th  meridian.  There  has  been  a  decrease  of  10  to  14  per  cent  in  mid-ocean  along 
the  northern  limits  of  the  northeast  trades,  though  the  percentage  of  calms  con- 
tinued high  between  the  25th  and  35th  parallels  and  over  the  Azores. 


i 


840 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP— NORTH  ATLANTIC 


Southeast  trades  extend  above  the  Equator  west  of  longitude  8°  W.,  reaching 
latitude  7°  N.  over  the  western  part  of  the  ocean.  South  to  southwesterly  winds 
continue  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea. 

The  Westerlies.— Westerly  winds,  force  4,  prevail  north  of  the  35th  paraUel, 
except  east  of  the  Azores  High,  where  northerly  winds  predonunate.  The  Ameri- 
can coast  winds  north  of  Florida  are  mainly  from  the  southwest. 

Gales.— There  has  been  a  continued  decrease  in  the  number  of  gales  and  the 
highest  percentage,  4  to  6,  occurs  in  mid-ocean  noith  of  the  45th  parallel.  Gales 
seldom  occur  south  of  the  35th  parallel.  j  j  tn 

Hurricanes.— Severe  storms  of  the  West  Indian  type  have  been  recorded  10 
times  in  July  since  1876,  as  follows:  1886,  2;  1887,  1;  1901,  2;  1908,  1;  1909,  1; 
1916,  3.  The  hurricane  season  is  now  at  hand,  although  the  fuU  development  of 
conditions  favoring  the  formation  of  tropical  storms  in  these  waters  usually  is  not 

reached  until  August.  .       .     ,  ^1*1. 

Fog.— The  percentage  of  days  with  fog  is  less  than  in  June,  except  along  the 
American  coast  from  Cape  Cod  to  Cape  Ray,  where  it  is  greater.  The  area  of 
highest  percentage,  50  to  55,  surrounds  Newfoundland  and  the  Grand  Banks  and, 
inclosing  Nova  Scotia  to  the  southwest,  touches  the  New  England  coast  at  Cape 
Ann.  Fog  seldom  occurs  this'month  south  of  Cape  Hatteras.  The  percentage  of 
days  with  fog  decreases  from' the  Grand  Banks  eastward,  except  in  the  Irish  Sea 
and  English  Channel,  where  a  slight  increase  occurs. 

♦ 

August 

Pressure.— There  has  been  a  sUght  fall  in  pressure  since  July.  The  present 
crest  of  the  Azores  High,  pressure  30.20  inches,  appears  southwest  of  those  islands. 
The  Iceland  Low  has  deepened  and  the  isobar  of  29.80  inches  is  now  found.  A 
small  area  of  moderately  low  pressure  appears  off  the  African  coast  near  Cape 
Verde.     As  a  result  of  these  changes  the  pressure  gradients  remain  about  the  same. 

Temperature. — August  is  the  warmest  month  on  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean. 
The  temperature  over  the  western  part  of  the  ocean  ranges  from  50°  north  of  BeUe 
Isle  to  between  80°  and  83°  south  of  the  33d  parallel.  Sharp  conti-asts  in  tempera- 
ture are  experienced  off  the  Grand  Banks,  the  mean  temperature  rising  from  55  at 
the  47th  parallel  to  75°  at  the  40th  parallel.  Over  the  eastern  part  of  the  ocean  the 
temperature  changes  are  far  more  gradual,  the  temperature  ranging  from  55  at  the 
northern  edge  of  the  British  Isles  to  75°  or  sUghtiy  higher  south  of  the  22d  parallel. 
The  temperature  along  the  northern  trans-Atiantic  routes  ranges  from  60    to  75  . 

The  Westerlies.— Westerly  winds  prevail  north  of  the  35th  parallel  except  east 
of  the  Azores,  where  northerly  winds  predominate.  The  westeriies  are  not  so 
strong  as  during  the  colder  months  when  the  barometiic  gradients  are  steeper. 

The  Northeast  Trades.— These  trades  lie  mainly  between  latitudes  10  and 
28°  N.  over  the  western  half  of  the  ocean.  Over  the  eastern  half  they  are  farther 
north  and  the  southern  and  northern  limits  touch  the  coast  at  latitudes  15  and 
37°  N.,  respectively.  These  winds  are  the  typical  northeast  trades  over  the  eastern 
part  of  the  ocean  and  in  the  Caribbean  Sea.  They  are  more  easterly  over  the 
central  part  of  the  ocean  and  become  southeasteriy  north  of  the  West  Indies, 
showing  the  anticyclonic  circulation  around  the  Azores  High. 

Calms,  the  Southwest  Monsoon,  and  the  Southeast  Trades.— -The  greaxesi 
increase  in  the  percentage  of  calms,  7  to  10,  is  found  in  parts  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea 
and  in  mid-ocean  near  the  southern  limit  of  the  northeast  trades.  The  greatest 
decrease,  14  to  19,  occurs  within  the  area  of  the  southwest  monsoon,  which  reaches 
its  greatest  development  this  month  and  extends  as  far  westward  as  the  37tli 
meridian  at  the  7th  paraUel.     Steady  southerly  winds  continue  m  the  Gulf  of 

^he*  southeast  trades  extend  farthest  north  of  the  Equator  in  August,  the 
northern  Umit  reaching  the  7th  parallel  over  the  western  part  of  the  ocean. 

Gales.— Gales  occur  least  frequentiy  during  July  and  August,  as  cyclones  over 
the  northern  part  of  the  ocean  are  few  and  feeble.  The  region  of  greatest  per- 
centage, 4  to  6,  lies  between  the  15th  and  40th  meridians  north  ot  the  45th  parallel. 
Very  few  gales  occur  south  of  latitude  30°  N.  •     *         *       •     t„i« 

Hurricanes.— Ahout  four  times  as  many  hurricanes  occiu-  in  August  as  in  Jtdy. 
These  severe  storms  usually  originate  west  of  the  50th  mendian  between  the  10th 
and  20th  parallel.  Theii  direction,  at  first  west-northwesterly,  becomes  more 
northerly  with  their  approach  to  the  Florida  coast  and,  unless  they  head  into 
the  Gulf,  they  ordinarily  recurve  toward  the  northeast  and  pass  into  the  ocean 
with  increased  velocity.  Forty  of  these  storms  occurred  in  the  month  of  August 
during  the  41-year  period,  1876  to  1916. 


WEATHER  AT  SEA— NORTH  ATLANTIC 


841 


Fog, — Throughout  the  fog  zone  the  percentage  of  days  with  fog  is  from  10  to 
20  less  than  during  July.  The  highest  percentage,  40  to  45,  occurred  southeast 
of  Newfoundland.  An  area  of  30  to  35  per  cent  is  found  off  the  New  England  coast. 
Fog  seldom  occurs  in  August  south  of  Chesapeake  Bay.  In  European  waters  it 
averages  about  5  per  cent  in  St.  Georges  Channel. 

September 

Pressure. — The  Azores  High  has  weakened  slightiy  since  August  and  its  crest, 
pressure  30.15  inches,  has  remained  nearly  stationary.  The  Iceland  Low  has 
deepened  slightiy  with  the  beginning  of  autumn  and  the  area  of  low  pressure  over 
the  southern  portions  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Caribbean  Sea  is  more  ex- 
tensive. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  has  fallen  over  the  western  and  northern 
parts  of  the  ocean  and  risen  slightiy  over  the  eastern  part  south  of  the  25th  parallel 
since  August.  The  greatest  change  occurs  along  the  American  coast  north  of 
Florida. 

Along  the  new  northern  trans-Atiantic  routes  the  temperature  ranges  from 
58°  to  65°. 

The  Westerly  Winds. — Westerly  winds,  force  4  to  6,  prevail  north  of  the  35th 
parallel,  except  east  of  the  crest  of  the  Azores  High,  where  northerly  winds  pre- 
dominate. 

The  Northeast  Trades. — These  trades  lie  mainly  between  latitudes  8°  and 
28°  N.,  over  the  western  half  of  the  ocean.  Over  the  eastern  half  they  are  farther 
north  and  the  southern  and  northern  limits  touch  the  coast  at  the  16th  and  37th 
parallels,  respectively.  These  winds  are  the  typical  northeast  trades  over  the 
eastern  part  of  the  ocean  and  in  the  Caribbean  Sea.  They  are  more  easterly  over 
the  central  part  of  the  ocean  and  become  southeasterly  north  of  the  West  Indies, 
showing  the  anticyclonic  circulation  around  the  Azores  High. 
.     Along  the  American  coast  from  New  York  to  Jupiter  northeast  winds  prevail. 

Calms  and  Monsoons. — There  has  been  a  decided  change  in  the  percentage  of 
calms  in  various  parts  of  the  ocean,  the  greatest  decrease,  11  to  16,  occurring  near 
the  Azores,  Bermuda,  Florida,  and  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and 
the  western  part  of  the  doldrums^  The  greatest  increase,  11  to  15  per  cent, 
occurs  near  the  Canary  Islands,  in  parts  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  within  the  area 
of  the  southwest  monsoon,  the  influence  of  which  is  waning. 

Southwesterly  winds  prevail  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  and  east  of  the  30th  meridian 
between  the  5th  and  10th  parallels. 

The  Southeast  Trades. — These  trades  extend  above  the  Equator  to  about 
latitude  5°  N.  west  of  the  25th  meridian. 

Gales. — The  percentage  of  gales  has  increased  over  most  of  the  ocean  since 
August  and  the  highest  percentage,  9  to  16,  occurs  in  mid-ocean  north  of  the  45th 
parallel.     Gales  are  seldom  recorded  south  of  the  20th  parallel. 

Hurricanes.* — West  Indian  hurricanes  are  of  greatest  frequency  during  the 
latter  part  of  September  and  the  first  part  of  October.  These  severe  storms 
occasionally  form  as  far  east  as  the  Cape  Verde  Islands,  but  they  usually  originate 
west  of  longitude  55°,  between  the  10th  and  20th  parallels.  They  move  in  a 
west-northwesterly  direction  about  250  miles  per  day,  and  unless  they  head  into 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  generally  recurve  near  the  coast  between  Jupiter  and  Hatteras, 
thence  pass  northeastward  with  increasing  velocity  of  translation. 

Fog. — The  percentage  of  days  with  fog  remains  about  the  same,  30  to  35,  off 
the  New  England  coast  and  a  similar  area  occurs  off  Newfoundland — a  decrease 
of  10  per  cent  since  August.  An  area  of  20  to  25  per  cent  has  appeared  in  mid-ocean 
north  of  the  Azores.  With  the  exception  of  an  area  of  10  to  15  per  cent  between 
the  Irish  Sea  and  Portugal,  very  littie  fog  occurs  east  of  the  20th  meridian  south 
of  the  58th  parallel. 

October 

Pressure. — The  Azores  High  has  diminished  in  intensity  and  extent  since 
September,  and  its  crest,  30.10  inches,  is  lower  than  duiing  any  other  month. 
A  shallow  low  has  appeared  south  of  the  Cape  Verde  Islands  and  the  low  over  the 
Caribbean  Sea  has  contracted  in  area.  The  Iceland  Low  is  deepening  with  the 
advance  of  autumn. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  has  fallen  over  the  ocean,  except  in  the  Gulf 
of  Guinea,  where  it  has  risen  slightiy.     The  fall  is  about  3°  along  the  American 

*  Fifty-five  of  these  storms  have  been  traced  in  the  month  of  September  during 
the  42-year  period  1876  to  1917. 


• 


842 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP— NORTH  ATLANTIC 


coast  south  of  Hatteras.  North  of  the  37th  parallel  the  fall  ranges  from  S°  to  8°» 
except  over  the  British  Isles,  where  the  change  is  about  3°. 

Along  the  American  coast  the  temperature  ranges  from  40°  at  Belle  Isle  to  80° 
south  of  Key  West.  Over  the  eastern  part  of  the  ocean  it  ranges  from  50°  near 
the  Hebrides  to  80°  at  Cape  Verde.  Along  the  new  northern  trans-Atlantic  winter 
routes  the  mean  is  from  55°  to  65°. 

Westerly  Winds. — North  of  the  40th  parallel  the  winds  are  fresh,  with  greatest 
percentage  from  westerly  quadrants,  although  they  shift  considerably  with  the 
passage  of  cyclonic  storms. 

The  Trade  Winds. — Over  the  western  half  of  the  ocean  the  northeast  trades 
lie  mainly  between  the  9th  and  26th  parallels,  but  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
Azores  High  they  continue  as  far  north  as  the  Madeiras.  A  pronounced  type  of 
these  trades  occurs  between  the  Cape  Verde  and  Canary  Islands.  In  the  vicinity 
of  the  Madeiras  they  are  occasionally  disturbed  for  days  at  a  time  by  cyclonic  shifts. 
In  mid-ocean  the  trades  are  easterly,  but  again  become  northeasterly  over  the 
West  Indies,  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

The  southeast  trades  extend  5°  to  6°  north  of  the  Equator  west  of  the  20th 
meridian.  East  of  that  meridian,  in  the  same  latitude,  the  winds  become  southerly 
and  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  south-southwesterly. 

American  Coast  Winds. — Northeasterly  winds  prevail  along  the  American  coast 
from  New  York  to  Jupiter. 

Gales  and  Calms. — With  the  advance  of  autumn  there  has  been  a  decided 
increase  in  the  percentage  of  gales;  many  5-degree  squares  north  of  the  30th 
parallel  have  more  than  twice  as  many  gales  as  during  September. 

Calms  are  of  highest  percentage  over  the  region  between  the  northeast  and 
southeast  trades  and  over  the  Caribbean  Sea.  The  percentage  is  also  high  over 
the  southern  slope  of  the  Azores  High  as  far  south  as  the  20th  parallel. 

Hurricanes. — More  hurricanes  form  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  West  Indies 
in  October  than  during  any  other  month  of  the  year;  45  having  been  traced  from 
1876  to  1916  inclusive.  They  move  in  a  west-northwesterly  direction  about  250 
miles  a  day  and  unless  they  head  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  generally  recurve  near 
the  coast  between  Jupiter  and  Hatteras,  thence  pass  northeastward  with  increasing 
velocity  of  translation. 

Fog. — The  percentage  of  fog  remains  the  same,  30  to  35,  as  in  September  over 
the  Grand  Banks,  but  has  decreased  along  the  Nova  Scotian  and  New  England 
coasts.  There  has  been  a  slight  increase  southwest  of  the  English  Channel. 
Very  little  fog  occurs  south  of  the  38th  parallel. 

November 

Pressure. — The  Iceland  Low  is  increasing  in  energy  with  the  approach  of 
winter,  and  the  isobar  of  29.70  inches  appears  north  of  the  55th  parallel.  The 
pressure  has  also  fallen  south  of  the  10th  parallel  and  a  belt  of  moderately  low 
pressure  extends  along  the  Equator.  The  pressure  has  risen  in  the  middle  lati- 
tudes, an  area  of  30.10  inches  appearing  off  the  coast  of  the  United  States,  and 
the  crest  of  the  Azores  High  increasing  to  30.15  inches. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  has  fallen  10°  to  18°  along  the  American  coast 
and  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  except  off  central  and  southern  Florida,  and  3°  to  8° 
over  the  British  Isles  and  off  western  Europe.  Elsewhere  the  changes  have  been 
unimportant.  Sharp  contrasts  in  temperature  appear  off  the  American  coast,  the 
temperature  ranging  from  30°  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  to  75°  at  Key  West. 
Along  the  northern  trans-Atlantic  routes  the  mean  is  from  45°  to  55°.  In  the  greater 
portion  of  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  east  of  it,  between  the  15th  parallel  and  the 
Equator,  the  temperature  is  about  80°. 

Westerly  Winds. — North  of  the  35th  parallel  the  winds  are  fresh,  with  greatest 
percentage  from  the  westerly  quadrants,  although  they  shift  considerably  with  the 
passage  of  cyclonic  storms. 

Northwesterly  winds  sweep  the  American  coast  from  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence 
to  Hatteras.  South  of  Hatteras  they  become  northerly  to  northeasterly  merging 
with  the  trades  south  of  Jupiter. 

The  Trade  Winds. — West  of  the  30th  meridian  the  northeast  trades  lie  mainly 
between  the  5th  and  26th  parallels,  but  east  of  that  meridian  they  are  farther  north, 
and  the  southern  and  northern  limits  touch  the  African  coast  at  latitudes  12°  and 
32°  N.,  respectively.  A  pronounced  type  of  these  trades  occurs  between  the  Cape 
Verde  and  Canary  Islands.  In  mid-ocean  the  trades  are  easterly,  but  again  be- 
come northeasterly  over  the  West  Indies,  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico. 


WEATHER  AT  SEA— SOUTH  ATLANTIC 


843 


The  southeast  trades  extend  about  4°  north  of  the  Equator  west  of  the  15th 
meridian.  East  of  that  meridian,  in  the  same  latitude,  the  winds  become  southerly, 
and  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  south-southwesterly. 

Gales  and  Calms. — With  the  approach  of  winter,  there  has  been  a  moderate 
increase  in  the  percentage  of  gales  noith  of  the  35th  parallel,  except  near  the 
Azores,  where  it  is  less  than  during  October. 

Gales  are  infrequent  south  of  latitude  35°  N.,  and  only  five  West  India  hurri- 
canes have  been  observed  during  the  41-year  period,  1876  to  1916. 

Calms  are  of  highest  percentage  between  the  5th  and  10th  parallels  and  north- 
ward along  the  African  coast  to  the  Canary  Islands. 

Fog. — The  percentage  fog  of  has  diminished  generally  since  October,  although 
the  area  of  highest  peicentage  30  to  35  per  cent  of  days,  continues  to  the  southeast 
of  Newfoundland  with  little  change.  A  light  increase  has  occurred  in  the  English 
Channel. 

December 

Pressure. — The  Iceland  Low  is  increasing  in  energy  as  winter  sets  in  and  the 
isobar  of  29.60  inches  appears  north  of  the  55th  parallel.  A  belt  of  high  pressure 
covers  the  ocean  m  middle  latitudes  and  the  crest  of  the  Azores  High  has  increased 
to  30.20  inches.  An  area  of  moderately  low  pressure  continues  along  the  Equator, 
xt-  ^^^^^''«'"/^-— The  temperature  has  fallen  over  the  entire  ocean.  North  of 
the  25th  parallel  the  fall  is  5°  to  10°,  except  in  mid-ocean;  south  of  it,  it  is  2°  to  5°. 
The  temperature  along  the  American  coast  ranges  from  below  25°  in  the  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence  to  70°  at  Key  West.  It  is  75°  to  80°  in  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Along 
the  European  and  African  coasts  the  temperature  ranges  from  40°  or  lower  off 
Scotiand  to  80°  or  higher  south  of  the  10th  paraUel.  The  mean  temperature  along 
the  northern  trans-Atlantic  routes  ranges  between  40°  and  53°. 

The  Westerly  Winds.— Westerly  winds  predominate  north  of  the  35th  parallel 
over  the  eastern  part  of  the  ocean  and  north  of  the  30th  parallel  west  of  the  40th 
meridian.  Easterly  winds  are  rare  north  of  the  40th  paraUel,  occurring  as  a  rule 
only  during  the  passage  of  cyclonic  storms. 

Gales.— The  percentage  of  gales  has  increased,  as  a  rule,  over  the  entire  ocean, 
and  IS  high  north  of  the  40th  parallel  east  of  the  40th  meridian  and  north  of  the 
35tli  paraUel  west  of  it.  The  highest  percentages,  27  to  33,  occur  in  mid-ocean 
west  of  the  Bntish  Isles.     Gales  continue  rare  south  of  the  30th  paraUel. 

American  Coast  PTmc/s.— Northwesterly  winds  sweep  the  coast  from  Cape  Sable 
to  Hatteras.     South  of  Hatteras  they  become  northerly. 

u%  i^  W^mcfs.— Northeast  trade  winds  prevail  between  the  5th  and  25th 
parauels.  Wear  Brazil  they  extend  as  far  south  as  the  Equator  and  near  the 
Afncan  coast  as  far  north  as  latitude  32°  N.  These  winds  are  the  typical  northeast 
trades  over  the  eastern  part  of  the  ocean  and  in  the  Caribbean  Sea.  In  the  central 
part  ot  tlie  ocean  they  become  east-northeasterly. 

Southeast  trade  winds  extend  north  of  the  Equator  over  the  central  part  of  the 
ocean  to  the  4th  paraUel. 

«» J^^/li^*^?.'"?.?^^®^^  sometimes  occur  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  western 
part  ottne  Caribbean  Sea  at  this  season.  They  aie  generaUy  preceded  by  a  sUght 
tail  m  the  barometer,  but  are  accompanied  by  a  rapid  rise. 

onH  ♦l*~r  t5  ''^Sion  of  highest  percentage  of  calms  is  east  of  the  30th  meridian 
♦u  o^c^l^  J  S®,  ^°*^  paraUel.  Elsewhere  calms  occur  most  frequently  between 
the  25th  and  30th  paraUels. 

Fog.— The  percentage  of  fog  has  increased  slightly  along  the  immediate  Ameri- 
can coast  from  Hatteras  to  Sidney.  The  area  of  maximum  percentage  of  days  with 
fn  1  n'  35,  remains  unchanged  southeast  of  Newfoundland,  and  an  area  of  5 

dec     ^"/®°*  ^*^  appeared  northwest  of  Ireland.     Elsewhere  the  percentage  has 

SOUTH  ATLANTIC  OCEAN 

Average  Conditions  of  Wind  and  Weather 

December,  January,  and  February  (the  Summer  Season) 

«,«flS"u''^T?5®  permanent  area  of  high  pressure,  crest  30.15  inches,  has 
moved  about  8  degrees  to  the  west  and  a  short  distance  to  the  south  since  the 
spring,  the  center  now  being  located  near  latitude  32°  S.  and  longitude  7°  W.  It 
3fA*;Y*°^®r^"*??  "*  *^®*  *°^  remains  the  same  in  intensity,  while  the  gradients 
airectly  south  of  it  are  somewhat  steeper  although  this  does  not  hold  true  of  those 
SSii.  ♦^^^^^v^"  *^?*f*  ?^  ^°"***  America,  where  the  gradients  have  changed  but 
ofCap    H*^**  *  pressure,  29.30  inches,  passes  a  short  distance  south 


I  ( 


t 


844 


[  STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP— SOUTH  ATLANTIC 


WEATHER  AT  SEA— SOUTH  ATLANTIC 


845 


I 


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ti .. 


Temperature. — There  has  been  a  decided  southward  movement  of  the  iso- 
therms since  the  spring  over  the  greater  part  of  the  ocean,  though  the  general 
direction  of  these  lines  has  changed  but  little,  and  they  still  show  that  the  tempera- 
tures off  the  coast  of  Africa  are  lower  than  at  the  same  latitude  off  the  South  Ameri- 
can coast,  the  effect  of  the  cool  and  warm  ocean  currents  remaining  nearly  constant. 
The  isotherm  of  45°,  which  marks  the  lowest  temperature,  has  moved  slightly  to 
the  south,  while  the  spring  isotherms  of  35°  and  40°  have  disappeared. 

Winds. — The  southeast  trades  prevail  from  the  aiea  of  high  pressure  to  latitude 
5°  S.  on  the  eastern  part  of  the  ocean  and  from  latitude  15°  S.  to  the  Equator  on 
the  western.  Over  the  greater  part  of  this  area  they  are  well  developed,  blowing 
from  the  southeast  from  50  to  60  per  cent  of  the  time,  with  a  small  percentage  of 
calms  and  no  gales,  the  average  force  being  about  4.  South  of  the  area  of  high 
pressure  "  the  brave  west  winds  "  prevail.  They  have  increased  slightly  in  in- 
tensity since  the  spring.  The  winds  around  the  "  high  "  show  their  anticyclonic 
movements  very  plainly,  while  those  within  the  area  are  variable  in  direction  and 
force. 

Gales. — There  are  few  gales  north  of  latitude  35°  S.  on  the  eastern  part  of  the 
ocean  and  30°  S.  on  the  western.  On  the  whole  there  has  been  a  decided  decrease 
in  the  number  of  gales  since  the  spring,  although  between  latitudes  45°  and  50°  and 
from  the  South  American  coast  to  longitude  45°  W.  there  has  been  an  increase. 
South  of  Cape  Horn  the  percentage  has  dropped  from  26  to  10,  which  is  the  greatest 
change  shown  on  the  chart.  A  number  of  observations  taken  in  the  vicinity  of 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  between  south  latitudes  30°  and  50°  and  east  longitudes  10° 
and  20°  during  the  month  of  January,  show  that  north  of  latitude  38°  the  per- 
centage of  direction  and  average  hours  of  duration  of  gales  are  as  follows:  NW., 
17  per  cent,  12  hours;  SW.,  40  per  cent,  20  hours;  NE.,  7  per  cent,  4  hours;  SE., 
9  per  cent,  22  hours;  exceptional,  or  shifting  from  one  direction  to  another,  27  per 
cent,  25  hours.  South  of  latitude  38°  these  figures  are  as  follows:  NW.,  40  per 
cent,  32  hours;  SW.,  21  per  cent,  26  hours;  NE.,  3  per  cent,  4  hours;  SE.,  6  per 
cent,  53  hours ;  exceptional,  30  per  cent,  25  hours. 

March,  April,  and  May  (the  Autumn  Season) 

Pressure. — The  permanent  area  of  high  pressure,  crest  30.10  inches,  has  moved 
about  10  degrees  to  the  east  since  summer  and  now  occupies  nearly  the  same 
position  it  held  during  the  spring  season.  It  has  decreased  slightly  in  intensity 
and  remains  practically  the  same  in  extent,  while  the  gradients  south  of  this  area 
have  changed  but  little.  The  isobar  of  the  lowest  pressure,  29.30  inches,  passes 
south  of  Cape  Horn  near  the  59th  parallel,  having  moved  a  short  distance  to  the 
south  since  summer. 

Temperature. — The  75°  and  80°  isotherms  show  a  decided  southern  movement 
in  the  central  part  of  the  ocean,  while  off  the  coast  of  South  America  south  of  lati- 
tude 20°  S.,  and  immediately  south  of  Cape  of  Good  Hope  the  temperature  has 
fallen  about  5°;  in  mid-ocean  south  of  latitude  40°  S.,  the  isotherms  for  the  summer 
and  autumn  are  near  together.  The  35°  and  40°  isotherms  have  reappeared,  the 
former  showing  the  minimum  average  temperature  for  the  present  season. 

Winds. — The  southeast  trades  prevail  from  the  area  of  high  pressure  to  latitude 
5°  S.  on  the  eastern  part  of  the  ocean  and  from  latitude  20°  S.  to  the  Equator,  on 
the  western.  The  extent  of  these  winds  have  changed  but  little  since  summer  and 
they  remain  practically  the  same  in  intensity.  Over  the  greater  part  of  this  area 
they  are  well  developed,  blowing  from  the  southeast  quadrant  from  60  to  80  per 
cent  of  the  time,  with  a  small  percentage  of  calms  and  gales,  the  average  force 
being  about  4.  South  of  the  area  of  high  pressure  '*  the  brave  west  winds  " 
prevail,  while  along  the  South  American  coast  between  south  latitudes  30°  and  40° 
the  winds  are  variable.  South  of  Cape  Horn  the  winds  are  westerly  the  greater 
part  of  the  time  with  a  force  of  from  5  to  6,  having  increased  slightly  in  intensity 
since  summer. 

Gales. — North  of  latitude  25°  S.  there  are  no  gales  along  the  African  coast, 
whUe  in  the  central  and  western  part  of  the  ocean  the  percentage  ranges  from  1  to  2. 
South  of  the  30th  parallel  there  is  a  general  increase  in  the  number  since  the 
previous  season.  From  a  large  number  of  observations  taken  between  south 
latitudes  30°  and  50°  and  east  longitudes  10°  and  20°,  during  the  month  of  April 
it  was  shown  that  in  the  track  of  homeward  bound  vessels,  or  north  of  latitude 
38°,  the  percentage  of  direction  and  average  hours  of  duration  of  gales  are  as 
follows:  NW.,  20  per  cent, 26  hours;  SW.,43per  cent,  22  hours;  NE.,  15  per  cent, 
8  hours;  SE.,  7  per  cent,  17  hours;  exceptional,  or  shifting  from  one  direction  to 
another,  15  per  cent,  45  hours.    In  the  region  covered  by  outward  bound  vessels. 


or  south  of  latitude  38°,  these  figures  are  as  follows:  NW.,  40  per  cent,  36  hours; 
SW.,21  per  cent,  24  hours;  NE.,3  per  cent,  23  hours;  SE.,9  per  cent,  30  hours; 
exceptional,  27  per  cent,  46  hours. 

June,  July,  and  August  (the  Winter  Season) 

Pressure. — A  high-pressure  area,  crest  30.20  inches,  lies  between  latitudes 
25°  and  35°  S.  and  longitudes  0°  and  22°  W.  This  varies  little  in  extent  and 
intensity  from  season  to  season  and  now  occupies  its  extreme  western  position, 
having  moved  over  10  degrees  in  longitude  since  autumn.  The  pressure  diminishes 
more  rapidly  to  the  south  than  to  the  north  of  this  high,  the  30.00  inch  isobar  being 
about  30°  north  and  15°  south  of  its  center,  respectively.  At  latitude  59°,  directly 
south  of  Cape  Horn,  the  pressure  reaches  a  minimum  of  29.30  inches. 

Temperature. — Along  the  southern  limit  of  the  southeast  trades  the  tempera- 
ture ranges  between  55°  and  75°;  along  the  northern  limit  it  ranges  between  75° 
and  80°.  The  temperature  falls  from  45°  at  latitude  40°  S.,  to  30°  at  latitude  55°  S., 
the  line  of  freezing  temperature  running  near  the  53d  parallel.  Sudden  and 
marked  changes  in  temperature  with  rain  or  snow  may  be  expected  while  rounding 
Cape  Horn. 

Winds. — The  southern  limit  of  the  southeast  trades  extends  from  latitude 
30°  S.  on  the  African  coast  to  latitude  17°  S.  off  the  coast  of  South  America.  North 
of  this  limit  to  the  Equator  the  southeast  winds  are  remarkably  steady.  At  the 
Equator,  east  of  longitude  20°  W.,  the  prevailing  direction  becomes  nearly  southerly, 
with  force  of  about  4.  The  southern  and  northern  limits  of  the  southeast  trades 
draw  more  to  the  southward  as  they  approach  the  African  coast.  South  of  the 
area  of  high  pressure  westerly  winds  prevail;  on  account  of  their  steady  force 
and  comparatively  constant  direction  they  are  known  as  the  "  brave  west  winds." 
The  winds  near  the  center  of  the  high  pressuie  area  are  variable  as  to  direction 
and  intermittent  in  force.  Between  latitudes  20°  and  30°  S.,  along  the  South 
American  coast,  the  winds  are  from  north  to  northeast  for  a  greater  portion  of  the 
time,  and  between  latitude  30°  S.,  and  Cape  Horn  the  prevailing  direction  is  from 
north  to  northwest.  South  to  southeast  winds,  average  force  4,  prevail  along  the 
African  coast  as  far  south  as  latitude  30°;  between  this  parallel  and  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  they  are  variable  in  direction,  with  average  force  of  about  4. 

Gales. — Tropical  cyclones  are  unknown  in  the  South-Atlantic  Ocean,  and  there 
are  few  gales  north  of  latitude  30°  S.  The  largest  percentage  is  24,  found  along  the 
"  roaring  forties  "  between  longitude  40°  and  50°  W.,  while  it  varies  from  18  to  20 
south  of  Cape  Horn,  and  is  22  in  the  square  between  latitudes  40°  and  45°  and 
longitudes  15°  to  20°  E.  From  a  large  number  of  observations  taken  between 
latitudes  30°  and  50°  S.  and  longitudes  10°  and  20°  E.  during  the  month  of  July  it 
was  shown  that  in  the  track  of  homeward  bound  vessels,  or  north  of  latitude  38°, 
the  percentage  of  direction  and  average  hours  of  duration  of  gales  are  as  follows: 
N.W.,  45  per  cent,  35  hours;  SW.,32  per  cent,  22  hours;  NE.,4  per  cent,  9  hours; 
SE.,  4  per  cent,  14  hours;  exceptional,  or  shifting  from  one  direction  to  another, 
15  per  cent,  27  hours.  In  the  region  covered  by  outward-bound  vessels,  or  south 
of  latitude  38°,  these  figures  are  as  follows:  NW.,  41  per  cent,  25  hours;  SW.,26 
per  cent,  21  hours;  NE.,  1  per  cent,  6  hours;  SE.,  11  per  cent,  32  hours;  excep- 
tional, 21  per  cent,  42  hours. 

September,  October,  and  November  (the  Spring  Season) 

Pressure. — The  semi-permanent  area  of  high  pressure,  crest  30.15  inches,  is 
now  central  about  15°  west  of  the  South  African  coast  along  the  30th  parallel  of 
south  latitude,  having  moved  about  10°  to  the  east  since  the  previous  season.  It 
has  contracted  somewhat  in  area  and  is  less  in  intensity,  while  there  is  little  change 
in  the  gradients,  which  are  much  steeper  south  of  the  high  than  toward  the  north. 
The  isobar  of  the  lowest  pressure,  26.30  inches,  passes  over  Cape  Horn,  having 
moved  about  4°  to  the  north  since  the  winter. 

Temperature. — North  of  latitude  20°  S.  the  temperature  over  the  eastern  part 
of  the  ocean  is  much  lower  than  over  the  western,  due  to  the  cooling  effects  of  the 
Benguela  Current  off  the  African  coast  and  the  warming  effects  of  the  South 
Equatorial  and  Brazil  Currents  off  the  coast  of  Brazil.  South  of  latitude  25°  S. 
on  the  western  part  of  the  ocean  the  fall  in  temperature  is  very  regular,  being 
about  1°  for  every  degree  in  latitude,  reaching  the  minimum  temperature  of  35° 
near  latitude  55°  S.  There  has  been  a  general  rise  in  temperature  over  the  entire 
ocean  since  the  previous  season.  This  change  is  small  near  the  Equator,  while  in 
the  vicinity  of  Cape  Horn  the  tempeiature  has  increased  from  30°  to  40°  and  off 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  from  52°  to  60°,  and  at  latitude  50°  S.  and  longitude  20°  W. 
it  IS  now  43°,  showing  an  increase  of  8°  since  the  winter. 


846     STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP— CENTRAL  AMERICAN  WATERS 


WEATHER  AT  SEA— CENTRAL  AMERICAN  WATERS        847 


Winds. — The  southeast  trades  prevail  from  the  area  of  high  pressure  to  latitude 
10°  S.  on  the  eastern  part  of  the  ocean  and  to  the  northern  limits  of  the  chart  on 
the  western.  Over  the  greater  part  of  this  area  these  winds  are  well  developed, 
blowing  from  the  southeast  from  50  to  60  per  cent  of  the  time.  South  of  the  area 
of  high  pressure  the  "  brave  west  winds  "  prevail,  while  the  winds  around  this  area 
show  plainly  their  anticyclonic  movement. 

Gales. — Few  gales  occur  north  of  latitude  30°  S.  on  the  central  and  western  parts 
of  the  ocean  and  north  of  latitude  35°  S.  on  the  eastern.  Along  the  "  roaring 
forties  "  the  percentage  runs  as  high  as  12,  while  in  the  winter  season  the  maximum 
was  24.  South  of  latitude  55°  the  percentage  is  from  15  to  26,  showing  a  decided 
increase  in  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Horn  since  the  winter,  while  the  opposite  is  true 
over  all  other  parts  of  the  ocean.  From  a  large  number  of  observations  taken 
between  latitudes  30°  and  50°  S.  and  longitudes  10°  and  20°  £.,  during  the  month 
of  October,  it  was  shown  that  in  the  track  of  homeward  bound  vessels,  or  north 
of  latitude  38°,  the  percentage  of  direction  and  average  hours  of  duration  of  gales 
are  as  follows:  NW.,  30  per  cent,  25  hours;  SW.,  36  per  cent,  23  hours;  N£., 
2  per  cent,  23  hours;  S£.,  9  per  cent,  11  hours;  exceptional  or  shifting  from  one 
direction  to  another,  23  per  cent,  36  hours.  In  the  region  covered  by  outward 
bound  vessels,  or  south  of  latitude  38°,  these  figures  are  as  follows:  NW.,  33  per 
cent,  21  hours;  SW.,  35  per  cent,  21  hours;  N£.,  6  per  cent,  8  hours;  S£.,  8  per 
cent,  35  hours;  exceptional   18  per  cent,  36  hours. 

CENTRAL  AMERICAN  WATERS 
Average  Conditions  of  Wind  and  Weather 

January 

Pressure. — The  pressure  ranges  from  30.10  near  the  25th  parallel  to  29.90 
below  the  10th  parallel. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  ranges  between  53°  in  the  northern  and  70° 
in  the  southern  portion  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  in  the  Caribbean  Sea  it  ranges 
between  70°  in  the  northern  and  78°  in  the  southern  portion.  The  temperature 
is  about  75°  in  the  Bay  of  Panama  and  adjacent  waters. 

Winds. — The  northeast  trades  of  the  Atlantic,  force  3  to  5,  are  fairly  constant. 
In  ^e  Gulf  the  winds  are  generally  easterly.  In  the  Pacific  southeasterly  winds 
prevail  west  of  the  85°  meridian  between  the  Equator  and  the  5th  parallel;  thence 
northward  the  prevailing  winds  are  northeasterly. 

Gales. — In  Atlantic  waters,  the  percentage  of  days  with  gales  ranges  between 

8  and  16  immediately  north  of  the  30th  parallel;  south  of  this  parallel  to  the  25th 
between  1  and  5;   thence  southward  and  in  Pacific  waters  between  0  and  3. 

(Calms. — The  percentage  of  days  with  calms  on  the  Atlantic  is  about  6  to  9, 
except  along  the  northern  border  of  South  America,  where  it  is  decidedly  lower; 
it  is  very  high  on  the  Pacific  between  the  20th  parallel  and  the  Equator  being  40  in 
most  of  the  area  between  the  10th  and  15th  parallels. 

Northers. — Neither s  sometimes  occur  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  along  the 
coast  southward  to  Colon.  These  storms  are  generally  preceded  by  a  slight  fall 
in  the  barometer,  but  the  gale  itself  is  accompanied  by  a  rapid  rise. 

February 

Pressure. — The  pressure  in  Central  American  waters  of  the  Atlantic  ranges 
from  30.10  inches  in  the  northern  to  30.00  inches  in  the  southern  portion.  It  is 
about  29.90  inches  in  the  Pacific  waters  of  this  region. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  ranges  between  57°  in  the  northern  and  75° 
in  the  southern  portion  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  in  the  Caribbean  Sea  it  ranges 
between  75°  in  the  northern  and  78°  in  the  southern  portion.  The  temperature  is 
about  80°  in  the  Central  American  waters  of  the  Pacific. 

Winds. — The  northeast  trades,  force  3  to  5,  prevail  over  the  greater  portion  of 
the  Atlantic.  North  of  the  trade  wind  belt  the  winds  are  variable.  In  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  the  prevailing  winds  are  southeasterly.  In  the  Pacific  the  northeast 
trades,  force  3,  extend  as  far  south  as  the  7th  parallel;  the  southeast  trades,  force  2, 
extend  as  far  north  as  the  3d  parallel. 

Gales. — The  percentage  of  days  with  gales  in  Atlantic  waters  ranges  between 

9  and  15  immediately  north  of  the  30th  parallel;  south  of  this  parallel  to  the  20th 
between  1  and  4;  thence  to  the  10th  between  1  and  2.  South  of  the  10th  parallel 
and  in  Pacific  waters  the  percentage  is  0. 

Calms. — The  percentage  of  days  with  calms  is  about  6  to  11  on  the  Atlantic 
except  along  the  northern  border  of  South  America  where  it  ranges  between  1  and  3. 
On  the  Pacific  it  is  very  high,  ranging  between  20  and  30. 


Northers. — Northers  sometimes  occur  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  along  the 
coast  southward  to  Colon.  These  storms  are  generally  preceded  by  a  slight  fall 
in  the  barometer,  but  the  gale  itself  is  accompanied  by  a  rapid  rise. 

March 

Pressure. — The  pressure  averages  about  30.00  inches  over  the  greater  portion 
of  the  Central  American  waters  of  the  Atlantic,  ranging  from  30.05  inches  in  the 
extreme  northeast  portion  to  29.95  inches  in  the  extreme  southeast  portion;  in  the 
Pacific  waters  of  this  region  it  ranges  between  29.85  and  29.90  inches. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  ranges  from  60°  in  the  noithern  to  75°  in  the 
southern  portion  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  in  the  Caribbean  Sea  it  ranges  from  75° 
in  the  northern  to  78°  in  the  southern  portion.  The  temperature  is  about  80°  in 
the  Central  American  waters  of  the  Pacific. 

Winds. — The  northeast  trades,  average  force  3  to  5,  prevail  over  the  Atlantic 
portion  of  the  Central  American  waters  south  of  the  25th  parallel.  North  of  this 
parallel  the  winds,  average  force  4,  are  variable  in  direction.  In  the  Caribbean 
Sea  the  winds  are  northeasterly,  except  in  the  western  portion  where  they  are 
easterly,  and  easterly  to  southeasterly  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  In  the  Central 
American  waters  of  tiie  Pacific  the  northeast  trades  prevail  over  most  of  the  area 
north  of  the  5th  parallel;  south  of  this  parallel  the  winds  are  southeasterly,  except 
near  the  coast  where  they  are  light  and  variable. 

Gales. — The  percentage  of  days  with  gales  in  the  Central  American  waters  of 
the  Atlantic  ranges  between  9  and  12  immediately  north  of  the  30th  parallel; 
south  of  this  parallel  to  the  20th  between  1  and  3;  south  of  the  20th  paiallel  to  the 
northern  coast  of  South  America  and  in  Pacific  waters  the  percentage  averages  1 
or  less. 

Calms. — The  percentage  of  days  with  calms  is  about  5  to  10  over  Atlantic  and 
Gulf  waters,  except  along  the  northern  coast  of  South  America  where  it  ranges 
between  1  and  5.  On  the  Pacific  the  percentage  is  very  high,  ranging  between 
30  and  39  along  the  coast,  but  diminishing  gradually  to  the  westward. 

April 

Pressure. — The  pressure  averages  about  30.00  inches  over  the  greater  portion 
of  the  Central  American  waters  of  the  Atlantic,  ranging  from  30.03  inches  in  the 
extreme  northeastern  to  29.95  inches  in  the  extreme  southeastern  portion;  in 
the  Pacific  waters  of  this  region  it  is  about  29.85  inches. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  ranges  from  68°  in  the  northern  to  80°  in  the 
southern  portion  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  in  the  Caribbean  Sea  it  ranges  from  77° 
in  the  northern  to  80°  in  the  southern  portion;  it  is  about  80°  in  the  Central  Ameii- 
can  waters  of  the  Pacific. 

Winds. — The  northeast  trades,  average  force  4,  prevail  over  the  Central  Ameri- 
can wateis  of  the  Atlantic  south  of  the  26th  parallel.  North  of  this  parallel  the 
winds,  average  force  4,  are  variable  in  direction.  The  winds,  average  force  4,  are 
easterly  to  southeasterly  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  In  the  Caribbean  Sea  the  pre- 
vailing winds  are  easterly  to  northeasterly.  In  the  Central  American  waters  of 
the  Pacific  the  northeast  trades,  average  force  3,  extend  over  most  of  the  region 
north  of  the  5th  parallel;  the  southeast  trades,  average  force  2,  extend  over  most 
of  the  region  south  of  the  4th  parallel;  on  the  coast  immediately  north  of  the  5th 
parallel  the  winds  are  northwesterly  and  immediately  south  of  it  southwesterly. 

Gales. — The  percentage  of  days  with  gales  in  the  Central  American  waters  of 
the  Atlantic  ranges  between  4  and  13  immediately  north  of  the  30th  parallel; 
south  of  this  parallel  to  the  20th  between  1  and  3;  south  of  the  20th  parallel  to  the 
northern  coast  of  South  America  and  in  Pacific  waters  the  percentage  averages  1 
or  less. 

Calms. — The  percentage  of  days  with  calms  is  about  5  to  10  in  the  Central 
American  waters  of  the  Atlantic,  except  along  the  northern  coast  of  South  America 
and  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  West  Indies  and  to  the  eastward  where  it  ranges 
between  2  and  5.  On  the  Pacific  side  the  percentage  is  very  high,  ranging  between 
27  and  43  along  the  coast  and  diminishing  gradually  to  the  westward. 

May 

Pressure. — The  average  pressure  over  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Caribbean 
Sea  is  from  29.90  to  30.00  inches.  Toward  the  open  Atlantic  the  pressure  rises, 
but  in  the  Pacific  waters  of  Central  America  it  falls  to  about  29.85  inches. 

Temperatures. — The  mean  temperature  over  most  of  the  region  included  i 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  the  Pacific  coast  waters  is  about  80o 
but  in  the  upper  Gulf  it  falls  to  75°  or  slightly  lower.  > 


848     STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP— CENTRAL  AMERICAN  WATERS 

Winds. — The  trade  wind  holds  with  good  steadiness  at  force  4  over  the  Atlantic 
region  to  the  southward  of  the  27th  parallel,  as  well  as  in  practically  the  entire 
Gulf.  The  inclination  of  the  trade,  however,  is  more  nearly  easterly  than  north- 
easterly, except  in  the  central  Caribbean  Sea  and  along  the  coast  of  South  America 
to  the  southeastward  of  Trinidad.  Over  much  of  the  Gulf  the  trade  is  deflected  also 
into  the  southeast.  In  the  Central  American  waters  of  the  Pacific  the  winds  are 
mostly  light  and  variable,  although  with  approach  to  the  Equator  the  steadying 
effect  of  the  southeast  trade  becomes  apparent. 

Gales. — Few  gales  occur  over  the  entire  area.  In  the  Pacific  region,  and  up 
to  about  the  30th  parallel  in  the  Atlantic,  the  number  of  days  with  gales  for  the 
month  is  1  per  cent  or  less.  One  West  Indian  hurricane  has  been  observed  in 
May  during  the  last  40  years. 

Calms. — The  Pacific  in  this  vicinity  is  distinguished  for  its  calms,  which  are  of 
high  relative  frequency,  even  as  low  as  the  Equator.  Ovei  the  region  to  the  east- 
ward of  the  100th  meridian,  except  where  the  advance  movement  of  the  trade  is 
felt  the  percentage  of  days  with  calms  ranges  between  20  and  40  per  cent.  Calms 
are  much  less  frequent  on  the  Atlantic  side,  and  in  the  open  sweeps  of  the  trades 
are  scarcely  to  be  reckoned  with. 

June 

Pressure. — The  average  pressure  from  the  Florida  Peninsula  southeastward 
along  the  backbone  of  the  West  Indies  is  about  30.00  inches.  A  gradual  increase 
occurs  to  the  eastward,  but  to  the  westward  there  is  a  decrease  to  29.85  inches 
over  the  Pacific  portion. 

Temperature. — A  mean  temperature  of  80°  or  near  it  prevails  over  most  of  the 
Central  American  area. 

Winds. — Easterly  winds  of  the  trades  system,  with  an  average  force  of  4,  pre- 
vail over  the  entire  Atlantic  and  Caribbean  area  south  of  the  27th  parallel.  North 
of  the  23d  parallel,  and  over  most  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  winds  are  slightly  the 
most  prevalent  from  the  southeast.  On  the  Pacific  side  the  winds  are  mostly 
light  and  variable  except  to  the  southward  of  the  5th  parallel,  where  winds  of  the 
southeast  trades  system,  force  2  to  4,  prevail,  freshening  toward  the  Equator. 

Gales. — Few  gales  occur  on  the  Atlantic  side  this  month.  Off  the  Pacific  coast 
of  Mexico  theie  are  occasional  squall  bursts  peculiar  to  the  opening  of  the  rainy 
season. 

Hurricanes. — The  hurricane  season  may  be  said  to  begin  in  June,  although 
only  8  hurricanes  have  occurred  this  month  during  the  period  1876  to  1916.  Most 
of  these  storms  originated  south  of  Cuba  and  passed  into  the  eastern  part  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Calms. — Over  the  region  dominated  by  the  full  sweep  of  the  trades  there  is  a 
small  percentage  of  calms,  but  toward  the  westward,  in  the  vicinity  of  Cuba  and 
the  Bahamas,  over  the  extreme  southwestern  portion  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and 
throughout  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  there  are  10  to  17  per  cent  of  calms.  Over  the 
Pacific  area  calms  are  much  more  frequent  except  near  the  Equator  in  the  trades 
region. 

July 

Pressure. — The  mean  atmospheiic  pressure  over  the  West  Indies  is  about 
30.00  inches,  but  is  higher  toward  the  eastward.  In  the  lower  Caribbean  Sea, 
and  over  most  of  the  Pacific  area  adjoining  southern  Mexico  and  Central  America, 
the  pressure  is  about  29.90  inches. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  over  most  of  the  region  is  about  80°,  but  in 
the  lower  Pacific  area,  between  5°  N.  and  the  Equator,  it  falls  to  75°  or  slightly 
lower. 

Winds. — Over  most  of  the  Atlantic  and  Caribbean  area  south  of  the  27th 
parallel  the  trade  winds  persist,  of  average  force  4.  North  of  the  25th  parallel 
the  force  and  steadiness  decrease  and  the  winds  become  more  variable,  though 
with  a  southeasterly  tendency  toward  the  Florida  Peninsula.  In  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  while  diminishing  easterly  trades  are  fairly  well  established  south  of  the 
25th  parallel,  to  the  northward  the  winds  become  increasingly  variable.  In  the 
Pacific  area  southerly  winds  of  the  southeast  trades  system  carry  their  influence 
across  the  Equator,  nearly  to  the  10th  parallel,  except  toward  the  coast,  along 
which,  as  well  as  to  the  northward  of  the  10th  parallel  generally,  northerly  winds, 
force  2  to  3,  are  in  the  ascendency. 

Gales. — The  percentage  of  days  with  gales  is  1  or  less  over  the  Central  American 
and  West  Indian  waters  during  July. 


WEATHER  AT  SEA— CENTRAL  AMERICAN  WATERS       849 

West  Indian  Hurricanes. — Ten  hurricanes  have  been  observed  in  these  waters 
in  July  during  the  41-year  period,  1876  to  1916,  of  which  3  occurred  in  1916,  and 
are  shown  on  this  chart. 

Calms. — Calms  are  few  in  the  unobstructed  trades  belt  of  the  Atlantic,  but 
they  increase  in  frequency  toward  the  western  part  of  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  over 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  In  the  northern  part  of  the  Gulf  the  percentage  of  days  with 
calms  is  as  high  as  20.  In  the  eastern  Pacific  waters  calms  are  much  more  frequent 
than  in  the  Gulf,  especially  to  the  northward  of  the  7th  parallel,  but  they  diminish 
rapidly  to  less  than  10  per  cent  in  the  belt  of  the  southeast  trades. 

August 

Pressure. — The  pressure  is  about  30.10  inches  over  the  extreme  northeastern 
part  of  the  Central  American  waters  of  the  Atlantic,  whence  it  diminishes  to  the 
westward  and  southward,  being  about  30.00  inches  in  the  vicinity  of  Florida  and 
the  West  India  Islands.  It  is  slightly  below  30.00  inches  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  about  29.90  inches  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  over  the 
neighboring  waters  of  the  Pacific. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  averages  about  80°  over  the  waters  of  both 
the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  in  this  region,  except  between  the  6th  parallel  and  the 
Equator  on  the  Pacific  side,  where  it  averages  about  75°. 

Winds. — Southeasteily  winds  prevail  over  that  part  of  the  Atlantic  between  the 
30th  and  25th  parallels;  from  the  25th  to  the  15th  parallels  they  are  mostly  easterly; 
thence  southward  and  in  the  Caribbean  Sea  they  are  noitheasterly  or  easterly, 
while  in  the  greater  part  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  they  are  southeasterly.  The 
average  force  of  the  wind  is  3  to  4  on  the  Atlantic  side.  Over  the  waters  of  the 
Pacific  the  winds  are  northeasteily  to  easterly  between  the  15th  and  the  10th 
parallels;  mostiy  southerly  between  the  10th  and  the  5th  parallels,  except  near  the 
coast,  where  they  are  northwesterly;  between  the  5th  parallel  and  the  Equator 
they  are  southwesterly  near  the  coast  and  southerly  to  southeasterly  thence  west- 
ward.    The  average  force  of  the  wind  is  2  to  4  on  the  Pacific  side. 

Gales. — The  percentage  of  days  with  gales  is  1  or  less  over  the  Central  American 
waters  of  both  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific. 

West  India  Hurricanes. — Forty  of  these  storms  occurred  in  the  month  of 
August  within  the  41 -year  period,  1876  to  1916. 

Calms. — The  percentage  of  days  with  calms  is  15  to  22  over  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
except  south  of  latitude  22°  30',  where  it  averages  about  8;  it  is  10  to  15  over  the 
Caribbean  Sea;  also  over  the  Atlantic,  except  in  the  region  east  of  longitude  65°, 
between  parallels  25°  and  12°  30',  where  it  averages  3  to  7.  On  the  Pacific  side 
the  percentage  of  calms  is  very  high,  ranging  from  10  along  the  Equator,  except 
near  the  coast,  to  30  per  cent  north  of  latitude  12°  30'. 

September 

Pressure. — The  average  atmospheric  pressure  during  September  is  about 
29.95  inches  over  the  West  Indian  Islands,  and  29.90  inches  or  slightly  lower  over 
the  southern  portions  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Caribbean  Sea,  as  well  as  over 
the  neighboring  waters  of  the  Pacific. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  in  this  region  averages  about  80°  over  the 
waters  of  both  the  Adantic  and  the  Pacific,  except  between  the  5th  parallel  and  the 
Equator  on  the  Pacific  side,  where  it  averages  about  75°. 

Winds. — Southeasterly  winds  prevail  over  that  part  of  the  Atlantic  between  the 
30th  and  20th  parallels,  except  east  of  Florida  to  the  70th  meridian,  wheie  they  are 
northeasterly;  from  the  20tli  parallel  to  the  northern  coast  of  South  America  and 
in  the  Caribbean  Sea  they  are  easterly  to  northeasterly,  while  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
they  are  easterly.  The  average  force  of  the  wind  is  3  to  4  on  the  Atlantic  side. 
Over  the  wateis  of  the  Pacific  the  winds  are  mostly  northerly,  force  2  to  3,  from 
the  10th  parallel  northward  to  the  coast;  between  the  10th  parallel  and  the  Equator 
they  are  southwesterly,  force  3  to  4  except  south  of  the  5th  parallel,  west  of  the 
85th  meridian,  where  they  are  southerly  to  southeasterly. 

Gales. — The  percentage  of  days  with  gales  is  1  to  2  over  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and 
2  to  3  over  the  Atlantic  between  the  20th  and  30th  parallels  west  of  the  55th  meri- 
dian, while  south  of  the  20th  parallel  in  these  waters  the  percentage  in  any  5-degree 
square  is  not  over  2.  In  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  on  the  Pacific  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Central  America  the  percentage  is  1  or  less. 

West  Indian  Hurricanes. — Fifty-five  of  these  storms  have  been  traced  in  the 
month  of  September  within  the  42-year  period,  1876  to  1917. 

Calms. — The  percentage  of  days  with  calms  is  8  to  IS  over  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 


850     STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP— CENTRAL  AMERICAN  WATERS 


WEATHER  AT  SEA— NORTH  PACIFIC 


851 


and  the  Atlantic  and  8  to  20  over  the  Caribbean  Sea.  On  the  Pacific  side  it  is 
very  high  north  of  parallel  7°  30',  especially  near  the  coast,  where  it  ranges  from 
25  to  33;  south  of  parallel  70°  30'  it  ranges  from  2  to  15. 

October 

Pressure.— TJe  pressure  averages  about  30.00  inches  over  the  northern  paits 
Of  the  (julf  of  Mexico  and  the  Central  American  waters  of  the  Atlantic,  whence  it 
dinumshes  south waid  to  about  29.90  inches  in  the  southern  parts  of  this  region. 
It  also  averages  about  29.90  inches  over  the  neighboring  waters  of  the  Pacific. 

Temperature.— The  temperature  in  this  legion  averages  about  80°  over  the 
waters  of  both  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific,  except  over  those  bordering  on  the 
js-quator  on  the  Pacific  side,  where  it  averages  about  75°. 

^^^^^i^'—^OTthe&sterly  winds  prevail  over  that  part  of  the  Atlantic  between  the 
30th  and  the  20th  paraUels  west  of  the  70th  meridian,  while  east  of  this  meridian 
southeasteriy  winds  prevail.  From  the  20th  parallel  southward  to  the  noithern 
coast  of  South  America,  and  in  the  Caribbean  Sea  as  far  west  as  the  80th  meridian 
the  winds  are  easteriy,  while  in  the  Caribbean  Sea  west  of  the  80th  meridian  and 
in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  they  are  northeasterly.     The  average  force  of  the  wind  is 

1^  V^  .  Atlantic  side.  Over  the  waters  of  the  Pacific  the  winds  are  mostly 
northeily,  force  2  to  3,  between  the  10th  and  15th  parallels,  while  south  of  the  10th 
parallel  to  the  Equatoi  they  are  southwesterly,  force  3  to  4,  except  south  of  the  5th 
parallel  westof  the  85th  meridian,  where  they  are  southeriy  to  southeasteriy. 

Ga/es.— The  percentage  of  days  with  gales  averages  1  to  2  over  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  over  the  extreme  northern  part  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  2  to  8  over  the 
Atlantic  north  of  the  25th  paraUel,  and  2  to  3  adjacent  to  the  northern  coasts  of  Cuba 
and  Haiti;  elsewhere  over  the  Atlantic  south  of  the  25th  parallel;  also  in  the 
Caribbean  Sea  south  of  the  20th  parallel,  and  on  the  Pacific  side  the  percentage 
averages  1  or  less. 

West  India  /Turricanes.- Forty-five  of  these  storms  occurred  in  the  month  of 
October  within  the  41-year  period,  1876  to  1916. 

CaZms.— The  percentage  of  days  with  calms  averages  S  to  10  over  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  the  Atlantic  waters  of  this  region,  while  it  averages  8  to  20  over  the 
Sf^n/  -'^  ^°  *^®  Pacific  side  the  peicentage  is  very  high  north  of  latitude 

*i  ranging  from  24  to  48  near  the  coast;  south  of  that  latitude  it  is  also  com- 
paratively high  near  the  coast;  elsewhere  the  average  is  2  to  12,  being  lowest 
along  the  Equator. 

November 

Pressure^The  pressure  averages  about  30.10  inches  over  the  extreme  noithern 
part  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  over  the  Central  American  waters  of  the  Atlantic 
from  the  eastern  coast  of  northern  Florida  to  the  75th  meridian.  It  decreases 
toward  ttie  lower  latitudes,  being  about  30.00  inches  over  the  southern  part  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  and  over  the  West  India  Islands,  and  about  29.90  inches  over  the 
southern  part  of  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  along  the  noithern  coast  of  South  America; 
It  also  averages  about  29.90  inches  over  the  neighboring  waters  of  the  Pacific. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  in  this  region  averages  about  60°  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  in  the  adjacent  waters  of  the  Atlantic, 
whence  it  increases  to  about  80°  in  the  vicinity  of  the  15th  parallel  over  the  Carib- 
bean Sea  and  tiie  Atlantic.  It  averages  about  80°  on  the  Pacific  side,  except  over 
ab    ^75°^  bordering  on  the  Equator  west  of  the  90th  meridian,  where  it  averages 

tTmrfs.— Northeasterly  winds  prevaU  over  the  waters  on  the  Atlantic  side, 
force  3  to  4,  except  between  longitudes  52  and  60  north  of  the  15th  paraUel,  where 
they  are  generally  easteily.  Over  the  Pacific  waters  of  this  region  the  winds  are 
mostly  northerly  or  noitheasterly,  force  2  to  3,  between  the  10th  and  15th  parallels; 
also  between  the  5th  and  10th  parallels  and  longitudes  95  and  100;  elsewhere 
south  of  the  10th  parallel  to  the  Equator  the  winds  are  southwesteriy,  force  2  to  3, 
except  between  the  5th  parallel  and  the  Equator,  west  of  the  85th  meridian,  where 
they  are  southeasterly. 

Gales.— -The  percentage  of  days  with  gales  averages  2  to  3  over  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  1  to  2  over  the  Atlantic  waters  between  the  20th  and  30th  parallels; 
elsewhere  in  this  region  and  in  the  neighboring  waters  of  the  Pacific  the  percentage 
IS  L  or  less. 

,     W^.fl/ndia  Hurricanes.— Two  of  these  storms  occurred  in  the  month  of  Novem- 
ber within  the  35-year  period,  1876  to  1910. 


Calms. — The  percentage  of  days  with  calms  averages  6  to  8  over  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  over  the  Atlantic  above  latitude  20  as  far  east  as  longitude  62°  30'. 
In  other  parts  of  the  Atlantic  and  over  the  Caribbean  Sea  it  averages  7  to  10,  while 
on  the  Pacific  side  it  averages  8  to  17  north  of  latitude  7°  30',  and  2  to  6  south  of  it. 

December 

Pressure. — The  pressure  averages  about  30.10  inches  over  the  northern  part 
of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  over  the  Central  American  waters  of  the  Atlantic  north 
of  the  25th  parallel.  It  decreases  toward  the  lower  latitudes,  being  about  30.00 
inches  in  the  vicinity  of  the  20th  parallel,  and  about  29.90  inches  along  the  coasts 
of  Dutch  and  French  Guiana;  it  also  averages  about  29.90  inches  over  the  neigh- 
boring waters  of  the  Pacific. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  over  the  Atlantic  waters  of  this  region  ranges 
from  about  55°  off  the  northern  coast  of  Florida  to  about  80°  along  the  northern 
coast  of  South  America,  55°  in  the  northern  to  75°  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  and  75°  in  the  northern  to  80°  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

Winds. — Northeasterly  winds  prevail  over  the  waters  on  the  Atlantic  side, 
average  force  4,  except  between  longitudes  70  and  80  north  of  parallel  22°  30' 
where  they  are  variable,  while  over  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  they  are  northerly  to  south- 
easterly. Over  the  waters  on  the  Pacific  side  the  winds  are  generally  north- 
easterly, force  2  to  3,  between  the  5th  and  15th  parallels,  except  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  Panama  Canal,  where  they  are  northwesterly.  South  of  the  5th 
parallel  they  are  southwesterly  east  of  the  85th  meridian,  while  they  are  south- 
easterly thence  westward. 

Gales. — The  percentage  of  days  with  gales  averages  2  to  3  on  the  Atlantic  side 
north  of  the  20th  parallel,  thence  southward  and  over  the  neighboring  waters  of  the 
Pacific  it  averages  1  or  less. 

Calms. — The  percentage  of  days  with  calms  averages  3  to  9  over  the  Atlantic 
side  of  this  region,  while  on  the  Pacific  side  it  averages  30  to  48  north  of  latitude 
7°  30',  thence  to  the  Equator  it  averages  6  to  25,  being  lowest  near  the  Equator. 

NORTH  PACIFIC  OCEAN 
Average  Conditions  of  Wind  and  Weather 
January 

Pressure. — The  Aleutian  Low  has  increased  in  area  southward  and  westward 
since  December.  It  is  central  over  the  middle  portion  of  the  Aleutian  Islands, 
and  its  lowest  pressure  continues  at  29.60  inches.  The  pressure  along  the  Equator 
over  the  western  part  of  the  ocean  is  29.85  inches,  or  .05  inch  less  than  in  December. 
The  crest  of  the  Asiatic  High,  still  30.30  inches,  extends  from  the  China  coast  at 
Shanghai  to  northern  Chosen  (Korea).  The  North  Pacific  High  occupies  nearly 
the  same  position  as  in  December,  and  its  central  pressure  remains  at  30.20  inches. 

Temperature. — There  has  been  a  fall  of  3°  to  5°  in  temperature  in  the  Gulf  of 
Alaska  and  along  the  American  coast  as  far  south  as  Cape  San  Lucas,  and  a  slight 
rise  in  temperature  in  the  area  between  the  30th  and  45th  parallels  and  longitudes 
145°  W.  and  155°  E.;  elsewhere  there  has  been  little  change.  The  line  of  freezing 
temperatuie  touches  the  Asiatic  coast  at  latitude  37°  N.,  passes  slightly  north  of 
the  Kuril  Islands,  thence  over  the  southernmost  of  the  Aleutian  Islands,  and 
reaches  the  American  coast  at  latitude  56°  N.  In  Asiatic  coast  and  Philippine 
waters,  from  the  37th  to  the  14th  parallel,  the  temperature  ranges  between  32° 
and  80°;  along  the  American  coast  from  the  S6th  to  the  11th  parallel,  it  ranges 
between  32°  and  75°.  Along  the  Equator,  east  of  longitude  165°  W.,  the  tempera- 
ture is  between  75°  and  80°,  and  west  of  this  meridian  it  is  between  80°  and  85°. 
On  the  great  circle  route  from  San  Francisco  to  Yokohama  it  ranges  between  40° 
and  50°. 

American  Coast  Winds. — In  the  most  northern  part  of  the  Gulf  of  Alaska  the 
prevailing  winds  are  north  and  northeasterly;  in  the  neighborhood  of  Sitka, 
easterly;  from  the  55th  to  the  40th  parallel,  westerly  and  southerly;  40th  to  20th 
parallel,  northwesterly;  20th  to  10th  parallel,  northerly  to  northeasterly;  10th  to 
5th  parallel,  northwesterly,  and  thence  to  the  Equator,  southerly. 

Winds  of  High  Latitudes. — In  Bering  Sea  south  of  Alaska  the  winds  are  north- 
erly, and  in  the  5-degree  square  immediately  west  of  the  Pribilof  Islands,  also  in 
the  adjacent  square  to  the  north,  the  winds  are  northeasterly. 

Westerly  Winds. — The  prevailing  winds  are  westerly  over  the  western  part  of 
the  ocean  north  of  the  25th  parallel,  except  in  Asiatic  coast  waters,  due  to  the 


852 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP— NORTH  PACIFIC 


HoJ  -^    circulation  accompanying  the  Aleutian  Low,  and  the  anticyclonic  circula- 
tion accompanying  the  North  Pacific  and  the  Asiatic  Highs       *°"*^y^^**^^  *="^<^"^»- 

i.r/««^i'Lo^.''''f'    ^!P<^^-^e^onsoon.-The  winds  east  of  Chosen   (Korea) 
i^ml^*^?^^"liu^''hr^^^^.'^  **»®y  ^^  northwesterly.     Along  the  China  ?olst 

!n  I^'.I^?'"'^'"i  Trades—The  northeast  trades  reach  their  most  northern  Umit 
irea  of  tie  CaStonU  W.^r^H**  "">  ^^  »"•"<"  ="«''«'''  southeast  ofttlcena 
Between  l«n"udeT!4?>W  .nrt  Y«?%"°,1"'  '""*  f  "■li?st  south  of  this  region. 

pSr  Th?J  e«eil%aYtwa?d  to  ^?to  5»  T^'^?  ^hTV'  ''?"  *"  *'"^^*'' 
westwarrl  th-^  owTJw*  ♦^   a   •  x7         wimin  5    to  8    of  the  American  coast  and 

lonitude^lsoT         ***"  ""'""'"'  "'""  ^'"""""^  ""'  «•  the  °  Ott  paraUel  !i 

Ca/m5.— The  percentage  of  calms  is  highest,  40,  in  the  coast  wateri  of  PAn+roi 
ea'^f^/fjndtude^^^^^^  *«  Los'ingeles''caTml'are'fr^^^^^^^^^^^ 

JfciniVy  0?  jlpan  and  fhe  Phifin^t?  m""^  •  °  *^^  ^°!,V*°,^  ^Sth  parallels,  also  il  the 
regiMie%TthrnVi^h%a^^^^^^^^^  I^^-^«.  -^  in  the 

asth^l^TsTh^fXS^^^^^^^^^  *^^  ^^^Z'^Zro'^f  t^ 

re^on  of  the  prevailing  westerlils  the  wind  fystem  Jsfre^'entiy  Interrupted  £v 
cyclomc  storms  accompanied  by  a  southeast  changing  to  northwest  Tales  Th«^« 
gales  often  sweep  the  coast  from  San  Francisco  nSthward  ^  ^^^^^ 

„„  Jk^  *"**  ^u"^  ^^''I^L  Tracks.— The  typhoons  of  January  show  a  decrease  in 
nymber  over  those  of  December.     They  originate  largely  in  thrviciiStv  of  th? 

t^fSfn'  ^^^  ^^  S"e^^°^  ^^**°^^'  ^^'>^^  o^  t^e  former^eLrving  brfor^Jeach  Si 
Pelew^SfX'  *The*^DeL™h^  l*«%b«i«g  severely  felt  in  Mindanao 'In?  Sf 
CochL  cISair  South  A\^^^^  ^^  J"'^"^  ^^P^^**"^  "*^^  t^^«  °^^^and  in 
stoJmt  pin'^h^^f^^'  given  in  red  on  the  pilot  charts,  show  the  paths  of  important 

fea^t'hi'  jLT""  "'  "^^  "^''^'^  ''*''"'''  "  ^^' *^^*  ^"  ^""^  and'SIJemLr  Inl 
.,.-f*T~^S®  percentage  of  days  with  fog  has  decreased  to  11  along  the  American 
coast  from  Vancouver  to  Cape  San  Lucas.  Over  most  of  the  fog  area  to  th^  we^t 
ward  as  far  as  longitude  160°  W.  and  in  the  Gulf  of  Alaska  the  percentaVefs  Tf^ 
20;  in  Asiatic  waters  as  follows:  China  coast  from  Hongkone  to  Shanth«i  il^ 
?lTeirewhert  Jw!''"  ^^""'"^  *"'  ''"^^°'  «^  Eastfr^leaTud^G^JlfSf^^^^^^^^ 

February 

Pressi/re.— The  Aleutian  Low  is  central  over  the  western  Aleutian  Islands 
with  a  mimmum  pressure  of  29.60  inches.  The  piessure  is  29.80  inchet  alone  ?he 
W?ah**?n^(n'?'  ^?"«»t"d«  120°  W.  to  longitude  120°  E.  The  crest  of  the  Asiatic 
High,  30.30  inches,  covers  the  YeUow  Sea.     The  crest  of  thl  Wnrfi,  io^L^li 

'"'fel^fe^^l^^r  th^Ce°  f  f*'^  CaUfornia^?oVs^b1t;Ve'n^ 

flXVr^Vlvt  P^r\u1l^?o^s^"eVtreTJe^^^  SS^^,^,* 

Ltd'iel?  northTsitl*'*%^r".?  '^^^"'^'  5°^  ^each\?fhrA'm?rican1o^sUm- 
SelSthn-rffJii  ♦!,?*•  ^"^  ^^'^^^^  ^^*^*  **^<^  Philippine  waters  from  the  38th  to 
the  15th  paraUel  the  temperature  ranges  from  30°  to  80°.     Along  the  American 


WEATHER  AT  SEA— NORTH  PACIFIC 


853 


coast  from  the  58th  to  the  20th  parallel  it  ranges  from  30°  to  75°.  The  temperature 
along  the  Equator  is  slightly  above  80°  west  of  longitude  150°  W. ;  also  over  a  smaU 
area  east  of  the  UOth  meridian  W.  On  the  great  circle  route  from  San  Francisco 
to  Yokohama  it  ranges  from  35°  to  52°.  .*.,.*,    i,    «     •       i   . 

American  Coast  Winds.— The  winds  are  northerly  west  of  the  Alaska  Peninsula, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Sitka  and  to  the  4Sth  parallel,  southeasterly;  45th  to  40th 
parallel,  northerly  and  southerly;  40th  to  15th  paraUel,  north westeriy ;  15th  parallel 
to  Panama,  northeasterly;  Panama  to  5th  parallel,  northerly;  and  thence  to  the 
Equator,  variable  with  weak  southeast  trades. 

Westerly  Winds. — The  prevailing  winds  are  northwesterly  over  the  western 
half  of  the  ocean  north  of  the  25th  parallel,  except  east  of  Kamchatka,  where  they 
are  northeasteriy.  Over  the  eastern  half  of  the  ocean  north  of  the  35th  parallel 
they  are  westerly,  but  more  variable  than  over  the  western  half,  and  frequently  are 
reversed  to  an  easterly  direction  during  the  passage  of  barometric  highs  and  lows. 

Asiatic  Coast  Winds— The  Monsoon.— From,  the  Gulf  of  Pechili  to  Shanghai 
the  winds  are  north  and  northwest,  but  from  Shanghai  southward  they  are  north- 
easterly, and  constitute  what  is  known  as  the  winter  monsoon.  The  northeast 
monsoon  is  in  full  force  during  February  and  blows  with  greatest  strength  and 
constancy  off  the  coast  between  Macao  and  Chusan.  It  shows  a  marked  tendency 
to  follow  the  conformation  of  the  coast,  but  as  it  weakens  slightiy  at  mght  and  the 
winds  become  at  times  somewhat  offshore,  sailing  craft  close  in  to  land  may  make 
headway  against  it.  The  thick,  rainy  weather  off  the  coasts  of  Taiwan  (Formosa) 
and  Luzon  renders  navigation  difficult  in  these  waters.  The  Philippine  monsoon 
is  much  augmented  during  this  season  by  the  prevalence  of  the  northeast  trades. 
A  rising  barometer  foreruns  an  increase  and  a  falling  barometer  a  decrease  m  the 

strength  of  the  monsoon.  ,   .^   .        _^,         i-     *    *  *i. 

The  Northeast  Trades. — The  northeast  trades  reach  their  northern  limit  at  the 
30th  parallel  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  ocean;  their  southern  limit  is  along  the  7th 
paraUel  from  the  American  coast  to  longitude  130°  W.;  it  touches  the  Equator  at 
longitude  170°  E.     These  trades  are  steadiest,  as  a  rule,  between  the  5th  and 

20th  parallels.  ,  ^         .^     *  ..      ,,       x 

The  Southeast  Trades. — The  southeast  trades  extend  north  of  the  Equator 
between  Colombia  and  longitude  165°  W.  They  reach  their  northern  limit  along 
the  5th  parallel,  between  longitudes  115°  and  130°  W.         .,_«„„,   ^  , 

Calms.— The  percentage  of  calms  is  high  east  of  longitude  120°  W.  between 
the  Equator  and  the  10th  parallel  and  along  the  coast  from  the  Equator  to  San 
Diego;  it  is  highest,  35  per  cent,  in  Central  American  waters. 

Gales. — The  percentage  of  gales  is  high  over  an  irregular  area  occupying  the 
western  part  of  the  ocean  south  and  southwest  of  the  Aleutian  Low,  between  the 
50th  and  30th  parallels  and  longitude  145°  E.  and  165°  W.  ..... 

Typhoons  and  Storm  Tracks.— The  number  of  typhoons  occurring  in  -Asiatic 
waters  during  February  is  less  than  during  any  other  month  of  the  year.  Those 
that  visit  the  mainland  usually  enter  Anam.  ,       , .        _x     * 

The  storm  tracks,  given  in  red  on  the  pilot  charts,  show  the  paths  of  important 
storms  and  the  distance  traveled  by  each  in  24  hours.  The  typhoon  tracks  are 
furnished  by  the  Philippine  Weather  Bureau,  and  the  approximate  tracks  of  stoims 
of  middle  and  higher  latitudes  are  furnished  by  the  Zi-ka-wei  Observatory.  The 
number  of  storms  of  higher  latitudes  is  greatest  in  March  and  December  and 

least  in  July.  ^^        «-    ,         x,.     * 

Fog. — The  percentage  of  days  with  fog  averages  20  to  25  along  the  American 
coast  from  the  Alaska  Peninsula  to  Cape  San  Lucas.  It  decreases  toward  the 
west:  in  Asiatic  waters  it  is  17  on  the  China  coast  from  Hongkong  to  Shanghai, 
and  15  over  the  Eastern  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Pechili. 

March 

Pressure. — The  Aleutian  Low  fills  in  with  the  approach  of  spring,  and  now  has 
two  centers,  each  with  a  pressure  of  29.70  inches,  one  over  and  mainly  east  of  the 
Alaskan  Peninsula,  the  other  between  the  Aleutians  and  Kamchatka.  The  pres- 
sure is  moderately  low,  about  29.85  inches,  between  the  10th  parallel  and  the 
Equator.  The  crest  of  the  Asiatic  High  has  a  pressure  of  30.10  inches.  The 
California  High  is  a  littie  to  the  westward  of  its  position  in  February;  the  pressure 

at  its  crest  is  30.20  inches.  ....  a.    x 

Temperature. — The  line  of  freezing  temperature  touches  the  Asiatic  coast  at 
the  41st  parallel,  crosses  Kokushu  Island  and  the  Aleutians,  passes  south  of  the 
Alaska  Peninsula,  and  reaches  the  American  coast  at  the  59th  parallel.  In  Asiatic 
coast  and  Philippine  waters,  from  the  42d  to  the  15th  parallel,  the  temperature 


854 


It 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP— NORTH  PACIFIC 


ranges  from  30°  to  80°,  along  the  American  coast  from  the  60th  to  the  20th  oaraUel 
It  ranges  from  30°  to  75°.  The  temperature  is  slightly  above  80°  in  an  area  begin- 
»H!»f*  the  Equator  and  lon^tude  140°  W.,  extending  westward  and  increasing  in 
width.  It  IS  also  sightly  above  80°  in  a  smaU  area  near  the  Equator  between 
longitude  110°  and  127°  W..  and  in  another  small  area  adjacent  to  Panama  oS 
to  sl^^*  ^  '**"*®  ^*°  Francisco  to  Yokohama  it  ranges  from  40° 

f,«iTif"?!"  5**^*'  .H^inc?5.— Northerly  winds  prevail  north  of  the  55th  paraUel 
from  the  Alaska  Peninsula  to  longitude  145°  W.;  thence  to  140°  W.  the  winds  are 
northerly  and  southerly;  east  of  140°  W.,  easterly.  Northwesterly  winds  sweep 
^^VS^i  from  the  55th  to  the  15th  paraUel,  but  are  least  frequent  between  the  40th 
and  50th  parallels.  From  the  15th  to  the  10th  parallel  the  winds  are  light  north 
sJuthw^eri  *'  *^  ^*^'  ^'^^*  northwesterly,  and  thence  to  the  Equator  light 

Westerly  Winds.— The  prevailing  winds  are  westerly  over  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  ocean  between  parallels  55  and  30.  Over  the  western  half  of  the  ocean, 
UrV*  ^"^^^^  ??  f**?  30,  northwest  winds  are  most  frequent;  over  the  eastern 
half,  between  paraUels  55  and  35,  westerly  and  southwesterly  winds  prevail. 
tinrTwo  ♦  Coast  Winds—The  Monsoon.— If orth  of  Shanghai  northerly  and 
northwesterly  wmds  are  prevalent.  In  the  Japan  Sea  westerly  winds  prevail  over 
the  southwestern  and  northeastern  portions;  southerly  winds  in  the  northwestern 
portion  and  northerly  winds  in  the  southeastern  portion. 

^,.P"^°g  March  the  northeast  monsoon  covers  the  China  and  Celebes  Seas,  the 
Phihppine  Islands,  and  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia,  as  far  north  as  Shanghai.  Off  the 
China  coast  it  blows  with  force  5,  but  decreases  to  force  3  to  4  over  the  waters  to 
of  fhf r"nh*  K  ♦*  mo«isoon  shows  a  marked  tendency  to  foUow  the  conformation 
»w  #  u*'  ^"*  *?.**  ^e^Jens  slightly  at  mght  and  the  wind  becomes  at  times  some- 
what offshore,  sfiuhng  craft  close  to  land  may  make  headway  against  it.  The  thick 
Jw»  ^®*^®^  ®f  ^^.  coasts  of  Formosa  and  Luzon  renders  navigation  difficult  in 
tliese  waters.  A  rising  barometer  foreruns  an  increase  and  a  falling  barometer  a 
decrease  in  the  strength  of  the  monsoon.  "mcicr  u 

The  Northeast  Trades.— The  northeast  trades,  force  4  to  5,  reach  their  most 
northern  bmit,  the  30th  parallel,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  ocein.  They  are  the 
principal  wmds  m  the  region  between  the  25th  paraUel  and  the  Equator,  except  in  a 
^nHJc  *^?  along  the  Equator  east  of  the  180th  meridian  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
coasts.  They  extend  to  within  about  300  miles  of  the  American  coast,  and  in 
abiu^^'ndL^yl  1^  M^ch^*  ""^^  *^^  northeast  monsoon.    In  Honolulu  they  average 

The  Southeast  Trades.— The  southeast  trades  extend  north  of  the  Equator 

SthT«r?i/T?*^*^^'  ^T  *°.^  i^°°  "^.'i  *^**  '^^''^  ^^^^  °»ost  northern  liSt  nelr  the 
4th  parallel,  between  longitudes  115°  and  125°  W. 

(.S°Il!^^h~u^^,  ^%^.^^^^^  ®^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^S^'  25  to  45,  east  of  longitude  110°  W. 
J^^*u^?^  California  southward  to  the  Equator;  also  between  the  5th  parallel 

Inrnif  ^^2**^^'  ^T  l<"»g»tV**^^.^°°  *<»  ^^5°  W..  and  from  longitude  170°  E.  to 
Borneo.     The  percentage  is  also  high  over  most  of  the  PhUippine  waters. 

♦,,Hoo  i/s~^®i^no'^^°**^®.?^  ?*^!^  '^  highest,  11  to  17,  in  an  area  between  longi- 
tudes 145°  and  170°  E.,  and  latitudes  35  and  40  N.,  and  nearly  as  high  in  an  area 
extending  thence  northeastward  to  the  Aleutian  Islands. 

Typhoons  and  Storm  Tracks.— Typhoons  are  infrequent  during  March,  although 
there  IS  a  very  shght  increase  in  their  number  ovei  those  of  February.     These  occa- 
sional typhoons  originate  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  CaroUne  and  Pelew  Islands 
and  those  that  visit  the  mainland  usually  enter  Anam.  ^sianas, 

«*nJ^!  ?T?»,*'*i-^!'  «^^«?.i°  'e^  <?n  the  pilot  chaits,  show  the  paths  of  important 
llZT.  -^  -91,  distance  traveled  m  each  24  hours.  The  approximate  tracks  of 
plr.  w' r""'!^-^^  ^^  ^*^^"  latitudes  are  furnished  by  the  Zi-ka-wei  Observatory, 
£ecemie''r\"n5'leas7S'j:f;.   ^""^  °"°^*^''  ''  '"^^  '''''^'  ^'  ^'^''''  '^  ^"^^  ^^^ 

rn-ff^'f^^i^iri'^^^o^iS  ^!  *l?y^  ^*^  ^P«  '^  highest,  15  to  20,  along  the  American 
coast  from  latitude  55°  N.  to  Cape  San  Lucas  and  westward,  between  the  parallels 

hPtwin  ?T  *°  l^^S**"^^  lt^°  Y'.  ^°  ^^'^^'^  ^**«'«  it  is  1^  «l«"g  the  China  coas? 
between  Hongkong  and  Shanghai,  and  9  in  the  Eastern  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  PechiU. 

April 

«*  ♦u''^?i"''l*~5''*®  ^e^tian  Low  continues  to  fill  in.  It  is  central  south  and  east 
Sf-^S*^*^^«^®'"5l'i.^*^*^  *  pressure  of  29.75  inches.  The  pressure  between 
the  10th  parallel  and  the  Equator  is  nearly  the  same  as  in  March,  being  about  29.85 


WEATHER  AT  SEA— NORTH  PACIFIC 


855 


inches.  The  crest  of  the  Asiatic  High  decreases  to  30.00  inches.  The  North 
Pacific  High  increases  in  extent  and  pressure.  Its  center  is  slightly  north  and  east  of 
its  position  in  March  with  a  pressure  of  30.25  inches. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  is  5°  to  10°  higher  than  in  March  over  Japanese 
waters  and  in  adjacent  waters  to  the  eastward;  elsewhere  the  changes  are  slight. 
The  line  of  freezing  temperature  continues  its  northward  movement  and  is  now 
north  of  the  Kuril  Islands  and  the  Aleutian  Islands  and  northwest  of  the  Alaska 
Peninsula,  in  Asiatic  coast  and  Philippine  waters  from  the  50th  to  the  20th  parallel 
the  temperature  ranges  from  30°  to  80°.  It  is  slightly  above  80°  south  of  the  20th 
parallel  to  the  Equator  in  Asiatic  waters  and  thence  eastward  in  a  diminishing 
area  to  about  longitude  150°  W.;  also  in  a  small  area  touching  the  American  coast 
between  the  9th  and  16th  parallels,  its  southern  limit  being  near  the  Equator  and 
its  western  limit  about  longitude  116°  W.  On  the  great  circle  sailing  route  from 
San  Francisco  to  Yokohama  the  temperature  ranges  from  40°  to  57°. 

American  Coast  Winds. — The  winds  are  variable  over  the  northwestern  part 
of  the  Gulf  of  Alaska  and  mostly  easterly  and  southeasterly  over  the  northeastern 
part;  thence  southward  along  the  coast  to  the  45th  parallel  they  are  southerly; 
45th  to  the  15th  parallel,  generally  northwesterly;  and  south  of  the  15th  parallel, 
light  and  variable,  except  southeasterly  in  the  vicinity  of  Corinto,  northwesterly 
off  the  Isthmus,  and  southwesterly  near  the  Equator. 

Westerly  Winds. — The  prevailing  winds  are  westerly  over  most  of  the  area 
between  the  40th  and  55th  parallels;  they  tend  to  become  northwesterly  west  of 
longitude  150°  W.,  and  to  become  southwesterly  east  of  this  longitude  to  within 
about  5°  of  the  coast. 

Winds  of  Bering  Sea. — The  prevailing  winds  are  northeasterly  in  Bering  Sea 
north  of  the  55th  parallel,  except  east  of  the  Pribilofs,  where  they  are  westerly. 
They  are  westerly  south  of  the  55th  parallel. 

Asiatic  Coast  Winds — The  Monsoon. — In  the  Japan  Seas  the  winds  are  gen- 
erally variable,  but  calms  occur  over  the  northern  portion  about  one-fourth  of  the 
time.  In  the  Yellow  Sea  the  winds  are  also  variable,  but  tend  to  blow  from  north- 
erly and  easterly  quadrants.  In  the  China  Sea  the  northeast  monsoon  continues, 
though  with  less  vigor  than  during  the  winter  months.  Over  the  Philippines  and 
east  of  Borneo  the  monsoon  is  light  and  often  dies  to  a  calm. 

Winds  of  the  High-pressure  Area. — Between  the  30th  and  40th  parallels  and 
longitudes  145°  E.  and  135°  W.  the  winds  are  mostly  variable,  although  easterly 
winds,  force  3  to  4,  predominate  over  the  southern  half  of  the  area. 

The  Northeast  Trades. — The  northeast  trades,  force  3  to  5,  blow  over  most  of 
the  ocean  between  the  5th  and  30th  parallels.  Over  the  western  part  of  the  ocean 
their  northern  limit  graduaUy  inclines  southward  to  the  25th  parallel.  The  southern 
limit  of  these  trades  is  slightly  north  of  the  5th  parallel  over  most  of  the  eastern 
part  of  the  ocean  and  slightly  south  of  this  parallel  over  most  of  the  western  part 
of  the  ocean.     They  average  21  days  in  April  at  Honolulu. 

The  Southeast  Trades. — Light  southeast  trades  extend  north  of  the  Equator 
between  longitudes  82°  and  140°  W.,  and  reach  their  most  northern  limit  near  the 
5th  parallel,  between  longitudes  95°  and  125°  W. 

Calms. — The  percentage  of  calms  is  high  along  the  American  coast  from  San 
Francisco  to  the  Equator,  ranging  from  20  to  27  between  San  Francisco  and  Cape 
San  Lucas;  it  is  higher  thence  southward  along  the  coast,  being  48  at  the  Isthmus. 
The  percentage  is  high  between  the  10th  parallel  and  the  Equator  from  the  coast 
westward  to  longitude  120°  W.,  and  beyond  this  area  south  of  the  5th  parallel  to 
longitude  140°  W.  It  is  also  high  south  of  the  5th  parallel  west  of  longitude  165°  E. 
and  in  Philippine  waters. 

Gales. — The  percentage  of  gales  is  generally  high  ovei  most  of  the  region  of  the 
westerlies,  being  11  to  13  between  parallels  50  and  55  and  longitudes  140°  to  160° 
W.,  and  10  to  12  in  a  small  area  east  of  the  Kuril  Islands. 

Typhoons  and  Storm  Tracks. — During  the  22  years  from  1880  to  1901,  inclusive, 
ten  tropical  cyclones  were  reported  in  Asiatic  waters  in  Apiil  as  against  five  in 
March.  Many  of  the  April  cyclones  originate  in  the  Caroline  Islands  and  move  in  a 
west-northwest  direction.  Some  cross  the  Philippines  and  reach  the  mainland; 
others  recurve  at  sea  toward  the  Marianas. 

The  storm  tracks,  given  in  red  on  the  pilot  charts,  show  the  paths  of  important 
storms  and  the  distance  traveled  by  each  in  24  hours.  The  typhoon  tracks  are 
furnished  by  the  Philippine  Weather  Bureau,  and  the  approximate  tracks  of  storms 
of  middle  and  higher  latitudes  are  furnished  by  the  Zi-ka-wei  Observatory,  near 
Shanghai,  China.  The  number  of  storms  of  higher  latitudes  is  greatest  in  March 
and  December  and  least  in  July. 


t  I 


II 


856 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP— NORTH  PACIFIC 


Fog. — The  percentage  of  days  with  fog  is  15  to  20  in  mid-ocean  between  latitudes 
30°  and  50°  N.  in  an  area  with  a  northeast-southwest  trend,  and  along  the  American 
coast  from  San  Francisco  to  Cape  San  Lucas.  In  Asiatic  waters  the  percentages 
are  as  follows:  Hongkong  to  Shanghai,  23;  Eastern  Sea  and  Gulf  of  Pechili,  18; 
south  and  west  of  Japan,  10. 

May 

Pressure. — The  Aleutian  Low  has  continued  to  fill  in  and  has  a  pressure  of 
29.80  inches  over  two  areas,  one  in  the  Gulf  of  Alaska  and  the  other  in  the  south- 
western part  of  Bering  Sea.  The  pressure  is  also  29.80  inches  over  Borneo  and 
the  Philippine  Islands;  elsewhere  near  the  Equator  it  is  about  29.85  inches.  The 
Asiatic  High  has  disappeared,  owing  to  the  decrease  in  pressure  over  the  continent 
with  the  advance  of  spiing.  The  North  Pacific  High  occupies  about  the  same 
position,  and  has  the  same  pressure  at  its  crest,  30.25  inches,  as  in  April. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  is  5°  to  9°  higher  than  in  April  over  Asiatic 
waters  between  the  20th  and  55th  parallels.  North  of  the  40th  parallel  this  rise 
extends  as  far  eastward  as  longitude  145°  W.;  it  also  includes  the  western  portion 
of  the  Gulf  of  Alaska;  elsewhere  the  changes  are  slight.  The  isotherm  of  35° 
extends  across  Bering  Sea  from  latitude  57°  on  the  Asiatic  side  to  latitude  60°  on 
the  American  side.  Over  Asiatic  coast  waters  from  the  50th  to  the  20th  parallel 
the  temperature  ranges  from  40°  to  80°;  along  the  American  coast,  east  of  longitude 
145°  W.,  from  the  60th  to  the  18th  parallel  it  ranges  between  45°  and  80°.  There 
is  a  decided  dip  of  the  isotherms  over  the  eastern  part  of  the  ocean  south  .of  the 
40th  parallel  and  a  subsequent  recurve  near  the  coast  in  a  northerly  direction. 
The  temperature  is  slightly  above  80°  from  about  the  20th  parallel  to  the  Equator 
in  Asiatic  waters  and  thence  eastward  in  a  diminishing  area  to  about  longitude 
150°  W.;  also  in  a  small  area  which  touches  the  American  coast  between  the  8th 
and  18th  parallels,  and  has  its  southern  limit  at  the  5th  parallel  and  its  western 
limit  at  longitude  117°  W.  On  the  great  circle  sailing  route  from  San  Francisco 
to  Yokohama  the  temperature  ranges  from  47°  to  63°. 

Winds  North  of  Latitude  55°  N. — Northerly  winds  prevail  over  most  of  Bering 
Sea.  In  the  Gulf  of  Alaska  the  winds  are  easterly,  except  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Kodiak  and  the  Peninsula  of  Alaska,  where  they  are  variable.  Calms  occur  20 
per  cent  of  the  time  in  the  Gulf  of  Alaska  and  8  to  20  per  cent  in  Bering  Sea. 

American  Coast  Winds. — South  of  the  55th  parallel  westerly  winds  occur 
along  the  coast  to  Vancouver  Island;  thence  to  the  15th  parallel  the  prevailing 
winds  are  northwesterly;  15th  to  the  5th  parallel  light,  variable  winds  occur, 
broken  by  frequent  calms.     Light  southwesterly  winds  occur  near  the  Equator. 

Westerly  Winds. — The  prevailing  winds  are  westerly,  force  4  to  5,  between 
the  40th  and  55th  parallels,  except  northeasterly  immediately  east  of  Kamchatka. 

Asiatic  Coast  Winds. — In  the  northern  part  of  the  Japan  Sea,  the  winds  are 
easterly  over  the  western  half  and  easterly  and  westerly  over  the  eastern  half. 
In  the  southern  part  of  the  sea  they  are  mostly  southerly.  Off  the  west  coast  of 
Chosen  (Korea)  westerly  winds  prevail.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  lower  Japanese 
Islands  the  winds  are  variable;  in  the  neighborhood  of  Shanghai  the>  are  south- 
easterly. 

Between  the  30th  and  20th  parallels  the  winds,  especially  during  the  first  half 
of  the  month,  are  northeasterly  under  the  waning  influence  of  the  winter  monsoon. 
The  southwesterly  winds  of  the  summer  monsoon  are  gradually  increasing,  al- 
though in  May  they  are  little  more  than  land  breezes. 

Along  the  western  coast  of  the  Philippine  Islands  the  winds  are  quite  variable, 
but  during  the  day  light  southwest  winds  often  occur,  changing  to  southeast  at 
sunset.     Along  the  eastern  coast  light  east  and  southeast  winds  prevail. 

Winds  of  the  High-pressure  Area. — The  winds  follow  a  clockwise  course 
around  the  central  area  of  the  North  Pacific  High;  west  of  this  area,  so  far  as 
longitude  155°  E.,  they  are  westerly  between  latitudes  40°  and  35°  and  easterly 
between  latitudes  35°  and  30°. 

The  Northeast  Trades. — These  trades,  force  4  to  5,  extend  to  within  about  5° 
of  the  American  coast  between  the  25th  and  15th  parallels.  Their  northern  and 
southern  limits  are  near  the  30th  and  4th  parallels,  respectively.  They  average 
24  days  in  May  over  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 

The  Southeast  Trades. — These  trades,  force  3  to  4,  extend  1°  to  5°  noith  of  the 
Equator;  they  are  farthest  north  between  longitudes  150°  and  110°  W. 

Calms. — Calms  are  frequent  along  the  American  coast  south  of  the  25th  parallel, 
except  west  of  lower  California.  They  occur  one-half  of  the  time  off  the  coast  near 
Champerico.  The  percentage  is  20  to  35  between  latitudes  5°  and  10°  as  far  west 
as  longitude  135°  W.  Around  the  Philippines  calms  occur  one-fourth  and  near 
Borneo  and  the  Celebes  one-half  of  the  time. 


WEATHER  AT  SEA— NORTH  PACIFIC 


857 


.Gales. — As  the  spring  season  advances,  the  percentage  of  gales  decreases  in 
the  region  of  the  westerly  winds,  the  average  in  May  being  6  to  7  per  cent  over  the 
entire  area.  The  highest  percentage,  12,  occurs  in  the  5°  square  north  of  the  40th 
parallel  and  west  of  the  180th  meridian,  also  in  the  square  north  of  the  45th  parallel 
and  west  of  longitude  150°  W. 

Typhoons  and  Storm  Tracks. — During  the  22-year  period,  1880-1901,  25 
typhoons  occurred  in  Asiatic  waters  in  May,  as  against  10  in  April  and  41  in  June. 
They  originate  near  the  Pelew  Islands  and  move  across  the  Philippines,  then  gen- 
erally recurve  to  the  northeast.  The  typhoons  most  likely  to  prove  dangerous  to 
Manila  are  those  of  May,  September,  October,  and  November. 

The  storm  tracks,  given  in  red  on  the  pilot  charts,  show  the  paths  of  important 
storms  and  the  distance  traveled  by  each  in  24  hours.  The  typhoon  tracks  are 
furnished  by  the  Philippine  Weather  Bureau,  and  the  approximate  tracks  of  storms 
of  mid(Ue  and  higher  latitudes  are  furnished  by  the  Zi-ka-wei  Observatory.  The 
number  of  storms  of  higher  latitudes  is  greatest  in  March  and  December  and 
least  in  July. 

Fog. — The  area  of  highest  percentage  of  days  with  fog,  20  to  25,  as  far  as  shown 
by  the  chart,  extends  northeastward  from  northern  Japan  to  the  Aleutian  Islands. 
The  percentage  is  between  15  and  20  over  the  greater  portion  of  the  remainder  of 
the  area  indicated  by  the  blue  shading.  In  Asiatic  waters  the  percentages  are  as 
follows:  China  coast  from  Hongkong  to  Shanghai,  12;  Eastern  Sea  and  Gulf  of 
Pechili,  21;  south  and  east  of  Japan,  14. 

June 

Pressure. — The  Aleutian  Low  very  largely  loses  its  identity  with  the  approach 
of  summer,  although  the  pressure  continues  low,  about  29.80  inches,  over  Bering 
Sea.  Along  the  Asiatic  coast  the  pressure  is  29.75  to  29.80  inches,  and  in  Central 
American  waters  it  is  about  29.85  inches.  The  North  Pacific  High  continues  to 
occupy  nearly  the  same  position  and  has  the  same  pressure,  30.25  inches,  as  in 
Apiil. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  is  5°  to  8°  higher  than  in  May  over  Asiatic 
waters  between  the  30th  and  50th  parallels  and  5°  to  7°  higher  over  the  Gulf  of 
Alaska  north  of  the  55th  parallel,  and  in  Bering  Sea  immediately  west  of  the 
Alaska  Peninsula;  elsewhere  the  changes  are  slight.  The  temperature  is  slightly 
above  40°  in  Bering  Sea  near  the  continents  and  the  Aleutian  Islands.  In  Asiatic 
coast  waters,  from  the  60th  to  the  25th  parallel,  the  temperature  ranges  from  40° 
to  80°;  along  the  American  coast,  from  the  60th  to  the  20th  parallel,  it  ranges  from 
50°  to  80°.  There  is  a  decided  dip  of  the  isotherms  over  the  extreme  eastern  part 
of  the  ocean  south  of  the  40th  parallel  and  a  subsequent  recurve  near  the  coast  in  a 
northerly  direction.  The  temperature  is  slightiy  above  80°  over  Asiatic  waters 
between  the  25th  parallel  and  the  Equator  and  thence  eastward  in  a  diminishing 
area  to  longitude  135°  W.;  also  in  a  small  area  which  touches  the  American  coast 
between  the  5th  and  20th  parallels.  It  is  75°  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Galapagos 
Islands.  On  the  great  circle  sailing  route  from  San  Francisco  to  Yokohama  the 
temperature  ranges  from  46°  to  70°. 

Winds  North  of  Latitude  55°  N. — The  winds  are  generally  light  and  variable 
north  of  the  55th  parallel,  and  calms  occur  20  per  cent  or  more  of  the  time,  except 
in  Bering  Sea  south  of  the  60th  parallel,  between  longitudes  170°  E.  and  170°  W. 

American  Coast  Winds. — South  of  the  55th  to  the  15th  parallel  the  prevailing 
winds  are  northwesterly;  thence  to  the  5th  parallel  variable;  thence  to  the  Equator 
southwesterly. 

Westerly  Winds. — The  prevailing  winds  are  westerly,  force  4  over  most  of  the 
region  between  the  40th  and  55th  parallels,  but  there  is  also  a  high  percentage  of 
variable  winds  over  the  greater  portion  of  this  area.  The  westerlies  are  less  pro- 
nounced in  June  than  during  the  colder  months,  owing  to  decreased  barometric 
gradients  and  to  more  settied  conditions. 

Asiatic  Coast  Winds. — The  Southwest  Monsoon. — In  June  the  southwest 
monsoon  is  fairly  well  developed  in  the  China  Sea  and  in  the  Eastern  Sea  as  far 
north  as  Shanghai.  It  has  not  the  strength  and  steadiness  of  the  northeast  (winter ) 
monsoon,  and  along  most  of  the  China  Sea  coast  it  often  blows  from  the  south 
or  southeast.  -  The  land  and  sea  breezes  are  well  defined  during  its  prevalence,  and 
southbound  sailing  vessels  may  easily  make  headway  against  it  by  keeping  near 
the  coast.  The  monsoon  affects  the  winds  of  the  western  coast  of  the  Philippine 
Islands,  light  southwesterly  winds  prevailing  there  during  the  day,  but  changing 
to  southeasterly  at  night. 

The  Northeast  Trades. — These  trades,  force  3  to  4,  extend  to  within  7°  to  10® 


■  til 


858 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP— NORTH  PACIFIC 


I 


of  the  American  coast  between  the  30th  and  15th  parallels.  Their  northern  and 
southern  limits  are  near  the  34th  parallel  and  the  Equator,  respectively.  They 
extend  westward  as  far  as  longitude  145°  E.  They  are  steadiest,  force  4,  between 
the  10th  and  20th  parallels  and  longitudes  130°  and  160°  W.  East  of  this  area  the 
winds  are  north-northeast  and  north  as  far  as  the  belt  of  northwest  winds  along 
the  coast  of  Lower  California.  West  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  the  trades  are  east- 
noitheast  as  far  as  the  Marianas.  Over  the  eastern  part  of  the  trade  belt  the 
northeast  winds  extend  only  as  far  south  as  latitude  13°  N.,  but  the  southern  limit 
gradually  approaches  the  Equator  toward  the  west,  nearly  reaching  it  in  east 
longitude. 

The  Southeast  Trades. — These  trades  extend  farthest  north,  latitude  8°  N., 
between  longitudes  120°  and  135°  W.  They  do  not  extend  north  of  the  Equator 
cast  of  longitude  90°  W.,  and  are  unimportant  west  of  170°  E. 

Calms. — The  winds  are  mostly  light  and  variable  with  frequent  calms  in  the 
area  between  the  limits  of  the  northeast  and  southeast  trade  winds.  Variable  winds 
and  calms  occur  over  the  region  east  of  longitude  110°  W.  and  north  of  latitude 
5°  N.  Calms  occur  30  to  38  per  cent  of  the  time  along  the  American  coast  between 
latitudes  5°  and  25°  N.,  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  the  time  in  the  Philippine  and 
East  Indian  waters,  and  one-fourth  of  the  time  in  all  of  the  Japan  Sea,  except  the 
northeastern  portion.  . 

Gales. — The  percentage  of  gales  in  June  is  low  over  the  entire  ocean.  The 
highest  percentage,  3  to  5,  is  between  the  40th  and  50th  parallels  and  longitudes 
155°  E.  and  180°.  „   ^  ,,       ^ 

Typhoons. — June,  July,  August,  and  September  are  the  so-called  "typhoon 
months."  During  these  months  typhoons  occur  more  frequently  and  reach  higher 
latitudes  than  during  other  months.  They  originate  west  of  the  Caroline  Islands 
and  move  in  a  northwesterly  direction,  often  crossing  the  Philippines  or  passing 
to  the  north  of  them,  thence  generally  recurving  toward  the  northeast. 

The  storm  tracks,  given  in  red  on  the  pilot  charts,  show  the  paths  of  importar*^ 
storms  and  the  distance  traveled  by  each  in  24  hours.  The  typhoon  tracks  are 
furnished  by  the  Philippine  Weather  Bureau,  and  the  approximate  tracks  of 
storms  of  middle  and  higher  latitudes  are  furnished  by  the  Zi-ka-wei  Observatory. 
The  number  of  storms  of  higher  latitudes  is  greatest  in  March  and  December  and 
least  in  July. 

Fog. — The  area  of  highest  percentage  of  days  with  fog,  40  to  50,  ues  between 
the  western  Aleutian  Islands  and  southeastern  Kamchatka.  Over  most  of  the 
remainder  of  the  ocean  north  of  the  30th  parallel  the  percentage  varies  from  10  to  40. 
Along  the  American  coast  the  percentage  is  30  from  Cape  San  Lucas  to  San  Fran- 
cisco and  20  to  30  from  San  Francisco  to  the  55th  parallel.  It  is  about  8  per  cent 
along  the  Asiatic  coast  between  Hongkong  and  Shanghai. 

July 

Pressure. — The  pressure  is  higher  than  in  June  over  Alaskan  waters,  but  con- 
tinues low,  29.80  inches,  over  the  western  part  of  Bering  Sea.  It  falls  to  29.70 
inches  along  the  China  coast.  The  Noith  Pacific  High  becomes  more  extensive, 
but  the  pressure  at  its  crest  remains  at  30.25  inches.  The  pressure  increases 
slightly  off  the  Mexican  coast. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  is  5°  higher  than  in  June  over  Bering  Sea 
and  5°  to  8°  higher  generally  over  Asiatic  waters  between  the  50th  and  30th  paral- 
lels. The  latter  rise  extends  between  parallels  35  and  50  to  longitude  175°  W. 
Thence  a  rise  of  5°  extends  eastward  over  a  diminishing  area  to  longitude  135°  W.; 
elsewhere  the  changes  are  slight. 

Over  the  eastern  part  of  Bering  Sea  and  near  Kamchatka  the  temperature  is 
above  45°.  In  Asiatic  coast  waters  from  the  60th  to  the  28th  parallel  it  ranges 
from  45°  to  80°;  it  is  slightly  above  80°  between  the  28th  parallel  and  the  Equator 
and  thence  eastward  in  a  diminishing  area  to  latitude  150°  W.  Along  the  American 
coast  from  the  northern  border  of  the  Gulf  of  Alaska  to  Cape  San  Lucas  the  tempera- 
ture ranges  from  55°  to  80°;  it  is  slightly  above  80°  in  an  area  that  touches  the 
coast  between  Cape  San  Lucas  and  Panama.  It  is  about  75°  along  the  Equator 
from  the  American  coast  to  longitude  115°  W. 

The  temperature  increases  quite  uniformly  over  mid-ocean  from  the  52d  to 
the  30th  parallel.  Marked  differences  in  temperature  occur  along  the  coasts  of 
both  continents,  as  shown  by  the  dip  and  recurve  of  the  isotherms,  and  especially 
by  their  crowding  each  other  along  the  California  coast.  On  the  great  circle 
sailing  route  from  San  Francisco  to  Yokohama  the  temperature  ranges  from  51° 
to  73°. 


WEATHER  AT  SEA— NORTH  PACIFIC 


859 


Wmds  North  of  Latitude  55°. —The  winds  are  generally  light  and  variable 
north  of  the  55th  parallel.  Calms  occur  in  this  region  about  19  per  cent  of  the  time 
m  the  Gulf  of  Alaska  and  23  per  cent  of  the  time  in  Bering  Sea. 

American  Coast  Winds.— The  Southwest  Monsoon.— South  of  the  5Sth  paraUel 
to  Cape  San  Lucas  the  prevailing  winds  are  northwesterly.  Thence  to  the  Equator 
they  are  variable  with  frequent  calms.  The  winds  of  a  light  and  imperfectly 
developed  monsoon  blow  over  a  narrow  area  that  extends  from  Colombia  to  longi- 
tude 120°  W.  between  the  zone  of  calms  and  the  southeast  trades. 

Westerly  Winds.— Owing  to  the  sUght  barometric  gradient  over  the  northern 
part  of  the  ocean,  resulting  from  the  disappearance  of  the  Aleutian  Low,  the  pre- 
vailing westerly  winds  occupy  a  small  area  and  are  less  pronounced  than  during 
June. 

Asiatic  Coast  Winds— The  Southwest  Monsoon.— The  summer  monsoon  mani- 
fests Its  fullest  strength  and  steadiness  during  July  and  August  in  Chinese  and 
PhUippine  waters  as  far  north  as  Shanghai  and  as  far  east  as  longitude  130°  E. 
but  It  IS  not  so  strong  as  the  winter  monsoon,  and  the  winds  occasionally  blow' 
from  the  southeast.  The  land  and  sea  breezes  are  so  well  marked  that  south- 
bound sailing  vessels  easily  make  headway  against  the  monsoon  along  the  lower 
Cnina  coast. 

The  Northeast  Trades.— These  winds  cover  a  large  area  south  of  latitude  35°  N. 
fhey  are  most  marked  between  the  Hawaiian  Islands  and  longitude  130°  W. 
They  average  29  days  in  July  in  Honolulu.  West  of  these  islands  to  the  Marianas 
tne  trades  gradually  become  more  easterly. 

The  Southeast  Trades.— These  trades,  force  3  to  4,  cross  the  Equator  from  the 
bouth  Pacific  and  extend  as  far  north  as  the  8th  paraUel.  They  are  steady  between 
longitudes  100°  and  170°  W.  from  the  Equator  to  the  5th  paraUel,  but  above  this 
parallel  they  are  intermittent. 

Calms.— An  extensive  area  of  calms  exists  on  the  Asiatic  side  of  the  ocean  in 
the  vicmity  of  the  Philippines  and  the  East  Indies.  Another  area  of  calms  extends 
along  the  Amencan  coast  from  Panama  to  Cape  San  Lucas  and  into  the  Gulf  of 
cahforma.  A  narrow  belt  of  calms  exists  between  the  limits  of  the  northeast 
trades  and  the  southeast  trades.  "i«=«*i 

.  ,  ^flZes.— The  percentage  of  gales  is  light  over  the  entire  ocean;  it  is  greatest. 
4  to  5,  between  Taiwan  (Formosa)  and  longitude  135°  E.;  it  is  2  to  4  in  area  between 
longitudes  160°  E.  and  180°  and  latitudes  40°  and  45°  N. 

Typhoons  and  Storm  Tracks.— The  normal  wind  direction  west  of  the  Philip- 
pine Islands  is  southwesterly  by  day,  changing  to  southeasterly  by  night.  If  the 
wind  blows  steadily  from  the  southwest  for  an  entire  day,  and  the  daily  oscillation 
of  the  barometer  is  absent,  it  is  well  to  assume  the  existence  of  a  typhoon  northeast 
Of  Luzon.  Four  to  six  of  these  storms  are  likely  to  occur  during  any  one  of  the 
midsummer  months. 

The  storm  tracks,  given  in  red  on  the  pilot  charts,  show  the  paths  of  important 
storms  and  the  distance  traveled  by  each  in  24  hours.  The  typhoon  tracks  are 
turmshed  by  the  Philippine  Weather  Bureau,  and  the  approximate  tracks  of  storms 
in  middle  and  higher  latitudes  are  furnished  by  the  Zi-ka-wei  Observatory.  The 
number  of  storms  of  the  higher  latitudes  is  least  in  July. 

Fog.— An  area  of  55  to  60  per  cent  of  days  with  fog  covers  the  ocean  between  the 
JK;Unl  and  the  Aleutian  Islands;  thence  there  is  a  decrease  in  percentage  in  all 
directions,  except  close  off  the  coast  of  North  America,  where  there  is  a  local  in- 
crease to  between  30  and  35  per  cent  from  Vancouver  Island  to  the  extremity  of  the 
Calif orma  Peninsula.  In  Asiatic  waters  the  percentage  is  15  at  Shanghai  and  10 
over  the  Japan  Sea. 

August 

Pressure. — The  pressure  is  slightly  lower  over  the  northern  part  of  the  Gulf  of 
Alaska  and  slightly  higher  over  the  western  part  of  Bering  Sea  than  in  July.  The 
pressure  continues  low,  29.70  inches,  along  the  China  coast.  The  North  Pacific 
High  occupies  about  the  same  position  as  in  July,  but  the  pressure  at  its  crest 
increases  to  30.30  inches. 

Temperature.— The  temperature  is  5°  higher  than  in  July  over  an  area  that 
touches  the  American  coast  at  Vancouver  Island  and  extends  between  the  Gulf 
of  Alaska,  and  the  crest  of  the  North  Pacific  High  to  longitude  165°  W.;  there  is  a 
slight  rise  elsewhere  except  in  the  Equatorial  region. 

Over  Bering  Sea  the  temperature  ranges  from  45°  to  50°.  From  the  59th  parallel 
in  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  along  the  Asiatic  coast  to  the  33d  parallel  it  ranges  from 
55°  to  80°;  it  is  slightly  above  80°  between  the  33d  parallel  and  the  Equator  and 


860 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP— NORTH  PACIFIC 


thence  eastward  in  a  diminishing  area  to  longitude  137°  W.  Along  the  American 
SS?t  from  thf  noShern  part  ot  the  Gulf  of  Alaska  to  Cape  San  Lucas  it  ranges  from 
S5*  to  80™  it  is  slightly  above  80°  in  an  area  that  touches  the  coast  between  Cape 
Ian  Lucas  imd  Panama     It  is  about  75°  along  the  Equator  from  the  American 

^^thl^imre?atrl^^^^^^^  quite  uniformly  over  -d-ocX  ^-m  ^^^^^^^^^^^ 
34th  oarallel.  Marked  differences  in  temperature  occur  along  the  American  coast 
from  thrsSth  Mrallel  to  San  Luis  Obispo.  The  dip  of  the  isotherias  over  the 
easTern  parfof  the  ocean  and  their  subsequent  recurve  is  not  so  marked  as  in  July. 
twp  is  nracticallv  no  longer  a  dip  of  the  isotherms  over  Japan  waters.  On  the 
^^eat  ci^crs^U^  Ian  Fiancisco  to  Yokohama  the  temperature  ranges 

^^"""wlTteHJmnds.-Votih  of  latitude  45°  the  prevailing  winds  are  not  so  steadily 
from  the  wesfLs  during  the  colder  months,  and  they  frequenUy  blow  from  more 

'^*^'?;Styan'coa?"^^^^^^  winds  P-ail  -long  the  Amen^^^^^^ 

coast  from  latitude  55°  to  Cape  San  Lucas;  thence  to  latitude  10°  N.  calms,  hght 
v^fable  and  northeasterly  winds  prevaU;  thence  to  the  Equator  southwest  mon- 
I"on^nds  blow  over  a  lirrow  area  that  extends  between  the  zone  of  calms  and 
the  southeast  trades  from  Colombia  to  longitude  130    W.  between 

The  Northeast   Trades.— The  northeast  trades  prevail  m  the  a^ea  oetween 
n«rallels  10  and  35.     This  area  extends  from  longitude  117°  W.  to  longitude  140  E. 

are  from  the  southeast  and  steady  between  longitudes  95    and  155    W.,   thence 

"' cSml-/he^Vra%\'^*ow^^      of  calms  between  the  northeast  and  the  so-lj 
east  te?des  in  mid-ocean.     It  broadens  near  the  contmentsespeciaUy  over  th^ 
western  part  of  the  ocean.     The  percentage  of  calms  is  highest,  43,  near  Ponape 

^^^'^Afiatic  Coast  Winds— The  Southwest  Monsoon.— The  monsoon  wmds  we  not 
well  defilied  in  the  China  Sea  and  are  often  interrupted  by  easterly  winds.  South- 
w!«*  Snds  iie  more  oronounced  in  the  PhiUppine  waters,  especially  during  the 
day-  IT^ghttiiry  decrease  to  a  calm  or  become  variable,  but  they  may  continue 
from  tiie^^uthwest  under  the  influence  of  a  typhoon  northeast  of  Luzon. 

Gal^s.-The  highest  percentage  of  gales,  5  to  7,  occurs  over  an  area  that  fiends 
from  Luzon  and  Formosa  eastward  to  140°  E-  The  percentage  of  gales  is  4  to  6 
in^  area  lying  between  latitudes  40°  and  45°  N.  and  longitudes  165    E.  and  180  . 

Tv^hoonsand  Storm  Tracks.— The  typhoon  season  in  Asiatic  waters  is  at  its 
heighUnTugust  andTptember.  and  fouJ  to  six  of  these  tropical  storms  are  likely 

'^  ¥rs?orira%^kr^vri^n?e^d^?^^^^^    pilot  charts,  show  ^e  paji^^^^^^^^ 

l^^^eThX^^^T^ti^'^^^^^^^ 

ifSdddle  and  wSer  latitudes  are  furnished  by  the  Zi-ka-wei  Observatory.     The 
SuZe?  of\tormf  of^e  W^^     latitudes  is  greatest  in  March  and  December  and 

^**Foa-An  area  of  40  to  45  per  cent  of  days  with  fog  Ues  south  of  the  Aleutian 
Inlands  The  percentage  is  20  to  30  in  Bering  Sea.  Along  the  American  coast 
rtr?  VancISverto  S^an^Francisco  it  is  30  to  49,  and  30  to  33  tiience  to  Cape  San 
Lucas.  In  Asiatic  waters  the  percentage  is  as  foUows:  Japan  Sea  10,  Eastern 
Sea  and  Gulf  of  Pechili.  16;   China  coast  between  Hongkong  and  Shanghai,  4. 

^^^Pr^sme.-The  pressure  decreases  over  the  Gulf  of  Alaska  and  Bering  Sea. 
marW  the  development  of  the  Aleutian  Low  over  Bermg  Sea.  vath  a  centiai 
SfssSe  of  29.75  inches.  The  pressure  increases  along  the  China  coast,  but  a  low 
5  ei^"J?eri'^e  Ph%ine  Islan'ds  and  exte^^ 

and  the  China  coast,  and  eastward  to  longitude  138°  E.     The  f  ®^,^.  f  *^\^Jl_s^^ 
wntinues  to  occupy  ibout  the  same  position  as  in  July  and  August,  but  the  pressure 

**  "rVmr-'l"'s^^^^^^  in  temperature  begins  in  Septembei  and 


WEATHER  AT  SEA— NORTH  PACIFIC 


861 


is  marked  by  a  fall  of  from  5°  to  8°  in  the  Sea  of  Japan  and  the  Yellow  Sea  and  a 
fall  of  5°  along  the  eastern  coast  of  Honshu;  elsewhere  there  is  but  littie  change. 
Along  the  Asiatic  coast  from  the  60th  parallel,  in  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  to  the  22 d 
parallel,  the  temperature  ranges  from  45°  to  80°;  it  is  slightiy  above  80°  from  the 
22d  parallel  to  the  Equator  and  thence  eastward  in  a  diminishing  area  to  longitude 
142°  W.  Along  the  American  coast  from  the  northern  part  of  the  Gulf  of  Alaska 
to  Cape  San  Lucas  the  temperature  ranges  from  50°  to  80°;  it  is  slightiy  above  80° 
in  an  area  that  touches  the  coast  between  San  Lucas  and  Panama.  It  is  about 
75°  along  the  Equator  from  the  American  coast  to  longitude  130°  W. 

In  mid-ocean  a  rise  in  temperature  with  decreases  in  latitude  is  quite  uniform 
between  the  52d  and  33d  parallels.  Over  the  eastern  part  of  the  ocean  the  dip 
and  subsequent  recurve  of  the  isotherms  for  temperatures  from  60°  to  80°  is  about 
the  same  as  in  August.  On  the  great  circle  sailing  route  from  San  Francisco  to 
Yokohama  the  temperature  ranges  from  56°  to  73°. 

Winds  of  High  Latitudes. — Northeasterly  and  southerly  winds  prevail  in 
Bering  Sea  west  of  the  southern  half  of  the  Aleutian  Low;  the  winds  are  variable 
in  the  western  part  of  the  sea  and  westerly  and  southerly  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Aleutian  Islands.  In  the  Gulf  of  Alaska,  except  the  extreme  northern  portion,  and 
over  most  of  the  area  between  the  55th  and  45th  parallels,  the  winds  are  mostiy 
westerly  and  southerly,  resulting  from  the  combined  influences  of  the  Aleutian 
Low  and  the  North  Pacific  High. 

American  Coast  Winds. — South  of  Alaska  the  winds,  as  a  rule,  are  south- 
westerly. Northwesterly  winds  prevail  along  the  immediate  coast  from  latitude 
55  to  Cape  San  Lucas;  south  of  the  point  to  Colombia  the  winds  are  variable  with 
frequent  calms.  Southwesterly  winds  occur  on  the  South  American  coast  from 
the  5th  paiallel  to  the  Equator. 

Asiatic  Coast  Winds — The  Monsoon. — The  monsoon  blows  from  the  south- 
west over  the  China  Sea  during  the  first  half  of  September,  but  it  is  unsteady  in 
directipn,  and  before  the  close  of  the  month  the  winter  monsoon  from  the  northeast 
appears,  often  suddenly  and  with  storm  force,  and  carries  its  influence  as  far  south 
as  the  15th  parallel.  South  of  this  parallel  on  the  western  Philippine  coasts  light 
westerly  and  southwesterly  winds  prevail;  these  become  easterly  and  northeasterly 
by  the  end  of  the  month,  or  early  in  October.  The  winds  are  northwesterly 
between  the  island  of  Kokushu  and  the  mainland. 

The  Northeast  Trades. — The  northeast  trades  occur  in  an  area  between  par- 
allels 14°  and  27°  and  longitudes  155°  E.  and  122°  W.  In  the  eastern  portion  of 
this  area  the  prevailing  direction  is  nearly  north-northeast.  These  winds  are 
steadiest  near  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  where  they  prevail  29  days  in  September. 
West  of  these  islands  the  prevailing  direction  is  about  east-northeast. 

The  Southeast  Trades. — The  southeast  trades  extend  across  the  Equator  from 
the  South  Pacific  between  longitudes  93°  W.  and  178°  E.  Their  most  northern 
limit  is  a  littie  south  of  the  9th  parallel  between  longitudes  130°  and  140°  W. 

Calms. — The  northeast  and  southeast  trades  are  separated  by  a  narrow  belt  of 
calms,  the  doldrums,  which  join  a  considerable  area  of  calms  at  longitude  123°  W. 
and  a  larger  area  of  about  longitude  160°  E.  The  percentage  of  calms  is  high  along 
the  American  coast  between  the  5th  and  40th  parallels.  In  Asiatic  waters  it  is  high 
off  the  coasts  of  northern  Borneo  and  western  Mindanao. 

Gales. — The  percentage  of  gales  is  generally  high  between  the  45th  and  60th 
parallels  west  of  longitude  140°  W.  It  is  notably  high,  11,  near  Kodiak  Island,  and 
highest,  12,  immediately  east  of  Kamchatka. 

Typhoons  and  Storm  Tracks.— The  typhoon  season  is  at  its  height  in  Asiatic 
waters  during  August  and  September,  and  from  four  to  six  of  these  tropical  storms 
are  likely  to  occur  in  each  of  these  months. 

The  storm  tracks,  given  in  red  on  the  pilot  charts,  show  the  paths  of  important 
storms  and  the  distance  traveled  by  each  in  24  hours.  The  typhon  tracks  are 
furnished  by  the  Philippine  Weather  Bureau,  and  the  approximate  tracks  of  storms 
of  middle  and  higher  latitudes  are  furnished  by  the  Zi-ka-wei  Observatory.  The 
number  of  stoims  of  the  higher  latitudes  is  greatest  in  March  and  December  and 
least  in  July. 

Fog. — The  percentage  of  days  with  fog  is  40  to  49  over  a  narrow  belt  extending 
along  the  American  coast  from  Vancouver  to  San  Francisco  and  40  to  30  from 
San  Francisco  to  Cape  San  Lucas.  It  is  40  to  45  in  an  area  that  extends  from  the 
Kuril  Island  eastward  between  the  45th  and  51st  parallels  to  longitude  155°  W. 
South  of  this  area  the  percentage  of  fog  diminishes  more  rapidly  than  in  any  other 
direction.  Elsewhere  the  percentages  are  as  follows:  China  coast,  from  Hong- 
kong to  Shanghai,  4;  Eastern  Sea  and  Gulf  of  Pechili,  16;  Japan  Sea,  10. 


r^ 


862  STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP— NORTH  PACIFIC 

October 

Pressure. — The  Aleutian  Low  increases  in  extent  and  deepens  to  29.70  inches 
with  the  approach  of  winter.  The  pressure  is  also  low,  29.80  inches,  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  Philippine  Islands. 

The  pressure  continues  to  increase  along  the  Asiatic  coast  south  of  the  SOth 
parallel  and  is  about  30.10  inches  over  the  Yellow  Sea.  The  central  pressure  of 
the  North  Pacific  High  decreases  to  30.20  inches,  and  the  area  covered  by  the  crest 
is  slightly  less  than  in  August  and  September. 

Temperature. — The  seasonal  fall  in  temperature  which  begins  in  September 
over  a  part  of  the  ocean  becomes  general  in  October  as  far  south  as  the  20th  parallel 
and  is  considerable  over  certain  areas,  being  10°  to  15°  in  Bering  Sea,  10°  to  20° 
in  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  and  9°  to  13°  in  the  Yellow  Sea;  it  is  from  5°  to  8°  in  the 
Gulf  of  Alaska,  also  from  Japan  and  the  Kuril  Islands  eastward  between  the  SOth 
and  30th  parallels  to  longitude  160°  W.,  and  to  longitude  145°  W.,  north  of  the 
35th  parallel.     The  change  is  comparatively  slight  elsewhere. 

Along  the  Asiatic  coast  from  the  60th  parallel  in  Bering  Sea  to  the  25th  parallel 
the  temperature  ranges  from  25°  to  75°.  It  is  slightly  above  80°  in  the  western 
part  of  the  ocean  in  an  area  that  reaches  from  the  Equator  as  far  north  as  the  24th 
parallel  between  longitudes  145°  and  160°  E.;  thence  eastward  the  80°  area  dimin- 
ishes and  extends  to  longitude  163°  W.  Along  the  American  coast  from  the  64th 
parallel  in  Bering  Sea  to  the  25th  parallel  on  the  Lower  California  coast  the  tempera- 
ture ranges  from  30°  to  80°;  thence  to  Panama  it  is  slightly  above  80°.  The 
isotherm  of  75°  crosses  the  Equator  at  longitudes  85°  and  125°  W.,  and  reaches 
latitude  3°  N.  between  longitudes  100°  and  115°  W. 

In  mid-ocean  the  rise  in  temperature  with  decrease  in  latitude  is  quite  uniform 
between  the  54th  and  the  25th  parallels.  The  dip  and  the  subsequent  recurve  of 
the  isotherms  over  the  eastern  part  of  the  ocean  are  about  the  same  as  in  September. 
On  the  great  circle  sailing  route  from  San  Francisco  to  Yokohama  the  temperature 
ranges  from  48°  to  66°. 

American  Coast  Winds. — Over  the  western  part  of  the  Gulf  of  Alaska  the  winds 
are  variable;  over  the  eastern  portion  and  southward  along  the  coast  to  latitude 
50°  southeily  and  easterly  winds  prevail;  from  latitude  50°  to  latitude  40°  they  are 
mostly  variable  and  calms  are  frequent;  south  of  the  40th  to  near  the  15th  parallel 
they  are  northwesterly;  thence  to  the  10th  parallel  they  are  light  northeasterly; 
and  from  the  10th  parallel  to  the  Equator,  westerly  and  southwesterly.  Calms  are 
frequent  between  the  25th  and  5th  parallels. 

Asiatic  Coast  Winds — The  Monsoon. — South  of  latitude  35°  N.  the  northeast 
monsoon  covers  the  China  Sea  and  extends  as  far  south  as  the  10th  parallel  and 
as  far  east  as  longitude  140°  E.  The  change  from  the  southwest  to  the  northeast 
monsoon  is  often  sudden  and  accompanied  by  winds  of  storm  force,  usually  during 
the  last  of  September,  when  the  continental  summer  "  low  "  gives  place  to  the 
winter  "  high." 

Winds  of  High  Latitudes. — Northerly  winds,  force  4  to  5,  predominate  in  the 
eastern  part  of  Bering  Sea. 

Westerly  Winds. — Westerly  winds,  force  4  to  5,  prevail  over  most  of  the  ocean 
between  parallels  55°  and  40°. 

The  Northeast  Trades. — The  northeast  trades  occur  between  the  28th  and 
10th  parallels.  They  extend  westward  from  longitude  125°  W.  and  unite  with  the 
winds  of  the  northeast  monsoon  at  about  longitude  140°  E.  These  winds  are  mostly 
north-noitheasterly  east  of  longitude  135°  W.,  and  northeast  and  east-northeast 
west  of  it.  They  blow  steadily  with  average  force  4,  and  in  Honolulu  prevail  on 
an  average  29  days  in  October. 

The  Southeast  Trades. — The  southeast  trades  extend  across  the  Equator  from 
the  South  Pacific  between  longitudes  92°  and  170°  W.  They  reach  their  average 
northern  limit,  latitude  8°  N.,  between  longitudes  125°  and  145°  W. 

Calms. — The  percentage  of  calms  is  high  along  the  American  coast  north  of  the 
5th  parallel  and  in  the  narrow  area  between  the  northeast  and  the  southeast  trades; 
also  in  the  vicinity  of  the  islands  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  ocean. 

Gales. — The  percentage  of  gales  is  moderately  high  north  of  the  35th  parallel. 
South  of  this  region  gales  are  comparatively  few,  except  in  the  square  bounded  by 
latitudes  30°  and  35°  N.,  and  longitudes  150°  and  155°  E.,  and  East  of  Taiwan 
(Formosa). 

Typhoons  and  Storm  Tracks. — There  is  an  average  occurrence  of  3  typhoons 
in  October.  Their  region  of  formation  extends  from  latitude  6°  to  17°  N.,  and 
from  longitudes  129°  to  142°  E.  The  typhoons  likely  to  prove  most  dangerous  to 
Manila  are  those  which  occur  during  May,  September,  October,  and  November. 


WEATHER  AT  SEA— NORTH  PACIFIC 


863 


Along  the  western  coasts  of  the  Philippine  Islands  the  winds  are  easterly  and 
northeasterly,  becoming  light  at  sunset.  If  a  steady  breeze  blows  from  any  one 
quarter  during  an  entire  day,  it  is  an  indication  of  a  typhoon  having  its  center  two 
to  four  points  to  the  left  of  the  point  toward  which  the  wind  is  blowing. 

The  storm  tracks,  given  in  red  on  the  pilot  charts,  show  the  paths  of  important 
storms  and  the  distance  traveled  by  each  in  24  hours.  The  typhoon  tracks  are 
furnished  by  the  Philippine  Weather  Bureau,  and  the  approximate  tracks  of  storms 
of  middle  and  higher  latitudes  are  furnished  by  the  Zi-ka-wei  Observatory.  The 
number  of  storms  of  the  higher  latitudes  is  greatest  in  March  and  December  and 

least  in  July.  . 

Fog, — The  percentage  of  days  with  fog  is  much  less  in  October  than  in  Septem- 
ber, but  it  continues  comparatively  high  off  the  American  coast,  being  30  from 
Vancouver  to  San  Francisco  and  30  to  20  thence  southward  to  Cape  San  Lucas. 
Fog  diminishes  rapidly  in  other  directions,  except  over  an  area  between  latitudes 
40°  and  51°  N.,  and  longitudes  148°  E.  and  180°.  The  percentage  is  from  5  to  7 
over  the  China  Sea  and  northward  along  the  China  coast  to  and  including  the 
Gulf  of  Pechili. 

November 

Pressure. — The  Aleutian  Low  is  deeper  than  in  October,  the  lowest  pressure 
being  about  29.60  inches.  The  pressure  is  moderately  low  along  the  Equator. 
It  increases  in  Asiatic  waters,  by  reason  of  the  eastward  extension  of  the  conti- 
nental high  central  over  Mongolia.  The  North  Pacific  High  moves  nearer  to  the 
coast,  and  its  central  pressure  decreases  to  30.15  inches. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  falls  about  10°  to  15°  since  October  over  the 
Japan  and  Yellow  Seas  and  east  of  southern  Japan  to  about  longitude  150°  E., 
also  east  of  Hokushu  and  the  Kuril  Islands  to  about  longitude  170°  E.  To  the 
eastward  of  these  areas  to  longitude  180°  the  temperature  falls  about  5°  to  8°. 
It  also  falls  about  5°  to  8°  in  the  Gulf  of  Alaska.     The  changes  elsewhere  are  slight. 

Over  Bering  Sea  the  temperature  is  below  freezing.  Along  the  immediate 
Asiatic  coast  from  Vladivostok  to  Hongkong  the  temperature  ranges  from  35°  to 
73°.  It  is  slightly  above  80°  in  the  western  part  of  the  ocean  in  an  area  that  reaches 
from  the  Equator  as  far  north  as  the  18th  parallel  between  longitudes  130°  and 
170°  E.;  thence  eastward  this  area  diminishes  in  width  and  extends  to  longitude 
155°  W.  at  the  Equator.  Along  the  immediate  American  coast  from  latitude  59°, 
on  the  eastern  border  of  the  Gulf  of  Alaska,  to  latitude  20°  N.  the  temperature 
ranges  from  35°  to  80°.  It  is  slightly  above  80°  in  an  area  that  touches  the  coast 
between  the  20th  and  10th  parallels.     It  is  about  75°  along  the  Equator  between 

longitudes  88°  and  130°  W.  „„.«.„,.. 

Over  mid-ocean  the  temperature  is  35°  at  latitude  51°  N.  and  75°  at  latitude 
25°  N.  The  rise  in  temperature  with  decrease  in  latitude  is  quite  uniform.  On 
the  great  circle  sailing  route  from  San  Francisco  to  Yokohama  the  temperature 
ranges  from  42°  to  60°.  ,  .        . 

American  Coast  Winds. — Easterly  winds  prevail  along  the  American  coast  in 
the  eastern  portion  of  the  Gulf  of  Alaska;  thence  to  the  40th  parallel  they  are 
mostly  from  southerly  quadrants;  between  the  40th  and  I5th  parallels  north- 
westerly winds  prevail;  and  between  the  15th  and  10th  parallels  they  are  northerly 
and  northeasterly.  ^       ,     .  «  ^ 

Asiatic  Coast  Winds. — The  northeast  (winter)  monsoon,  under  the  influence  of 
the  Asiatic  High,  covers  the  Philippine  Islands,  the  China  Sea,  and  the  waters  of 
the  China  coast  as  far  north  as  Shanghai.  Along  the  China  coast  the  force  of  the 
monsoon  is  offset  to  some  extent  by  land  breezes  at  night,  and  vessels  can  make 
headway  against  it  by  hugging  the  shore.  A  rise  in  the  barometer  foreruns  an 
increase  in  the  strength  of  the  monsoon  and  a  fall  a  decrease. 

Westerly  Winds. — The  prevailing  winds  are  westerly  over  the  greater  part  of 
the  ocean  between  the  35th  and  55th  parallels,  owing  to  the  cyclonic  circulation 
accompanying  the  Aleutian  Low  and  the  anticyclonic  circulation  accompanying 
the  high  pressure  belt  of  the  middle  latitudes.  .    -  .. 

The  Northeast  Trades. — The  northeast  trades  occur  between  the  12th  and  25th 
parallels,  except  near  their  eastern  limit,  where  they  are  found  as  far  north  as  the 
30th  parallel.  They  are  northeasterly  to  east-northeasterly  from  longitude  120°  W. 
to  180°.  They  prevail  about  18  days  in  Honolulu  in  November.  In  Asiatic  waters 
they  unite  with  the  winds  of  the  monsoon. 

The  Southeast  Trades. — The  southeast  trades  extend  across  the  Equator  from 
the  South  Pacific  between  longitudes  80°  W.  and  175°  W.  to  slightly  above  the  7th 
parallel  at  their  most  northern  limit. 

31 


864 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP— NORTH  PACIFIC 


Calms. — The  percentage  of  calms  is  high  along  the  greater  part  of  the  American 
and  Asiatic  coasts;  also  over  the  region  west  of  longitude  175°  £.  and  south  of  the 
10th  parallel. 

Gales. — Southeast  to  northwest  gales  occur  frequently  north  of  the  35th  parallel 
but  their  number  decreases  along  the  coast.  The  prevailing  direction  is  north- 
westerly west  of  longitude  165°  W.  between  the  35th  and  50th  parallels. 

Typhoons  and  Storm  Tracks. — The  region  of  the  formation  of  the  October  and 
November  typhoons  is  between  the  6th  and  17th  parallels  and  longitudes  123°  and 
155°  E.  There  is  an  average  occurrence  of  two  over  the  entire  region  in  November. 
Typhoons  occur  most  frequently  in  September  and  least  frequently  in  February. 
They  are  likely  to  prove  most  dangerous  to  Manila  during  May,  September,  October 
and  November. 

The  storm  tracks,  given  in  red  on  the  pilot  charts,  show  the  paths  of  important 
storms  and  the  distance  traveled  by  each  in  24  hours.  The  typhoon  tracks  are 
furnished  by  the  Philippine  Weather  Bureau,  and  the  approximate  tracks  of  storms 
of  middle  and  higher  latitudes  are  furnished  by  the  Zi-ka-wei  Observatory.  The 
number  of  stoims  of  the  higher  latitudes  is  greatest  in  March  and  December  and 
least  in  July. 

Fog. — The  percentage  of  days  with  fog  is  generally  less  than  in  October.  The 
area  of  maximum  percentage,  20,  is  along  the  American  coast  from  Vancouver  to 
Cape  San  Lucas.  The  percentage  is  low  across  the  ocean;  it  is  9  on  the  China 
coast  from  Hongkong  to  Shanghai,  and  8  in  the  Eastern  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Pechili. 

December 

Pressure. — The  Aleutian  Low  lies  to  the  northward  and  westward  of  its  position 
in  November,  being  central  southwest  of  the  Pribilof  Islands,  slightly  below  the 
55th  parallel.  Its  lowest  pressure  continues  at  29.60  inches.  The  pressure  is 
moderately  low  along  the  Equator.  The  pressure  of  the  Asiatic  High  increases. 
Its  crest,  30.30  inches,  extends  beyond  the  coast  of  northern  Chosen  (Korea).  The 
California  High  occupies  a  position  slightly  more  to  the  southwest  than  in  Novem- 
ber, and  its  central  pressure,  30.20  inches,  is  .05  inch  more  than  in  November. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  falls  5°  to  7°  in  Asiatic  waters  adjacent  to  the 
mainland  between  the  40th  and  20th  parallels  and  5°  to  8°  in  an  irregular  area 
that  extends  along  the  American  coast  between  the  50th  and  35th  parallels.  The 
latter  area  becomes  narrower  as  it  approaches  its  western  limit,  the  180th  meridian, 
where  it  extends  only  between  the  45th  and  40th  parallels.  The  changes  elsewhere 
within  the  range  of  observations  are  slight. 

The  line  of  freezing  temperature  touches  the  Asiatic  mainland  in  the  Gulf  of 
Pechili  at  latitude  37°,  crosses  the  central  portion  of  the  Kuril  Islands  and  the  west- 
ern extremity  of  the  Aleutians,  passing  thence  slightly  to  the  north  of  the  latter  and 
reaching  the  American  coast  on  the  eastern  border  of  the  Gulf  of  Alaska.  Along 
the  immediate  Asiatic  coast  from  latitude  37°  in  the  Gulf  of  Pechili  to  Hongkong 
the  temperature  ranges  from  32°  to  65°;  thence  southward  over  the  China  Sea  to 
latitude  10°  it  ranges  from  65°  to  80°.  Along  the  American  coast  from  latitude  57° 
on  the  eastern  border  of  the  Gulf  of  Alaska  to  latitude  20°  it  ranges  from  32°  to  75° ; 
thence  to  the  Equator  the  temperature  is  slightly  above  75°.  It  is  slightly  above  80° 
in  the  western  part  of  an  area  that  extends  along  the  Equator  as  far  east  as  longitude 
150°  W.  and  reaches  its  most  northern  limit,  the  18th  parallel,  between  longitudes 
140°  and  156°  E. 

Over  mid-ocean  the  temperature  is  39°  at  latitude  50°  N.;  it  is  75°  at  latitude 
20°  N.  The  rise  in  temperature  with  decrease  in  latitude  is  quite  uniform.  On 
the  great  circle  sailing  route  from  San  Francisco  to  Yokohama  the  temperature 
ranges  from  40°  to  55°. 

American  Coast  Winds. — The  winds  are  easterly  in  the  Gulf  of  Alaska  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Sitka,  and  southerly  and  westerly  north  of  Vancouver  Island. 
They  are  southeasterly  between  the  Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca  and  San  Francisco, 
thence  to  the  20th  parallel  northwesterly;  from  the  20th  to  the  10th  north  to  north- 
east; from  the  10th  to  the  5th  north  to  northwest;  and  from  the  5th  to  the  Equator 
southwesterly. 

Winds  of  High  Latitudes. — In  Bering  Sea  the  winds  are  easterly  and  north- 
easterly in  the  eastern  portion  north  of  the  60th  parallel,  and  northerly  and  north- 
westerly between  the  60th  and  55th  parallels.  Between  the  55th  and  50th  parallels 
they  are  from  westerly  quadrants  east  of  longitude  175°  E.,  and  immediately  west 
of  this  meridian  they  are  mostly  southerly. 

Asiatic  Coast  Winds — The  Monsoon. — West  to  northwest  winds  prevail  along 
the  Asiatic  coast  between  the  45th  and  30th  parallels;  they  tend  to  become  north 


WEATHER  AT  SEA— SOUTH  PACIFIC 


865 


easterly  between  the  30th  and  25th  parallels.  South  of  the  25th  to  the  5th  parallel 
the  northeast  monsoon  exerts  its  full  force.  Near  the  mainland  the  monsoon 
tends  to  follow  the  coast,  and  as  it  weakens  slightly  by  night  with  an  offshore  breeze, 
northbound  coasting  vessels  may  then  make  fair  headway  against  it.  The  thick, 
rainy  weather  of  the  monsoon  period  makes  navigation  difficult  on  the  northern 
and  eastern  coasts  of  Taiwan  (Formosa)  and  Luzon.  A  rising  barometer  foreruns 
an  increase  and  a  falling  barometer  a  decrease  in  the  strength  of  the  monsoon. 

The  Northeast  Trades. — Over  the  eastern  half  of  the  ocean  the  northeast 
trades  extend  northward  almost  to  the  30th  parallel;  over  the  western  half,  to 
near  the  25th  parallel.  They  extend  eastward  to  within  5  or  6  degrees  of  the  Ameri- 
can coast  and  westward  to  the  northeast  monsoon  region  oflf  the  Asiatic  coast. 
Over  the  eastern  and  western  parts  of  the  ocean  they  are  northeasterly  in  direction, 
but  more  easterly  over  the  central  part.  These  winds  extend  to  the  Equator  be- 
tween longitudes  150°  and  175°  E.  In  Honolulu  they  prevail  18  days  during  the 
month. 

The  Southeast  Trades. — The  southeast  trades  extend  north  of  the  Equator 
between  longitudes  85°  and  155°  W.  They  reach  their  most  northern  limit  about 
the  6th  parallel,  between  longitudes  110°  and  120°  W.  Between  longitudes  100° 
and  85°  W.  these  equatorial  winds  blow  steadily  from  the  south. 

Calms. — The  percentage  of  calms  is  high  along  the  American  coast  south  of  the 
40th  parallel,  particularly  between  the  20th  and  5th  parallels;  also  over  the  regions 
west  of  Japan  and  Chosen  (Korea),  over  most  of  the  Philippine  waters,  and  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 

Gales. — The  percentage  of  gales  is  high  over  most  of  the  ocean  between  the 
35th  and  55th  parallels,  except  in  the  vicinity  of  San  Francisco  and  the  Farallon 
Islands.     Gales  are  also  frequent  over  the  5-degree  square  southeast  of  Yokohama. 

TyphooTis  and  Storm  Tracks. — The  average  number  of  December  typhoons  is 
one  as  against  two  for  November.  The  continental  storms  this  month  are  more 
frequent  than  aie  those  of  tropical  origin. 

The  storm  tracks  given  in  red  on  the  pilot  charts,  show  the  paths  of  impoitant 
storms  and  the  distance  traveled  in  each  24  hours.  The  approximate  tracks  of 
storms  in  the  middle  and  higher  latitudes  are  furnished  by  the  Zi-ka-wei  Observa- 
tory, Pere  H.  Gauthier,  compiler.  The  number  of  such  storms  is  greatest  in  March 
and  December  and  least  in  July. 

Pog. — The  percentage  of  days  with  fog,  15,  in  the  area  of  maximum  percentage 
oflf  the  American  coast  between  Vancouver  and  Cape  San  Lucas  is  less  than  in 
November.  It  continues  low  across  the  ocean  and  increases  slightly  in  Asiatic 
waters,  where  the  percentages  are  as  follows:  China  coast  from  Hongkong  to 
Shanghai,  14;  Eastern  Sea  and  Gulf  of  Pechili,  11;  Japan  Sea,  23. 


SOUTH  PACIFIC  OCEAN 
Average  Conditions  of  Wind  and  Weather 
December,  January,  and  February  (the  Summer  Season) 

Pressure. — The  permanent  area  of  high  pressure,  crest  30.20  inches,  has  moved 
about  5  degrees  farther  to  the  west  and  2  degrees  farther  to  the  south  since  the 
spring;  the  center  is  now  located  at  latitude  32°  S.  and  longitude  102°  W.,  having 
increased  in  extent  and  remains  the  same  in  intensity.  Directly  south  of  this 
area  the  gradients  are  steeper  than  to  the  north  and  there  has  been  little  change 
in  their  positions  since  the  spring.  Over  the  western  part  of  the  ocean  the  gradients 
are  not  so  regular  and  the  area  of  high  pressure  that  in  spiing  extended  to  the 
eastward  from  the  Australian  coast  has  disappeared.  The  isobar  of  the  lowest 
pressure  shown  on  the  chart,  29.30  inches,  has  changed  little  in  position  and  runs 
in  an  easterly  direction  from  the  intersection  of  the  59th  parallel  of  south  latitude 
and  the  90th  meridian  of  west  longitude. 

Temperature. — The  area  inclosed  by  the  isotherm  of  80°  has  moved  somewhat 
to  the  south  and  west  since  the  spring.  Over  the  western  and  central  part  of  the 
ocean  the  isotherms  have  moved  southward  from  3  to  8  degrees.  On  the  150th 
meridian  of  west  longitude  this  movement  is  remarkably  uniform,  as  all  the  iso- 
therms with  the  exception  of  that  of  75°  have  moved  from  5  to  6  degrees  in  latitude. 
On  the  eastern  part  of  the  ocean  the  isotherms  of  60°  to  75°  curve  to  the  south  as 
they  strike  the  coast,  while  these  same  lines  for  the  previous  season  have  a  north- 
erly trend,  recurving  slightly  to  the  south  at  the  end. 

Winds.— The  southeast  trades  that  extend  from  5°  to  30°  south  latitude  have 
moved  5  degrees  to  the  south  since  the  previous  season.  Directly  south  of  the 
trade  wind  limits  the  winds  are  variable,  while  westerly  winds  prevail  south  of  the 
40th  parallel  over  the  greater  part  of  the  ocean. 


866 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP— SOUTH  PACIFIC 


Gales. — Gales  are  now  at  their  minimam,  and  as  a  rule  the  decrease  in  the 
number  since  spring  is  marked.  In  the  S-degree  square  from  latitude  55°  to  60° 
S.  and  longitude  70°  to  75°  W.  the  percentage  has  fallen  from  26  to  8,  while  in 
only  a  few  localities  has  there  been  even  a  slight  increase.  The  "  Southerly 
Burster  "  that  prevails  off  the  southeast  coast  of  Australia  is  frequently  met  with 
during  this  season.  It  foims  after  an  extremely  hot  period  of  weather  and  is 
often  of  a  violent  character,  although  the  most  severe  portion  of  the  storm  is  apt 
to  be  of  shoit  duration. 

March,  April,  and  May  (the  Autumn  Season) 

Pressure. — The  permanent  area  of  high  pressure,  crest  30.15  inches,  has  moved 
about  8  degrees  to  the  east  since  the  summer,  the  center  now  being  near  latitude 
32°  S.  and  longitude  92°  W.;  it  has  decreased  somewhat  in  intensity  and  con- 
tracted in  extent,  having  assumed  an  elliptical  form.  There  has  been  little  change 
in  the  gradients  either  north  or  south  of  this  area,  and  the  isobar  of  the  lowest 
pressure  shown  on  the  chart,  29.30  inches,  has  changed  its  position  but  little. 
There  is  a  secondary  area  of  high  pressure,  crest  30.10  inches,  oflf  the  south  coast 
of  Australia,  the  western  portion  extending  into  the  Indian  Ocean. 

Temperature.— The  80°  isotherm  has  moved  to  the  eastward  and  now  extends 
to  the  130th  meridian,  west  longitude,  enclosing  a  much  larger  area  than  in  the 
summer  season,  although  the  western  end  has  moved  about  8  degrees  to  the  north. 
Over  the  central  part  of  the  ocean  there  has  been  a  general  southward  movement  of 
the  isotherms,  while  south  of  latitude  20°  S.,  off  the  coasts  of  Australia  and  South 
America,  the  movement  has  been  to  the  north,  although  in  the  latter  case  the 
isotherms  for  the  two  seasons  cross  near  the  coast. 

Winds. — The  southeast  trades  now  extend  from  latitude  10°  to  25°  S.  on  the 
western  part  of  the  ocean  and  from  the  Equator  to  latitude  25°  S.  on  the  eastern. 
Directly  south  of  the  trade  wind  limits  the  winds  are  for  the  most  part  variable, 
while  south  of  latitude  40°  S.  westerly  winds  prevail  over  the  gi  eater  part  of  the 
ocean. 

Gales. — There  is  a  marked  increase  in  the  number  of  gales  since  summer; 
it  is  greatest  in  the  square  between  latitudes  55°  to  60°  S.  and  longitudes  75°  to 
80°  W.,  where  the  percentage  has  risen  from  12°  to  30°.  Stoims  of  cyclonic  origin 
occur  only  in  the  western  part  of  the  ocean,  but  as  90  per  cent  of  them  have  been 
reported  between  the  months  of  December  and  March,  they  are  not  likely  to  be 
encountered  during  the  autumn  season.  This  also  holds  true  in  regard  to  tornadoes 
and  "  Southerly  Bursters  "  that  prevail  during  the  summer  months  oflf  the  south- 
east coast  of  Australia. 

June,  July,  and  August  (the  Winter  Season) 

Pressure. — The  principal  area  of  high  pressure,  crest  30.20  inches,  extends 
between  latitudes  27°  and  35°  S.  and  longitudes  87°  and  111°  W.  It  varies  little 
in  either  extent  or  intensity,  the  total  movement  of  its  center  during  the  year  being 
about  10  degrees  in  longitude  along  the  30th  parallel  of  south  latitude.  South  of 
this  area  the  isobars  are  much  closer  together  than  to  the  north,  the  effects  of  the 
steep  gradients  being  shown  in  the  increased  force  of  the  wind  and  the  greater 
number  of  gales  toward  the  south.  A  second  area  of  high  pressure,  crest  30.10 
inches,  extends  east  from  the  coast  of  Australia  to  longitude  167°  E. 

Temperature. — The  highest  temperature  over  the  ocean,  80°,  is  found  west  of 
longitude  140°  W.,  between  the  Equator  and  latitude  10°  S.,  while  the  lowest 
temperature  shown,  40°,  is  located  between  latitudes  50°  and  55°  S.  The  tem- 
perature on  the  east  coast  of  Australia  ranges  from  75°  in  the  north  to  50°  in  the 
south,  the  distance  between  the  isotherms  being  nearly  iiniform,  while  on  the 
other  hand,  as  these  lines  approach  the  South  American  coast,  the  distance  between 
them  becomes  very  irregular.  North  of  the  25th  parallel  the  temperature  on  the 
South  American  coast  is  much  lower  than  at  the  same  latitude  on  the  Australian 
coast,  this  being  due  to  the  effects  of  the  cold  Peru  Current  on  the  one  hand  and 
the  warm  East  Australian  Current  on  the  other. 

Winds.— Between  latitude  20°  S.,  the  southern  limit  of  the  southeast  trades, 
and  latitude  5°  N.,  the  northern  limit,  the  winds  are  remarkably  constant  in  direc- 
tion and  force,  the  percentage  of  both  gales  and  calms,  as  a  rule,  being  low.  Near 
the  noith western  coast  of  South  America  the  prevailing  direction  of  the  trades  is 
about  south,  there  being  a  tendency  for  the  winds  to  blow  parallel  with  the  coast. 
The  winds  are  variable  over  the  greater  part  of  the  ocean  south  of  latitude  25°  S., 
though  they  blow  from  westerly  quadrants  a  gi  eater  portion  of  the  time  with  an 
average  force  of  4  to  6. 


I 


WEATHER  AT   SEA— INDIAN  OCEAN 


867 


Gales. — There  are  few  storms  of  cyclonic  character  during  the  winter  season 
as  nearly  90  per  cent  of  them  occur  between  December  and  March.  The  southerly 
"  Burster  "  that  prevails  in  the  vicinity  of  southeast  Australia  during  a  large  portion 
of  the  year  is  also  rare  at  this  season.  There  are  few  gales  above  latitude  20°  S., 
while  between  the  20th  and  30th  parallels  the  percentage  is  about  3  for  the  western 
and  central  portions  of  the  ocean  and  between  1  and  2  east  of  longitude  95°  W. 
South  of  latitude  30°  gales  increase  rapidly  in  number,  the  maximum  percentage, 
28,  being  found  between  latitudes  55°  and  60°  S.  and  longitudes  90°  and  95°  W. 

September,  October,  and  November  (the  Spring  Season) 

Pressure. — The  semi-permanent  area  of  high  pressure,  crest  30.20  inches, 
central  at  latitude  30°  S.  and  longitude  97°  W.,  is  practically  the  same  in  intensity 
and  position  as  during  the  winter  months,  while  it  has  increased  slightly  in  area. 
South  of  this  area  the  gradients  are  much  steeper  than  to  the  north,  and  there  has 
been  little  change  in  the  position  of  the  isobars  since  the  previous  season.  A 
second  area  of  high  pressure,  crest  30.00  inches,  extends  eastward  from  Australia 
to  longitude  163°  W.  The  isobar  of  the  lowest  pressure  shown,  29.30  inches, 
extends  from  Cape  Horn  in  a  southwesterly  direction,  and  its  eastern  end  has 
moved  slightly  to  the  north  since  winter. 

Temperature. — The  highest  temperature  shown,  80°  is  found  west  of  longitude 
147°  W.  and  between  the  Equator  and  latitude  13°  S.,  while  the  isotherm  of  the 
lowest  temperature,  40°,  extends  in  a  westerly  direction  from  latitude  57°  S.  and 
longitude  70°  W.,  its  position  having  changed  but  little  since  winter.  The  distances 
between  the  isotherms  off  the  Australian  coast  are  remarkably  uniform,  while 
oflf  the  South  American  coast  just  the  opposite  is  true,  the  irregularities  being  due 
to  the  effect  of  the  Peru  Current,  which  varies  much  more  in  intensity  and  tempeia- 
ture  than  the  Australian  Current.  The  average  southerly  movement  of  the  iso- 
therms since  winter  is  about  5°  in  latitude,  though  this  movement  is  not  altogether 
uniform,  and  in  mid-ocean  the  temperature  has  changed  but  little. 

Winds. — The  southeast  trades  prevail  between  the  5th  and  20th  parallels  of 
south  latitude,  and  are  remarkably  constant  in  both  direction  and  force,  while  near 
the  northwest  coast  of  South  America  the  tendency  is  for  them  to  draw  along  the 
coast,  becoming  southerly.  South  of  the  trade-wind  limits  the  winds  are  variable 
over  the  greater  part  of  the  ocean,  although  they  prevail  from  the  westerly  quad- 
rants in  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Horn  and  south  of  Australia. 

Gales. — There  has  been  a  decided  decrease  in  the  number  of  gales  over  the 
greater  part  of  the  ocean  since  the  winter,  except  in  the  square  southwest  of  Cape 
Horn  where  the  percentage  has  increased  from  20  to  26,  while  the  average  per- 
centage for  the  four  squares  to  the  westward  of  this  square  has  fallen  from  25  to  21. 
The  "  Southerly  Burster  "  that  prevails  oflf  the  coast  of  southeast  Australia  during 
certain  portions  of  the  year,  as  well  as  storms  of  cyclonic  character,  first  make 
their  appearance  in  November,  although  they  are  not  common  until  summer. 

INDIAN  OCEAN 

Average  Conditions  of  Wind  and  Weather 
January 

Pressure. — The  pressure  is  highest  over  the  southern  Indian  Ocean  with  two 
crests  of  30.15  inches  each  between  the  30th  and  36th  parallels,  one  being  between 
longitudes  62°  and  76°  E.  and  the  other  between  longitudes  88°  and  100°  E.;  it  is 
comparatively  high,  30  to  30.05  inches,  over  the  Indian  Seas.  The  pressure  is 
low  near  the  Equator  with  a  central  pressure  of  29.80  inches  between  latitudes 
3  and  10°  S.  and  longitudes  75°  and  90°  E.  Another  low-pressure  area  is  central 
between  Borneo  and  Australia.  The  lowest  pressure  shown  on  the  chart,  29.60 
inches,  is  south  of  the  45th  parallel. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  is  about  83°  at  the  Equator,  thence  northward 
It  becomes  gradually  lower  and  is  slightiy  below  75°  at  the  extreme  northern 
portions  of  the  Indian  Seas.  From  the  Equator  southward  the  temperature  be- 
comes quite  uniformly  lower  with  increase  in  latitude  and  is  slightiy  below  45° 
at  the  50th  parallel. 

The  Monsoon  Winds. — The  northeast  monsoon,  force  2  to  5,  prevails  over  the 
northern  Indian  Ocean  and  below  the  Equator  along  the  African  coast  to  about 
latitude  10°  S.  The  northwest  monsoon  is  more  unsteady  and  of  lighter  force, 
often  sinking  to  a  calm.  It  prevails  over  an  area  that  borders  on  the  southern 
limit  of  the  northeast  monsoon,  touches  the  African  coast  between  latitudes  10° 


*  I 

i 


868 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP— INDUN  OCEAN 


and  Jav^'  *"^  ®**®°*^s  across  the  ocean  to  and  along  the  western  coasts  of  Sumatra 

In  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  southern  part  of  the  Red  Sea  the  winds  are  south- 
easterly and  northwesterly,  and  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Red  Sea,  northwesterly. 
♦«  Ju  ?^  *^I  Y^^^i  Region.— The  southeast  trades  are  steadiest,  force  3  to  5, 

if  ino  S*!l^Y^  j'^  *^®  ^°*^  meridian  between  the  10th  and  30th  parallels.  West 
ot  70  E.  the  trades  are  more  easterly,  and  the  winds  become  more  variable  toward 
the  coast  of  Madagascar.  The  winds  are  northerly  at  the  northern  entrance  of  the 
Mozambique  Channel,  and  southerly  at  the  southern  entrance.  Easterly  winds 
prevail  between  30°  and  35°  S.  and  the  30th  and  70th  meridians.    •^*^'^^*^  ^''''^ 

The  Prevailing  Westerlies.— South  of  the  35th  parallel  the  prevaiUng  winds  are 
Tno^c  I'  ^''''^P*  *^**  between  Australia  and  40°  S.  they  are  variablef  South  of 
40  b.  the  average  force  of  the  westerlies  is  6,  with  frequent  gales. 
;«  i  A ''1**~-?®^®.  severe  storms  seldom  occur  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  and  never 
in  tue  Arabian  Sea  during  January,  although  squally  weather  is  occasionaUy  ex- 
perienced in  the  Persian  Gulf  and  along  the  Mekran  coast.  Cyclones  originate 
more  frequently  in  the  southern  ocean  between  Madagascar  and  the  90th  meridian 
tnan  during  any  other  month.  They  first  move  in  a  southwesteriy  direction,  then 
recurve  to  the  southeast;  their  tracks  are  most  numerous  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Mauritius  and  Reunion. 

A»fft^^^^  ?n  ^®  ^2§  °"^^  °°f *^  °^  latitude  30°  S.  The  highest  percentage  of 
and  60°  E  occurs  along  the  50th  paraUels  between  longitudes  40° 

February 

../l^^A^J^'rr'^^l  pressure  is  highest  over  the  southern  Indian  Ocean  with  two 
in^S?  A  ^;l?  "^*?!lo®l*^^  between  the  27th  and  30th  parallels,  one  being  between 
longitudes  58°  and  69°  E.  and  the  other  between  longitudes  81°  and  92°  E.  Pres- 
V^Sn^  1.^®^*  ?^?'  *?®  southern  portion  near  latitude  50°  S.  where  it  deepens  to 
A.:IZ  v%^f:  o«^ •  *^ *^®®  ^°Y  *^  *^®  eastern  equatorial  region,  between  Borneo  and 
Australia,  29.80  inches,  and  comparatively  low  over  the  western  equatorial  portion. 
/  emperature. —The  temperature  is  about  83°  over  most  of  the  region  along  the 
iiquator,  thence  northward  it  becomes  gradually  lower  and  is  slightly  below  70°  at 
tne  head  of  the  Arabian  Sea.  The  temperature  south  of  the  region  along  the 
^quator  becomes  qmte  uniformly  lower  with  increase  in  latitude  and  is  slightly 
below  40°  at  the  50th  parallel. 

The  Monsoon  Winds.— The  northeast  monsoon,  force  2  to  4,  continues  north 
or  tfie  Equator  and  down  the  African  coast  as  far  as  Zanzibar.  It  is  more  northeriy 
m  the  eastern  portions  of  the  Indian  Seas  and  more  easterly  in  the  western  portions. 
Between  latitudes  0°  and  10°  S.  and  longitudes  60°  and  80°  E.  northerly  to  north- 
westerly monsoons  prevail;  east  of  the  80th  meridian,  between  the  same  latitudes, 
tlie  winds  are  westerly,  with  frequent  calms. 

The  winds  over  the  northern  part  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal  are  variable;  over  the 
northern  part  of  the  Arabian  Sea,  northeriy  to  northwesterly;  in  the  southern  part 
ot  the  Red  Sea,  southeasterly  and  northwesterly;  and  in  the  northern  part,  north- 

ifio^^^J^^..^L*^^  S^^if^^<^st  Trades.— This  region  is  included  between  latitudes 
10  and  30  S.,  except  west  of  longitude  75°,  where  the  area  is  much  contracted. 
Ufl  the  west  coast  of  Australia  southeriy  trades  prevail;  thence  to  the  70th  meridian 
they  are  southeasteriy;  thence  to  Madagascar,  easteriy.  Along  the  African  coast 
*  lY®®?ir  ^***"^®^  ^°°  *^^  ^®°  ^*  northerly  winds  prevail.  In  the  southern  part 
of  the  Mozambique  Channel  the  winds  are  southerly;  thence  to  Port  Elizabeth, 
northeasterly,  and  along  the  south  coast  of  Africa  to  the  Cape,  westerly  to  southerly. 

The  Prevailing  Westerlies.—South  of  the  40th  parallel  westeriy  winds  pre- 
dominate. The  percentage  of  gales  is  highest  in  this  region,  but  is  lower  in  Febru- 
ary and  March  than  during  other  months. 

Storms. — Severe  storms  do  not  occur  over  the  Indian  Seas  during  February, 
^though  there  are  occasional  squalls  over  Sokotra  and  off  the  Mekran  coast.  In 
the  Bay  of  Bengal  the  monsoon  sometimes  attains  the  force  of  a  gale.  Cyclones 
are  most  frequent  in  the  Southern  Ocean  between  Madagascar  and  the  90th 
meridian  during  January  and  February.  These  storms  on  the  average  first  move 
m  a  southwesterly  direction,  then  recurve  toward  the  southeast. 

Fog. — The  highest  percentage  of  days  with  fog,  20  to  25,  occurs  south  of  the 
45th  parallel  in  two  areas,  one  between  longitudes  42°  and  60°  E.,  the  other  between 
80°  and  110°  E.  The  percentage  decreases  northward,  and  above  the  30th  parallel 
little  or  no  fog  occurs. 


WEATHER  AT  SEA— Il^DIAN  OCEAN 


869 


£ 


«! 


March 

Pressure. — The  high  over  the  western  part  of  the  Arabian  Sea  has  moved 
northward,  and  its  crest  is  now  only  30.00  inches.  The  Equatorial  low  has  filled 
in,  its  lowest  pressure  being  29.85  inches,  over  the  East  Indies.  The  pressure  is 
highest,  30.15  inches,  west  of  Australia,  between  latitudes  29°  and  35°  S.,  compara- 
tively high,  30.10  inches,  immediately  south  of  Australia,  and  lowest,  29.70  inches, 
south  of  latitude  45°  S. 

Temperature. — Over  most  of  the  Equatorial  region,  including  the  Bay  of  Bengal 
and  most  of  the  Arabian  Sea,  the  temperature  is  from  80°  to  85°.  It  decreases 
gradually  from  80°  at  latitude  20°  S.  to  below  45°  south  of  the  46th  parallel. 

Winds  North  of  the  Equator. — The  northeast  monsoon,  force  3,  prevails  over 
most  of  this  region.  The  winds  are  from  westerly  quadrants  at  the  heads  of  the 
Indian  Seas,  and  become  easterly  in  the  Gulf  of  Aden.  Winds  of  force  4  obtain 
in  the  Red  Sea,  being  southeast  and  northwest  over  the  southern  part  and  north- 
west over  the  northern  part. 

Winds  between  0°  and  10°  S. — Between  the  Equator  and  5°  S.  easterly  winds 
prevail  from  the  African  coast  to  the  55th  parallel,  thence  to  the  75th  parallel  the 
winds  are  northerly,  thence  to  Sumatra,  mostly  northerly  and  northwesterly. 
Over  the  rest  of  the  region  the  winds  are  light  and  variable. 

Calms. — Calms  occur  most  frequently  around  Sumatra,  also  over  the  lower 
portions  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal  and  the  Red  Sea,  and  in  the  Mozambique  Channel. 
The  percentage  is  highest,  32,  near  Singapore. 

The  Southeast  Trades. — The  southeast  trades,  force  4  to  5,  blow  generally 
between  latitudes  10°  and  30°.  In  the  Mozambique  Channel  the  winds  are 
variable  in  the  northern  part  and  southerly  between  the  15th  and  25th  parallels. 
North  of  Australia  they  are  easterly,  southwesterly,  and  westerly.  The  African 
coast  winds  between  parallels  25  and  30  are  northeasterly.  Between  the  75th 
meridian  and  Madagascar  the  trades  become  east  to  east-southeast. 

The  Prevailing  Westerlies. — Between  parallels  30  and  35  the  winds  are  vari- 
able; south  of  this  region  the  westerlies,  force  4  to  6,  predominate.  Gales  average 
about  10;  the  percentage  is  highest,  15  to  19,  between  latitudes  40°  and  45°  S. 
and  longitudes  15°  and  30°  E. 

Storms. — Occasional  squalls  occur  over  the  Indian  Seas.  South  of  the  Equator 
cyclones  are  frequent.  They  form  in  the  doldrums,  near  the  limit  of  the  trades, 
and  move  in  a  southwesterly  direction,  then  generally  recurve  to  the  southeast. 

Fog. — The  highest  percentage  of  days  with  fog,  10  to  15,  occurs  between  latitudes 
44°  and  48°  S.  and  longitudes  52°  and  92°  E.    Elsewhere  there  is  little  fog. 

April 

Pressure. — The  pressure  is  highest,  30.15  inches,  west  of  Australia,  between  the 
28th  and  37th  parallels,  and  lowest,  29.60  inches,  near  the  50th  parallel.  It  in- 
creases to  29.90  inches  at  the  head  of  the  Arabian  Sea,  and  decreases  to  29.80 
inches  in  a  narrow  belt  extending  10°  on  each  side  of  the  Equator. 

Temperature. — Over  most  of  the  area  extending  from  the  heads  of  the  Indian 
Seas  to  latitude  15°  S.  the  temperature  is  comparatively  high,  ranging  from  80° 
to  85°.     It  is  65°  at  latitude  35°  S.,  thence  falls  rapidly  to  40°  at  the  50th  paraUel. 

Winds  North  of  the  Equator. — The  northeasterly  winds  of  the  winter  monsoon 
are  modified  by  the  increasing  continental  warmth  during  April  and  May,  and  tend 
to  become  light  and  variable.  Calms  increase  over  the  entire  region,  except  the 
extreme  northern  waters  of  the  Indian  Seas.  The  winds  are  easterly  in  the  Gulf 
of  Aden;  thence  along  the  coast  to  the  head  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal  they  follow  the 
general  contour  of  the  land.  In  the  center  of  the  seas  there  is  a  tendency  to  blow 
from  the  north  or  east,  but  southwesterly  winds  increase  over  the  entire  bay. 

Winds  between  0°  and  5°  S. — The  percentage  of  calms  continues  high  over  this 
region,  being  highest,  29,  near  Sumatra.  Easterly  winds  prevail  west  of  longitude 
50°  E.,  and  westerly  winds  between  longitudes  50°  and  100°  E. 

The  Southeast  Trades. — The  southeast  trades,  force  2  to  5,  blow  between 
latitudes  5°  and  30°  S.  South  of  the  10th  parallel  they  possess  considerable 
steadiness;  north  of  it  they  tend  to  become  variable.  Southeast  to  south  winds 
occur  west  of  Madagascar. 

The  Prevailing  Westerlies. — Between  latitudes  30°  and  40°  S.  the  winds  are 
variable,  force  4  to  6,  with  the  westerly  component  increasing  toward  the  south. 
South  of  the  40th  parallel  strong  westerly  winds  predominate,  with  an  average  of 
about  15  per  cent  of  days  with  gales  west  of  the  125th  meridian. 

Cyclones. — During  the  first  half  of  April  the  weather  at  the  heads  of  the  Indian 
Seas  is  as  quiet  as  in  March.     Occasional  storms  form  in  the  second  half  of  the 


-r' 


870 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP— INDIAN  OCEAN 


month  over  the  center  or  the  southeastern  part  of  the  Arabian  Sea,  and  move 
northeastward  or  northwestward.  The  infrequent  storms  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal 
form  in  the  central  or  eastern  part  in  connection  with  the  southwest  monsoon,  and 
move  northeastward.  In  the  South  Indian  Ocean  cyclones  are  less  frequent  than 
in  March.  They  usually  form  8°  or  10°  south  of  the  Equator,  move  south  westward, 
and  later  recurve  to  the  southeast. 

Fog. — Fog  is  rare  north  of  latitude  35°  S.,  and  the  percentage  is  low  south  of  it. 
The  highest  percentage  of  days  with  fog,  10  to  20,  occurs  in  a  small  area  south  of 
the  43d  parallel,  between  longitudes  43°  and  56°  E. 

May 

Pressure. — North  of  5°  south  latitude  the  pressure  is  29.75  to  29.80  inches, 
being  lowest  at  the  heads  of  the  Indian  Seas,  where  the  warm  weather  low  is 
advancing  from  southern  Asia.  South  of  5°  S.  the  pressure  increases  to  the  crest 
of  high  pressure,  30.20  inches,  that  lies  between  latitudes  23°  and  31°  S.  and 
longitudes  44°  and  88°  E.  South  of  the  high  the  pressure  decreases  more  rapidly 
than  north  of  it,  and  is  about  29.50  inches  near  the  50th  parallel. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  is  85°  yer  the  southern  portion  of  the  Red 
Sea,  the  greater  portion  of  the  Indian  Seas,  and  southward,  west  of  the  75th 
meridian,  to  the  Equator.  Below  the  Equator  it  is  80°  as  far  as  latitude  12°  on  the 
eastern  and  22°  on  the  western  side  of  the  ocean.  In  general  the  temperatures  are 
higher  in  the  same  latitude  on  the  western  than  on  the  eastern  side,  as  far  as 
latitude  45°  S.  The  temperature  decreases  to  about  40°  in  mid-ocean  near  lati- 
tude 50°  S. 

Winds  North  of  the  Equator. — Westerly  winds  prevail  north  of  the  Equator 
over  most  of  the  region  west  of  the  100th  meridian.  The  southwest  (summer) 
monsoon  gradually  develops  over  the  entire  area  during  May,  but  the  attainment 
of  its  full  strength  occurs  in  June  and  is  usually  accompanied  by  severe  squalls. 
Easterly  winds  prevail  in  the  Gulf  of  Aden,  and  northwesterly  winds,  force  3  to  4, 
over  most  of  the  Red  Sea.  Calms  occur  10  to  20  per  cent  of  the  time  over  most 
of  the  region  between  the  Equator  and  15°  north. 

The  Southeast  Trades. — These  trade  winds,  force  3  to  4,  prevail  over  the  area 
between  the  Equator  and  latitude  30°  S.  Over  the  extreme  northern  and  southern 
portions  of  this  area  the  trades  are  broken  by  variable  winds,  and  calms  are  frequent 
between  the  Eqtiator  and  10°  S.  The  trades  are  steadiest  between  latitudes  10° 
and  25°  S.  Along  the  African  coast  near  the  Equator  they  follow  the  contour  of 
the  land  and  merge  into  the  southwest  monsoon. 

The  Prevailing  Westerlies. — Between  latitudes  30°  and  35°  S.  the  winds  are 
strong  and  variable,  with  a  tendency  to  become  westerly.  Farther  south  the 
prevailing  direction  is  westerly,  force  5  to  6. 

Gales. — Gales  are  confined  mainly  to  the  southern  part  of  the  ocean  over  the 
area  dominated  by  the  westerly  winds.  As  autumn  advances  the  percentage  of 
days  with  gales  increases.  In  May  it  averages  about  15  per  cent  between  the 
35th  and  40th  parallels  and  20  per  cent  near  the  50th  parallel.  The  percentage 
decreases  toward  the  Equator. 

Cyclones. — These  storms  occur  with  increasing  frequency  over  the  Indian 
Seas  as  spring  advances.  They  may  form  at  any  time  during  May,  but  in  the 
Arabian  Sea  are  most  likely  to  appear  during  the  second  half  of  the  month.  They 
are  usually  severe  and  move  in  a  direction  between  west  and  north-northeast. 
In  the  South  Indian  Ocean  cyclones  decrease  in  number.  They  originate  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  trade-wind  area,  move  first  in  a  southwesterly  direction,  then 
usually  recurve  to  the  southeast.  The  storm  of  May  24-28,  1916,  is  the  only  one  of 
record  in  the  annals  of  the  Royal  Alfred  Observatory,  Mauritius,  which  traveled 
to  the  west  of  Rodriguez  after  the  29th  of  April. 

Fog. — An  area  of  20  to  30  per  cent  of  days  with  fog  occurs  near  the  50th  parallel 
between  the  30th  and  70th  meridians.  The  percentage  decreases  slowly  east  and 
west  of  this  area,  and  rapidly  north  of  it.  There  is  practically  no  ifog  north  of 
latitude  30°  S. 

June 

Pressure. — The  continental  summer  low,  pressure  29.55  to  29.60  inches,  is 
well  established  over  the  heads  of  the  Indian  Seas.  There  is  an  increase  north- 
ward to  29.70  inches  over  the  Red  Sea.  A  belt  of  high  pressure  lies  between 
Australia  and  Southern  Africa  with  its  crest,  30.15  inches,  off  the  African  coast 
between  Madagascar  and  latitude  30°  S.  South  of  this  belt  the  barometer  falls 
29.60  inches  near  latitude  50°  S. 


' 


WEATHER  AT  SEA— INDIAN  OCEAN 


871 


Temperature.— The  temperature  is  80°  to  90°  north  of  latitude  10°  S.  The 
highest  temperature  for  the  month,  90°,  occurs  over  the  western  part  of  the  Gulf 
of  Aden  and  the  southern  part  of  the  Red  Sea.  Over  most  of  the  Arabran  Sea  and 
the  western  part  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  the  temperature  is  85°  to  88  .  South  of 
latitude  10°  S.  the  temperature  falls  quite  uniformly  to  45°  or  40°  between  the 

45th  and  50th  parallels.  .t.    «  j  o  a 

The  Southwest  Monsoon. — Except  for  northwest  winds  over  the  Red  Sea  and 
the  Persian  Gulf,  the  southwest  monsoon,  force  3  to  5,  dominates  the  ocean  north 
of  the  Equator.  It  overspreads  the  Arabian  Sea  early  in  June,  and  by  the  third 
week  is  in  full  force  over  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  Severe  thunderstorms,  thick,  cloudy 
weather,  and  gales,  with  occasional  dangerous  cyclones,  occur  during  the  period 
immediately  preceding  the  full  force  of  the  monsoon. 

The  Southeast  Trades. — The  southeast  trades,  force  3  to  5,  occupy  most  of  the 
region  between  the  Equator  and  latitude  25°  S.,  except  between  0°  and  5  S., 
east  of  the  7Sth  meridian,  where  the  winds  are  variable  with  about  10  per  cent  of 
calms.  West  of  the  65th  meridian,  between  0°  and  5°  S.,  the  trades  become 
merged  with  the  southwest  monsoon.  ,    .     ,      ^^„       ^  ,^„  o    t-  t.^        •  ui 

The  Prevailing  Westerlies.— Between  latitudes  25°  and  30°  S.  light  variable 
winds  prevail,  though  west  of  longitude  65°  easterly  winds  predominate.  Over 
most  of  the  area  south  of  30°  S.  winds  from  the  westerly  quadrant  prevail,  average 
force  6.  The  percentage  of  gales  in  this  region  is  high,  increasing  toward  the  south. 
The  average  is  about  20  per  cent,  except  in  the  region  immediately  south  of  Aus- 
tralia, where  the  percentage  is  much  less.  «     .^  ,  j.       rx 

Cyclones. — Cyclonic  storms  are  rare  this  month  m  the  South  Indian  Ocean. 
They  have  increased  in  number  over  the  Indian  Seas,  where  most  of  them  form 
during  the  early  half  of  the  month  in  advance  of  the  monsoon.  In  the  Arabian  Sea 
they  are  usually  severe;  they  originate  off  the  upper  cost  of  India,  and  move  slowly 
in  a  northwesterly  direction,  passing  into  the  Persian  Gulf,  or  entering  the  Arabian 
Desert.    The  cyclones  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal  are  less  severe  than  those  of  the 

Arabian  Sea.  ,  .  ,  ,       ,  -  ^    ««  ,.      i.  ^ 

Fog. — The  area  of  highest  percentage  of  days  with  fog,  15  to  20,  ues  between 
latitudes  43°  and  48°  S.  and  longitudes  38°  and  58°  E.  From  this  area  fog  decreases 
in  all  directions  and  practically  disappears  north  of  the  35th  parallel. 

July 

Pressure. — The  areas  of  highest  and  lowest  pressure  present  much  the  same 
appearance  as  in  June,  except  that  they  are  slightly  intensified— the  low  pressure 
in  Indian  waters  having  decreased  to  29.50  inches  over  the  northern  part  of  the 
Arabian  Sea  and  the  high  pressure  in  latitudes  25°-30°  S.  having  increased  to 
30.30  inches  and  moving  toward  mid-ocean.    The  pressure  at  50°  S.  is  about 

29.60  inches.  ,       ,  „        ,.  ^., 

Temperature. — In  the  Indian  Sea  area  the  temperature  has  fallen  shghtly  over 
the  June  average,  owing  to  the  cloudy  skies  of  the  monsoon  but  the  mean  is  80° 
to  85°  over  most  of  the  region  north  of  10°  S.  latitude  except  for  8°  or  10°  east  of  the 
coast  of  Africa  south  of  Cape  Guardafui,  where  the  temperature  is  78°  or  79°.  The 
temperature  at  30°  S.  is  64°  to  70°  and  at  the  50th  parallel  about  40°. 

Winds — The  Monsoon. — The  southwest  monsoon  is  a  settled  wind  north  of  the 
Equator  and  blows  strongly  force  5  to  6  as  during  the  last  days  of  June.  It  pene- 
trates into  the  Gulf  of  Aden,  but  in  the  Red  Sea  the  winds  are  northwesterly  force  4. 

Variables. — The  winds  are  moderately  light  and  variable  over  a  narrow  belt 
east  of  the  70th  meridian  between  0°  and  5°  S.  where  the  monsoon  is  separated 
from  the  southeast  trade  winds.  West  of  the  70th  meridian  the  line  of  demarca- 
tion narrows  until  the  trade  merges  almost  directly  into  the  monsoon. 

Trades. — The  force  of  the  trade  winds  is  3  to  5.  Their  southern  limit  is  about 
the  25th  parallel  south  although  they  continue  somewhat  into  the  belt  of  variables 
lying  between  them  and  the  westerlies.  South-southeasterly  winds  predominate 
in  the  Mozambique  Channel  and  easterly  winds  west  of  65°  E.  between  parallels 
25°  and  30°  S. 

Westerlies. — South  of  the  35th  parallel  across  the  ocean  and  south  of  the  30th 
parallel  over  the  eastern  half  of  the  ocean  the  prevailing  winds  are  westerly.  The 
percentage  of  westerly  gales  is  slightly  higher  than  in  June  and  between  40°  and 
50°  S.  gales  occur  about  one-fourth  of  the  time. 

Cyclones. — The  cyclones  of  July  are  usually  of  slight  intensity  and  are  rare 
except  over  the  northwestern  angle  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal  where  two  or  three  are 
likely  to  occur  each  July.  The  cyclone  of  1871  southwest  of  Sumatra  is  the  only 
whirling  storm  of  consequence  recorded  this  month  in  the  South  Indian  Ocean. 


872 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP— INDIAN  OCEAN 


Fog. — The  fog  area  has  changed  only  slightly  as  a  whole  over  the  Southern 
Ocean.  East  of  the  90th  meridian  the  area  has  narrowed.  Between  the  40th  and 
60th  meridians,  south  of  the  43d  parallel,  the  occurrence  of  fog  is  more  frequent 
than  in  June,  having  increased  to  20  to  30  per  cent  of  days  with  fog. 

August 

Pressure. — The  pressure  distribution  is  the  same  in  August  as  in  July,  except  for 
shght  modifications.  Over  the  Bay  of  Bengal  and  the  Arabian  Sea  the  summer 
area  of  low  pressure  shows  a  slight  increase  over  the  northern  portion  now  averag- 
ing 29.60  inches.  Along  the  Equator  the  average  pressure  is  about  29.85  inches. 
The  area  of  high  pressure  30.30  inches  at  its  crest  has  moved  westward  from  mid- 
ocean  and  is  central  along  the  30th  parallel  of  south  latitude.  At  50°  S.  the  low 
pressure  is  permanent;  in  August  it  is  from  29.65  to  29.70  inches. 

Temperature. — In  African  coast  waters  the  temperature  averages  from  63° 
south  of  Cape  Agulhas  to  80°  at  Cape  Guardafui  and  from  80°  to  90°  in  the  Gulf  of 
Aden  and  the  Red  Sea.  North  of  the  Equator  the  lowest  temperature  slightly 
below  80°  is  over  the  western  part  of  the  Arabian  Sea  but  the  whole  Indian  area 
«  cooler  than  during  May  and  early  June,  owing  to  the  heavy  monsoon  clouds. 
The  temperature  is  near  40°  along  the  50th  parallel. 

Winds — The  Monsoon. — The  southwest  monsoon  is  the  prevailing  wind,  force 
3  to  5,  north  of  the  Equator,  but  has  decreased  in  force  since  July.  The  skies 
continue  generally  cloudy,  and  gales  are  prevalent,  especially  over  the  western 
part  of  the  Arabian  Sea  over  and  to  the  eastward  of  Socotra.  The  winds  are  mainly 
northwesterly  in  the  Red  Sea. 

The  Southeast  Trades. —From  the  Equator  to  about  3°  south  latitude  the 
winds  are  light  and  vaiiable,  but  show  a  tendency  to  become  affected,  more  or  less, 
by  the  monsoon  to  the  north  and  the  trades  to  the  south.  The  southeast  trades, 
though  rarely  attaining  force  5,  are  comparatively  steady  between  5°  and  25°  S. 

Between  25°  and  35°  S.  winds  from  all  quadrants  often  occur,  although  over  the 
eastern  half  of  the  belt  the  tendency  is  to  become  westerly  and  southerly,  and  over 
the  western  half  to  become  easterly  and  northerly,  following  the  normal  circulation 
around  the  "  high." 

The  Westerlies. — South  of  the  variables  over  the  belt  of  high  pressure  the 
winds  are  mainly  westerly,  force  4  to  6,  although  interrupted  by  passing  cyclones 
peculiar  to  the  middle  latitudes.  Gales  occur  from  a  sixth  to  a  third  of  a  time 
between  35°  and  50°  S. 

Tropical  Cyclones. — Few  of  these  dangerous  storms  occur  in  August.  These 
few  are  confined  to  the  northern  part  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  and  are  never  as  severe 
as  during  the  spring  and  autumn  months. 

Fog. — The  percentage  of  days  with  fog  is  low  over  the  southern  ocean.  The 
highest  percentage  is  only  10  to  15,  and  occurs  between  42°  and  50°  S.  and  20° 
and  50°  E. 

September 

Pressure. — The  pressure  over  the  Arabian  Sea  and  the  Bay  of  Bengal  is  about  a 
tenth  of  an  inch  higher  in  September  than  in  August;  the  minimum  at  the  heads 
of  the  seas  is  about  29.70  inches.  The  equatorial  pressure  is  29.85  to  29.90  inches. 
The  highest  pressure  occurs  between  20°  and  30°  south  latitude,  with  the  crest, 
30.20  inches,  over  the  western  part  of  the  ocean  southeast  of  Madagascar.  Near 
the  50th  parallel  the  pressure,  as  in  August,  is  about  29.70  inches. 

Temperature. — The  changes  in  temperature,  as  a  rule,  are  slight  since  August. 
Owing  to  the  decreased  cloudiness  over  the  western  part  of  the  Arabian  Sea,  that 
region  is  somewhat  warmer  than  in  the  previous  month.  Most  of  the  ocean  north 
of  10°  S.  has  a  temperature  of  about  80°.  A  maximum  of  85°  to  90°  occurs  over  the 
Gulf  of  Aden  and  the  Red  Sea.  From  10°  S.  to  30°  N.  there  is  little  more  than  a 
range  of  12°  in  temperature,  but  over  a  similar  extent  from  10°  S.  to  50°  S.  there  is  a 
range  of  more  than  40°  in  temperature. 

The  Southwest  Monsoon. — The  southwest  monsoon  continues  north  of  the 
Equator,  and  is  strongest,  force  4  to  5,  over  the  center  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal  and  the 
southwestern  part  of  the  Arabian  Sea,  but  it  is  weaker  than  in  August  and  is 
^adually  being  replaced  by  the  variable  winds  which  precede  the  winter  monsoon. 
Northwesterly  winds  prevail  over  most  of  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf. 

Southeast  Trades  and  Doldrums. — The  average  southern  limit  of  the  southeast 
trades  is  about  25°  S.  The  northern  limit  is  between  5°  S.  and  the  Equator,  and 
in  this  region  the  doldrums  occupy  a  width  of  about  5°  of  latitude  over  the  eastern 
half  of  the  ocean,  thence  diminish  in  width  westward.  The  average  force  of  the 
trades  is  3  to  4. 


t 


> 


] 


WEATHER  AT  SEA— INDIAN  OCEAN 


873 


"  Horse  Latitude  "  Winds  and  Westerlies. — South  of  the  trades  over  the 
ridge  of  high  pressure  between  25°  and  35°  S.,  the  more  or  less  variable  winds  of 
the  "  horse  latitudes  "  occur.  On  the  north  they  show  the  influence  of  the  trades 
and  on  the  south  the  influence  of  the  westerlies. 

Between  35°  and  50°  S.  the  winds  are  mostly  westerly,  with  average  force  of 
nearly  6.  In  this  region  gales  are  frequent,  averaging  20  to  27  per  cent  of  the  winds 
over  half  of  the  area. 

Cyclones. — Tropical  storms  are  confined  principally  to  the  Bay  of  Bengal. 
Here  occur  in  September  the  undeveloped  cyclones  peculiar  to  August,  and  in 
addition  the  more  dangerous  whirls  of  autumn.  The  earlier  the  northeasterly 
winds  set  in,  that  much  earlier  is  there  a  piedisposition  to  storms  of  a  severe  type. 

Fog. — The  region  of  fog  shows  little  change  from  that  of  August.  The  per- 
centage of  days  with  fog  is  light  over  even  the  most  frequented  areas,  the  maximum 
being  10  to  15  per  cent  over  an  extent  roughly  defined  within  latitudes  42°  and  48°  S. 
and  longitudes  15°  and  47°  E. 

October 

Pressure. — The  seasonal  change  in  pressure  over  the  Indian  Ocean  for  October 
is  most  important  over  the  north  equatoiial  region.  The  increasing  pressure  over 
Asia  is  spreading  to  the  Bay  of  Bengal  and  the  Arabian  Sea,  and  the  central  area  of 
lowest  pressure  for  these  seas,  now  29.80  inches,  has  moved  southward  and  covers 
most  of  the  region  between  latitudes  15°  N.  and  5°  S.  The  permanent  ridge  of 
high  pressure  lies  between  Australia  and  southern  Amca.  Its  crest  fluctuates  in 
position  from  month  to  month  and  sometimes  divides,  as  in  October,  when  one 
crest  (30.15  inches)  appears  southeast  of  Madagascar  and  the  other  (30.20  inches) 
over  the  eastern  half  of  the  ocean.  The  lowest  pressure  on  the  chart  (29.60  inches) 
is  near  the  50th  parallel  of  south  latitude. 

Temperature. — Over  most  of  the  Red  Sea  the  temperature  is  85°  to  88°.  Over 
most  of  the  Indian  Sea  region  and  thence  southward  to  latitude  10°  or  13°  S.  the 
temperature  is  between  80°  and  83°.  Between  20°  and  35°  south  latitude,  off  the 
west  Australian  coast,  the  temperatureis  58°  to  70°,or  5°  to  10  °  lower  than  in  the 
same  latitudes  off  the  east  African  coast.  The  temperature  falls  to  about  40° 
near  the  50th  parallel. 

Winds  North  of  the  Equator — The  Monsoon. — As  the  pressure  changes  the 
winds  also  change  over  the  region  north  of  the  Equator.  The  southwest  monsoon 
is  weakening  and  disappearing  and  the  northeast  monsoon  is  gaining  strength 
toward  the  last  of  the  season.  In  consequence,  the  winds  are  variable  with 
frequent  calms  over  the  northern  seas.  There  is  a  considerable  northerly  com- 
ponent of  the  winds,  however,  over  the  Arabian  Sea.  Between  10°  N.  and  the 
Equator  the  winds  are  westerly,  except  near  the  coast  of  Africa,  where  they  are 
mostly  southerly.  In  the  Red  Sea  calms  are  frequent;  the  predominating  winds 
are  southeasterly  in  the  southern  part  and  northwesterly  in  the  northern  part. 

The  Southeast  Trades. — The  trades  have  changed  very  little  since  September 
and  occupy  practically  the  same  area,  between  parallels  5°  and  25°  S.,  blowing  with 
force  2  to  4.  They  blow  across  the  Equator  in  African  coast  waters.  These  winds 
prevail  to  some  extent  in  the  Mozambique  Channel,  with  local  modifications,  which 
give  a  northerly  turn  to  the  winds  at  the  northern  entrance  and  a  southerly  turn 
at  the  southern  entrance. 

Winds  from  25°  to  50°  S. — Between  latitudes  25°  and  35°  S.  are  the  calms  and 
variable  winds  of  the  "  horse  latitudes."  The  winds,  however,  are  inclined  to 
become  southerly  over  the  eastern  end  of  the  belt  and  northerly  over  the  western 
end.  Over  the  southern  part  of  the  belt  gales  are  increasing  in  frequency,  and  south 
of  the  35th  parallel,  over  the  region  where  westerly  winds  prevail,  an  average  of 
about  one-fifth  of  the  winds  are  of  gale  force. 

Tropical  Cyclones. — Tropical  cyclones  begin  to  occur  at  rare  intervals  in  the 
South  Indian  Ocean  this  month.  In  the  seas  north  of  the  Equator,  particularly 
in  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  the  fall  season  of  severe  cyclones  is  at  its  height.  These 
storms  may  form  over  any  part  of  the  bay,  not  being  limited  to  the  northern  part, 
as  during  midsummer.  They  are  likely  to  occur  following  a  considerable  period  of 
fine  weather,  and  October  is,  therefore,  considered  to  be  the  most  treacherous 
month  of  the  year  in  these  waters. 

Fog. — Little  fog  occurs  north  of  the  30th  parallel  of  south  latitude,  and  the 
percentage  of  days  with  fog  is  low  south  of  it.  The  area  of  most  frequent  occur- 
rence, 10  to  20  per  cent  of  days  with  fog,  is  west  of  the  40th  meridian,  south  of  the 
48th  parallel. 


874  STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP— INDIAN  OCEAN 

November 

Pressure. — The  southward  movement  of  the  continental  high  has  caused  a 
considerable  increase  in  the  pressure  over  the  northern  waters  of  the  Arabian 
Sea  and  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  the  pressure  being  30  inches  at  the  head  of  the  Arabian 
Sea.  Two  centers  of  low  pressure,  29.80  inches  each,  appear,  one  over  the  eastern 
part  of  the  Arabian  Sea  and  the  other  south  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  High  pressure 
continues  between  Australia  and  southern  Africa  with  the  crest,  30.20  inches,  near 
Australia.  The  pressure  decreases  thence  southward  and  is  29.50  inches  oyer  a 
part  of  the  ocean  near  latitude  50°  S. 

Temperature. — The  autumnal  fall  in  temperature  is  being  felt  over  the  northern 
portions  of  the  Red  Sea,  the  Arabian  Sea,  and  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  but  over  most  of 
the  ocean  north  of  10°  south  latitude  the  temperature  continues  to  average  about 
80°.  The  southern  limit  of  the  isotherm  of  80°  is  in  the  Mozambique  Channel 
near  23°  south  latitude.  Between  15°  and  35°  S.  the  western  part  of  the  ocean  is 
considerably  warmer  than  the  eastern  part.  The  isotherm  of  70°,  for  instance, 
while  it  rises  from  mid-ocean  and  reaches  Australia  near  21°  S.,  falls  as  it  ap- 
proaches the  African  coast,  which  it  touches  near  latitude  34°  S.  There  is  little 
difference  in  temperature  across  the  ocean  near  the  50th  parallel,  the  mean  being 
approximately  40°. 

Winds  of  the  Monsoon  Region. — The  northeast  monsoon  prevails  over  most 
of  the  Arabian  Sea  and  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  although  traces  of  the  summer  monsoon 
linger  in  the  southern  part  oLthe  Bay.  Between  5°  N.  and  the  Equator,  except  near 
the  African  coast,  where  the  northeast  monsoon  and  the  southeast  trades  converge, 
the  westerly  monsoon  is  the  prevailing  wind.  Over  most  of  the  Gulf  of  Aden  the 
prevailing  winds  are  easterly,  but  they  are  southeasterly  at  the  entrance  to  the 
Red  Sea  and  continue  southeasterly  as  far  north  as  the  20th  parallel,  above  which 
northwesterly  winds  are  general. 

Calms. — Calms  occur  most  frequently  over  the  northern  and  southern  portions 
of  the  Indian  Seas  and  throughout  the  neighborhood  of  the  East  Indies. 

The  Southeast  Trades. — The  average  northern  and  southern  limits  of  these 
winds  are  nearly  along  latitudes  5°  and  27°  S.,  respectively.  The  trades  blow  with 
greater  steadiness,  force  3  to  4,  between  latitudes  10°  and  20°  S.  In  the  vicinity 
of  Madagascar  the  winds  are  mostly  southeasterly  to  northeasterly  on  the  eastern 
side;  in  the  Mozambique  Channel  they  are  easterly  to  northerly  at  the  northern 
entrance  and  easterly  to  southerly  at  the  southern  entrance. 

The  Westerlies. — Between  latitudes  30°  and  50°  S.  the  prevailing  winds  are 
westerly.  They  generally  increase  in  force  toward  the  south,  and  south  of  the 
40th  parallel  from  1 1  to  22  per  cent  of  the  winds  are  gales,  the  highest  percentages 
being  toward  mid-ocean. 

Tropical  Cyclones. — The  tropical  cyclones  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal  are  fewer  and 
less  intense  than  during  October.  Their  average  occurrence  in  the  Arabian  Sea 
is  one  during  November.  A  few  of  the  cyclones  of  the  Arabian  Sea  have  crossed 
India  from  the  bay.  The  storm  movement  is  usually  in  a  west-northwesterly 
direction  at  first,  later  recurving  through  north  into  northeast. 

Hurricanes  are  increasing  in  strength  and  number  in  the  south  Indian  Ocean. 
They  originate  over  that  belt  of  the  ocean  lying  between  Sumatra  and  Madagascar. 
They  usually  move  first  in  a  southwesterly  direction,  later  often  recurving  through 
south  into  southeast. 

Fog. — Little  or  no  fog  occurs  north  of  30°  S.  and  the  percentage  is  low  south  of 
that  parallel.  There  is  a  moderate  local  increase  to  15  to  20  per  cent  of  days  with 
fog  near  the  50th  parallel  to  the  west  of  the  50th  meridian. 

December 

Pressure. — The  Equatorial  depression  of  December  is  marked  by  three  fairly 
well-defined  lows,  pressure  29.80  inches  each — one  south  of  the  Arabian  Sea; 
another  west  of  Sumatra;  and  a  third  between  Australia  and  Borneo.  Moderately 
high  pressure  prevails  over  the  northern  portions  of  the  Indian  Seas  and  the 
Red  Sea,  and  high  pressure,  with  a  crest  of  30.20  inches,  continues  between 
Australia  and  southern  Africa.     Near  the  50th  parallel  the  pressure  is  29.60  inches. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  is  about  75°  at  the  heads  of  the  Indian  Seas; 
but  between  about  10°  or  15°  north  and  south  of  the  Equator  it  is  80°  to  82°.  South 
of  this  region  of  high  temperature  there  is  a  gradual  fall  to  45°  between  the  45th  and 
50th  parallels. 

The  Northeast  Monsoon. — The  northeast  (winter)  monsoon,  force  3  to  4, 
prevails  over  the  Indian  waters  and  extends  down  the  African  coast  to  latitude  10°  S. 


7' 


f 


WEATHER  AT  SEA— INDUN  OCEAN 


875 


Northwesterly  winds  prevail  in  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  Gulf  of  Oman,  and 
easterly  winds  in  the  Gulf  of  Aden.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  Red  Sea  the  winds 
are  southeasterly  and  in  the  northern  part  northwesterly. 

Equatorial  Winds  and  Calms.— Between  5°  N.  and  10°  S..  except  along  the 
coast  of  Africa,  Ught  winds,  with  frequent  calms,  prevail.  Over  the  northern 
part  of  the  area  northerly  winds  are  most  numerous;  between  0  and  5  S.  the 
winds  are  westerly;  and  between  5°  and  10°  S.,  westerly  and  southeasterly.  The 
percentage  of  calms  near  Sumatra  is  about  20.  «„       ^  ,«o  o         ^    *  xt. 

The  Southeast  Trades.— These  winds  occur  between  10°  and  30°  S.  east  of  the 
50th  meridian.  Their  average  force  is  3  to  4.  West  of  Madagascar  the  winds 
are  mostly  northeasterly  and  southeasterly;   south  of  Madagascar,  easterly. 

Winds  South  of  30°  S.— Between  30°  and  35°  S.  from  Africa  to  the  60th  meridian 
the  winds  are  easterly.  Elsewhere  generally  south  of  the  30th  paraUel  westerly 
winds  prevail.  The  westerUes  blow  with  force  5  to  6  south  of  35°  S.,  and  over 
most  of  the  region  gales  are  frequent.  .       „       .     ^  .  j      u  — 

Cvdones.— Cyclones  are  rare  in  the  Arabian  Sea  in  December,  and  seldom 
form  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal  after  the  middle  of  the  month.     Cyclonic  storms  mcrease 
in  number  in  the  South  Indian  Ocean  where  their  tracks  are  embraced  between  5 
and  35°  S.— They  move  at  first  toward  the  southwest,  then  recurve  toward  the 

^\og.— The  northern  limit  of  fog  is  irregular,  but  in  general  is  south  of  the  30th 
parallel.  The  percentage  is  low,  as  a  rule,  but  there  is  a  maximum  area  of  15  to  20 
per  cent  of  days  with  fog  south  of  the  45th  parallel  to  the  west  of  the  70th  menduin. 

Explanation 

The  writer  wishes  to  say  here  that  the  foregoing  summation 
of  the  weather  to  be  expected  all  over  the  world  is  not  intended 
for  regular  reading. 

When  voyages  are  being  planned,  or  are  in  progress,  these 
valuable  summaries,  prepared  by  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau, 
are  here  for  the  use  of  the  seaman. 

Active  cooperation  of  seamen  of  all  nations  in  the  work  of 
collecting  weather  data  has  made  these  forecasts  possible. 
The  writer,  on  many  a  voyage,  has  marveled  at  their  accuracy. 
But  the  seaman  must  remember  that  only  average  conditions 
are  set  down.  At  sea  the  unexpected  and  the  unusual  must 
always  be  reckoned  with. 

Note: — Marine  observers  and  all  shipmasters  should  make 
application  for  ''Weather  of  the  Oceans,'*  issued  monthly  by  the 
U,  S.  Weather  Bureau.    It  will  be  sent  to  them  free  of  charge. 


I 


CHAPTER  21 


SAFETY  ON  BOARD   SHIP 


,  General 

The  crew  of  a  vessel  are  unlike  al- 
most any  other  group  of  workers.  They 
live  with  their  work,  their  home,  for 
the  time  they  are  on  a  voyage,  is  the 
ship.  The  work  is  extremely  hazard- 
ous if  carried  on  by  men  who  are  not 
thoroughly  trained.  But  even  with  the 
best  training  and  under  the  best  possi- 
ble conditions  casualties  at  sea  will 
average  higher  than  on  land. 

Loss  of  life  at  sea  in  the  merchant 
service  was  so  abnormal  during  the 
World  War  that  figures  for  this  period 
are  of  no  value  in  computing  averages. 
In  the  Bulletin  of  The  American  Mu- 
seum of  Safety,  of  October,  1917,  Dr.  Frederick  L.  Hoffman, 
statistician  for  the  Prudential  Insurance  Company,  published  a 
paper  on  the  accident  hazard  at  sea  covering  the  decade  before 
1914.  The  following  extract  is  taken  from  this  paper  by  per- 
mission. 

"  Loss  of  life  in  the  American  merchant  marine  may  be  con- 
servatively based  upon  the  assumption  of  a  fatality  rate  of  three 
per  1,000,  which,  in  all  probability,  is  rather  below  than  above  the 
facts  of  actual  experience.  In  the  British  merchant  marine  the 
corresponding  fatality  rate  is  five  per  1,000. 

"...  A  clear  distinction  requires  to  be  made  between  navi- 
gation hazards  proper,  or  such  as  are  directly  attributable  to 
weather  and  other  agencies  resulting  in  maritime  disasters,  and 
accidents  more  or  less  inherent  or  incidental  to  maritime  employ- 
ment, such  as  directly  concern  the  men  employed  in  navigation 
and  occupations  pertinent  thereto,  as  separate  and  distmct  from 

876 


Buoy  and  water  light 


I 


SAFETY  ON  BOARD   SHIP 


877 


accidents  to  passengers  or  other  persons  on  board,  in  conse- 
quence of  maritime  casualties  more  or  less  extraneous  to  the 
management  of  the  vessel  as  such. 

"  Primarily,  the  causes  of  maritime  disasters  are  foundering, 
stranding  and  collisions,  which  in  the  American  experience  for 
recent  years  account  for  62  per  cent  of  the  disasters  attributable 
to  all  causes.  Of  the  total,  7.5  per  cent  were  attributable  to 
foundering,  24.4  per  cent  to  stranding  and  29.9  per  cent  to  colli- 
sions. In  the  case  of  vessels  on  the  Great  Lakes,  however, 
foundering  accounts  for  only  4.3  per  cent  of  the  disasters,  while 
stranding  accounts  for  27.8  per  cent  and  collisions  for  34.3  per 
cent. 

"  There  are  no  trustworthy  statistics  for  the  United  States 
regarding  the  loss  of  life  in  navigation,  and  practically  no  statistics 
whatever  regarding  the  injuries  sustained  in  connection  with 
the  labor  on  ships  or  in  the  loading  and  unloading,  or  in  the 
handling  of  freight,  or  other  duties  of  longshoremen,  etc.  Since 
the  inherent  risk  of  all  maritime  occupations  is  the  danger  of 
drowning,  it  is  but  in  conformity  to  the  anticipated  results,  as 
disclosed  by  the  industrial  experience  of  the  Prudential  Insur- 
ance Company,  that  in  contrast  to  a  proportion  of  1.3  per  cent  of 
deaths  by  drowning  in  the  mortality  from  all  causes  for  all  occu- 
pied males,  the  proportion  was  11.0  per  cent  for  persons  em- 
ployed in  navigation. 

"According  to  the  medico-acturial  experience,  the  general 
mortality  of  men  employed  in  navigation  is  considerably  above 
the  average  of  emplo3rments  without  exposure  to  navigation 
hazards.  In  the  experience  of  the  British  merchant  marine  the 
accident  fatality  rate  was  5.0  per  1,000  for  all  maritime  occu- 
pations during  the  period  1909-1913,  or,  specifically,  4.8  per 
1,000  for  masters,  4.6  for  sailors  and  4.2  for  engineers.  As 
regards  the  fatality  hazard  at  sea,  there  would,  therefore,  appear 
to  be  no  very  material  difference  in  the  accident  liability  of  the 
most  specific  occupations. 

"  Since  the  most  important  difference  in  navigation  relates  to 
the  motive  power  employed,  it  is  extremely  significant  that 
according  to  British  experience,  the  accident  liability  in  the 
navigation  of  sailing  vessels  should  be  very  decidedly  in  excess 
of  the  corresponding  accident  liability  of  steam  vessels.  During 
the  period  1909-1913  the  general  mortality  rate  (including 
diseases)  was  12.7  per  1,000  for  men  on  sailing  vessels,  against 
3.8  per  1,000  for  men  on  steam  vessels.  The  accident  mortality 
due  to  wrecks  and  casualties  was  8.1  per  1,000  for  men  on  sailing 
vessels,  against  1.5  per  1,000  for  men  on  steam  vessels.  The 
mortality  due  to  other  accidents  was  2.6  per  1,000  for  sailing 
vessels  and  0.6  per  1,000  for  steam  vessels.  The  mortality  from 
diseases,  excluding  suicides  and  homicides,  was  2.0  per  1,000 


'i. 


878 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


for  sailing  vessels  and  1.7  per  1,000  for  steam  vessels     It  is 
aierefore,  self-evident  that  the  replacement  of  sS' vessels 
has  very  materially  reduced  the  hazards  to  life  TnlviSn 

r^s'Cdt'th°^''"*^',^.^T^^"^  ''^  improvement  hafSso 
resulted  m  the  general  health  of  the  men,  largely,  no  doubt 

because  of  better  sanitary  conditions,  more  commodLrsleeping 
quarters,  better  ventilation,  etc.  sieepmg 

"  Further  reduction  in  the  accident  rate  has  resulted  from  the 

ErTr'"*^  T''*^"  ^'^^  °*  *•»«  ^««««1«  employed     pJr 
Illustration,  accordmg  to  the  American  experience  for  recent 

years  for  vessels  under  100  tons,  in  distress^"?  8  were  lost 
TaSirs^a^Voti^r  ^-  -*  -  the  case  of  VesselsTa  IT. 

From  the  foregoing  it  wiU  be  noted  that  steamers  are  safer 

iTJ^'l^'u   ^"^  ^"^  '"«'  "^''^^^  "«  ^«f"  ^^^  ^^  ones, 
all  of  which  seems  reasonable.    On  the  other  hand,  the  losses 

at  sea  are  out  of  all  proportion.    Too  little  thought  is  given  to 
safety  work,  sanitation,  and  morale. 

PvJiV^^"^  operations  of  seamanship  caU  for  precautions  at 
every  turn  and  these  should  be  emphasized  as  a  matter  of  course 
The  sbnging  of  scaffold  planks  is  often  slovenly  done  by  means 
erf  a  marimg  hitch     Scaffold  planks  should  be  specially  fitted 
with  smtable  cross  bars  and  strong  rope  bridles 

Marling  spikes  shorn  all  be  fitted  with  long  lanyards  so  that 
when  workmg  aloft  a  man  may  sling  the  lanyard  around  his  neck 
and  keep  it  ttere  while  working.  Always  carry  a  spike,  point 
up,  with  a  half  hitch  of  the  lanyard  about  the  point.    *^     '  ^   °' 

Rope  off  aU  hatch  openings  when  not  working. 

Coj;er  all  hatches,  especially  at  night. 

Rope  off  'tween  deck  hatches  in  the  trunks  and  wells  where 
passageways  open  alongside  of  them. 

See  that  all  gangways  are  fitted  with  efficient  hand  rails 
See  that  the  top  of  hand  rails  comes  to  the  rail  of  the  vessel,  or 

Ugh!^         "^'^  "  ^^  *  '""'"'  '"""•    ^*"'  ^"°«**y^  ^'"^'''V 
Do  not  send  men  into  tanks  or  peaks  until  certain  that  these 
are  gas  free.    Always  send  men  into  such  places  with  a  French 
bowhne  (see  page  86). 

defks^**  ^"^^^^  '^"^  ^®"^°*  "^^  ""**  ^"^*^  ^""^^  ^^^  ^e" 


i 


<:< 


SAFETY  ON  BOARD  SHIP 


879 


Be  certain  that  all  heavy  weights  on  deck,  and  in  the  'tween 
decks  and  holds  are  securely  lashed. 
fa  going  aloft  grab  hold  of  the  shrouds.    Never  grab  ratlines. 
Never  permit  men  to  drop  gear  or  blocks  from  aloft 

r,.f«2T  ^'  ^'"'"'''"'  *"'*'"'*  '**«■«'  «'<=•'  before  sending 
men  aloft.    Never  use  worn  gantlines. 

Do  not  allow  smoking  near  the  paint  or  oil  lockers 

Do  not  allow  smoking  in  or  near  the  holds 

Never  use  «,orn  or  doubtful  cargo  gear  or  other  ship's  gear 

o.T'tf  ""^^  '*'^^  *'"'**  *^^  "^«  °f  ''">'''  boats,  especiaUy 
at  night.  The  vmter  lost  two  men  who  started  back  to  the  ship 
at  mght  in  a  skiflf.  When  clear  of  a  breakwater,  which  gave 
them  a  false  sense  of  security,  they  were  swamped  and  drowned. 

forJ'T     ?  f  ^^^  °°  *^^  ^"'^'^  '"'^<"'*'  """  "re  looking 
for  a  chance  to  happen. 

^  officer  who  is  alive  to  his  job  wiU  feel  the  responsibility 
restog  upon  him.  Men  who  have  this  feeling  generally  go  aboS 
tten:  busmess  m  a  business-like  way.  There  is  ve^  Uttle 
monkey  work  gomg  on  when  they  are  on  the  job.    Seamen 

officTwh  '"t  °®'"''  '^^  *""'^*'  ''^'^y  *»  business.    The 
officer  who  is  too  mexperienced  to  look  after  certain  things,  who 

Et  Ji:  "^"^  "'  ''"""^'  ^^°^'«"y  ^"^^  "  ^«iting  fo;  Mm 

just  around  the  comer  of  the  Old  Man's  cabin  door. 


n 

Drowning 

Many  seamen  are  indifferent  swimmers.    Living  so  near  the 

WW  ?/"""  "  u""^  •=°"*^"P*  ^»'  "•  ^  ""^'^hant  vessels 
where  not  too  much  attention  is  given  to  the  crew  after  working 
hours,  many  men  go  along  for  years  without  learning  to  swim 
It  would  be  a  good  plan  to  make  aU  hands  go  overboard  at  leas 
once  a  week  when  in  waters  where  this  can  be  done.  If  the 
Chief  Mate  sends  all  hands  over  the  side  for  a  half  hour  during 
tte  Sunday  mommg  washdown,  it  would  do  a  lot  of  good.    The 

f^t/r'^'u^  ^  Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts  has 
pubhshed  an  excellent  set  of  rules  for  rescuing  and  restoring  the 
apparently  drowned  which  are  here  given.  ^esiormg  the 


1 


880 


•k: 


1 1  'i 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


How  to  Effect  a  Rescue 


A.  The  Best  Method  when  there  is  No  Struggling 

Provided  the   drowning  person 
does  not  struggle,  turn  him  on  his 
back,  place  your  hands  on  either 
side  of  his  face.    Then  turn  on 
your  back,  hold  him  in  front  of  you, 
and  swim  with  the  back  stroke, 
taking  care  to  keep  his  face  above 
the  surface  of  the  water. 
Remember  that  it  is  most  important  to  keep  the  face  of  the 
drowning  person  above  the  surface  of  the  water.    Avoid  all  jerk- 
ing, struggling  or  tugging,  but  swim  with  a  regular,  well-timed 
kick  of  the  legs,  husbanding  the  strength  for  continued  effort. 

B.  The  Best  Method  for  One  Who  Struggles 
When  the  drowning  person  is  struggling,  and  difficult  to  man- 
age, turn  him  on  his  back,  and  take  a  firm  hold  of  his  arms 
just  above  the  elbows.     Draw  the 
arms  upwards  at  right  angles  to  the 
body   and  swim    with    the    back 
stroke.     This  hold    will    put   the 
drowning  person  imder  the  control 
of  the  rescuer,  who  can  prevent  him 
from  turning  round  or  clutching. 

When  carrying  a  struggling  person  on  the  surface  of  the  water 
it  will  be  of  advantage  to  keep  the  elbows  well  out  from  the  sides, 
as  this  expands  the  chest,  inflates  the  lungs  and  adds  to  his 
buoyancy.  The  legs  should  be  kept  well  up  to  the  surface,  the 
body  being  as  horizontal  as  possible. 

C.  The  Best  Method  for  One  Who  Struggles  Violently 
If  the  arms  be  difficult  to  grasp  or  the  struggling  so  violent  as 
to  prevent  a  firm  hold,  slip  your  hands  under  the  armpits  of  the 
drowning  person  and  place  them  on  his  chest  or  round  his  arms. 

Raise  them  at  right  angles  to  the 
body,  thus  placing  the  drowning  per- 
son completely  in  your  power.  Then 
turn  on  your  back  and  swim  with 
the  back  stroke. 

Rescuers  should  at  all  times  be 
governed  by  circumstances,  using 
their  judgment  which  method  to 
adopt  in  conveying  the  drowning  person  to  shore,  taking  care 
to  avoid  wasting  their  strength  hopelessly  against  tide  or  stream 
—always  float  or  swim  with  it  and  gradually  make  for  shore, 
or  wait  until  a  boat  or  other  help  arrives. 


SAFETY  ON  BOARD   SHIP 


881 


I 


^^^ 


D.  If  Clutched  by  the  Wrists 

If  the  rescuer  be  held  by  the 
wrists,  turn  both  arms  simultane- 
ously against  the  drowning  person's 
thumbs,  outwards,  and  bring  the 
arms  at  right  angles  to  the  body, 
thus  dislocating  the  thumbs  of  the 
drowning  person  if  he  does  not 
leave  go. 

E.  If  Clutched  Round  the  Neck 

If  clutched  round  the  neck,  take  a  deep  breath,  lean  well  over 
the  drowning  person,  immediately 
place  one  hand  in  the  small  of  his 
back  and  pass  the  other  over  on 
to  his  face;  with  the  thumb  and 
forefinger  pinch  the  nostrils  close, 
at  the  same  time  place  the  palm 
of  the  hand  on  the  chin  and  push 
away  with  all  force  possible. 

F.  Easy  Method  of  Assisting  Tired  Swimmer 
An  easy  method  of  assisting  a  tired  swimmer  or  one  attacked 

by  cramp,  as  well  as  others  who 
may  be  quiet.  The  person  being 
assisted  must  place  both  hands  on 
the  shoulders  of  the  rescuer  with 
the  arms  at  full  stretch,  and  lie 

upon  the  back.    The  rescuer  being 

uppermost,  and  having  arms  and  legs  free,  swims  with  the  breast 
stroke. 

Enter  of — Royal  Life  Saving  Society. 
Restoring  the  Apparently  Drowned 
Rule  1,  Unless  in  extreme  cold  weather,  when  there  may 
be  danger  of  freezing,  do  not  move  the  patient,  but  instantly 
expose  the  face  to  a  current  of  cold  air,  wipe  dry  the  mouth 
and  nostrils,  rip  the  clothing  so  as  to  expose  the  chest  and 
waist,  and  give  two  or  three 
quick  smarting  slaps  on  the 
stomach  and  chest  with  the 
open  hand.  If  the  patient  does 
not  revive,  proceed  at  once  as 
follows : 

Rule  2.  To  Draw  Off  the 
Water  from  the  Stomach  and 
Lungs. — ^Turn  the  patient  on 
his  face,  place  a  large  roll  of  clothing  beneath  the  stomach  and 
press  heavily  on  the  back  and  spine  over  it  for  half  a  minute, 
or  so  long  as  fluids  flow  freely  from  the  mouth  (Fig.  G.) 


I'  -i 


882 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Rules.      To  Produce   Respiration.  —  li   no    assistance    is 
at  hand  and  you  must  work  alone,  place  the  patient  on  his 

^  back  with  the  shoulders  shghtly 

raised  on  a  folded  article  of 
clothing.  Draw  forward  the 
tongue  and  keep  it  projecting 
beyond  the  lips.  If  the  lower 
jaw  be  raised,  the  teeth  may 
be  made  to  hold  the  tongue  in 
place;  it  may  be  necessary  to 
retain  the  tongue  by  tying  a 
handkerchief  under  the  chin 
and  over  the  head.  Grasp  the 
arms  just  below  the  elbows,and 
draw  them  steadily  upwards 
until  they  nearly  meet  above 
the  head.  (This  enlarges  the 
capacity  of  the  chest  and  induces  mspiration.)  (Fig.  H.)  Next, 
lower  the  arms  to  the  side,  and  press  firmly  downward  and  m- 
ward  and  backward  on  the  sides  and  front  of  the  chest,  over 
lower  ribs  and  sternum.  (This  produces  expiration.)  (Fig.  I.) 
Repeat  these  measures  deUberately  and  persevermgly  twelve 
to  fifteen  times  in  every  mmute.  OccasionaUy  rub  the  Imibs 
upward  from  the  extremities  toward  the  heart,  and  dash  cold 

water  in  the  face.  ,  x      xt. 

Rule  4.  K  an  assistant  is  at  hand,  and  two  can  work  together, 
have  one  kneel  at  the  patient's  head  and  one  astride  the  hips  of 
the  patient  facing  the  patient's  ^-^ 

face.  (Fig.  J.)  Proceed  as 
given  above,  save  that  when 
the  operator  at  the  head  low- 
ers the  arms  to  the  sides,  the 
second  operator  presses  on 
the  sides  and  front  of  the 
chest  backwards  and  down- 
wards, throwing  all  his  weight 
into  it.  (Fig.K.)  The  method 
followed  by  two  workers  is 
the  same  as  that  by  one,  save 
that  the  second  operator  ap-  _ 
plies   the    pressure    on   the  .  o««i,vc 

ihest,  and  ki  the  time  when  the  arms  are  bemg  raised  applies 

friction  and  warmth  to  the  body.    ^.      ,     ^        ,  ^^^^  WonkPts 
Rule  5.    Send  for  medical  aid,  stimulants  and  warm  blankets 

and  clothes  as  soon  as  possible.        .  „    ,       ^  .-^  +1,^ 

Rule  6.    Keep  up  the  efforts  for  fully  two  hours,  or  until  the 

patient  breathes. 


SAFETY  ON  BOARD   SHIP 


883 


Rule  7.  Practice  drying  and  rubbing  from  the  beginning  in 
so  far  as  possible  without  interfering  with  the  movements  of 
artificial  respiration. 

Rules.  After-Treatment—ks  soon  as  the  breathing  is 
established,  let  the  patient  be  stripped  of  all  wet  clothing, 
wrapped  in  blankets  only,  put  to  bed  comfortably  warm,  but 
with  a  free  circulation  of  fresh  air,  and  left  to  perfect  rest. 
Internally  give  a  little  brandy  or  hot  water  or  other  stimulant  at 
hand  every  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  for  the  first  hour,  and  as  often 
after  as  necessary. 

m 

U.  S.  Coast  Guard  Lifesaving  Stations 

Lif esaving  stations  are  located  at  frequent  intervals  along  the 
coast.  Foreign  lifesaving  stations  and  rescue  huts  are  marked 
on  charts  and  are  designated  in  the  sailing  directions. 

The  recognized  answer  to  the  distress  signals  (see  page  596) 
is  a  pyrotechnic  signal,  a  rocket,  or  a  flare  of  some  kind.  Or  a 
gim  in  the  daytime.  The  shore  station  will  attempt  to  put  a 
line  over  your  rigging  if  you  are  fast  ashore  and  the  sea  is  too 
high  to  get  a  boat  out  to  you. 

Instructions  for  the  Use  of  the  Gun  and  Rocket  Apparatus  for 

Saving  Life  from  Shipwreck  as  Practiced  by  the 

United  States  Coast  Guard 

If  your  vessel  is  stranded  and  a  shot  with  a  small  line  is  fired 
over  it,  get  hold  of  the  line  and  haul  on  board  until  you  get  a  tail- 
block  with  an  endless  line  rove  through  it;  make  the  tailblock 
fast  to  the  lower  mast,  well  up,  or  in  the  event  the  masts  are 
gone,  to  the  best  place  to  be  foimd;  cast  off  small  shot  line,  see 
that  rope  in  block  runs  free,  and  make  a  signal  to  shore.  (Figure 
A.)    This  is  the  whip. 


A  hawser  will  be  bent  to  the  endless  line  on  shore  and  hauled 
off  to  your  ship  by  the  life-saving  crew.    Make  hawser  fast  about 


r* 


884 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


two  feet  above  the  tailblock  and  unbend  hawser  from  endless  line. 
See  that  rope  in  block  runs  free  and  show  signal  to  shore. 
(Figure  B.) 

Life-savers  on  shore  will  then  set  hawser  taut  and  by  means 
of  the  whip  will  haul  off  to  your  ship  a  breeches  buoy.  (Figure  C.) 

Let  one  man  get  clear  into  breeches  buoy,  thrusting  his  legs 
through  the  breeches;  make  signal  to  shore  as  before,  and  he 
will  be  hauled  ashore  by  the  life-savers  and  the  empty  buoy 
returned  to  the  ship. 

There  should  be  on  board  every  vessel  a  copy  of  detailed 
Instructions  to  Mariners  in  Case  of  Shipwreck,  including  wreck 
signals,  etc.,  issued  by  the  United  States  Coast  Guard.  A  copy 
of  the  instructions  may  be  secured  by  masters  of  vessels  upon 
request  addressed  to  the  Captain  Commandant,  United  States 
Coast  Guard,  Washington,  D.  C. 

The  business  of  handling  the  line  shot  over  a  vessel  is  largely  a 
matter  of  intelligence.  In  hauling  out  the  tail  block  a  small  tag 
will  be  found  on  the  block  containing  the  above  instructions  in 
several  languages. 

Getting  a  Line  Ashore 

This  can  be  done  in  a  number  of  ways.  If  on  a  lee  shore  a 
line  can  be  floated  in,  or  the  line  may  be  shot  across  to  the 
beach  by  the  line-throwing  gun.  An  ordinary  rocket  may  also 
be  used  and  will  carry  a  cod  line  about  two  hundred  feet  against 
the  wind,  and  of  course  somewhat  further  with  the  wind. 

The  newer  types  of  line-throwing  guns  have  a  longer  range 
and  should  easily  put  a  line  against  a  stiff  breeze  for  a  distance 
of  fifteen  hundred  feet. 

When  a  line  has  been  put  across  between  the  ship  and  the 
shore  certain  recognized  signals  are  employed. 

A  red  flag  waved  on  shore  by  day  or  a  red  light  by  night  indi- 
cates "  Haul  Away,^*  A  white  flag  by  day  or  a  white  light  by 
night  indicates  "  Slack  Away,^*  Two  flags,  a  red  and  a  white, 
waved  at  the  same  time  on  shore  by  day,  or  a  white  and  red 
lantern  slowly  swung  at  night  at  the  same  time  will  signify 
"  Do  not  attempt  to  land  in  your  own  boats.  It  is  impossible^ 
A  man  on  shore  beckoning  by  day  or  two  torches  burning  near 
together  by  night  will  signify  "  This  is  the  best  place  to  land.** 


SAFETY  ON  BOARD   SHIP 


885 


Answering  signals  from  the  ship  may  be  made  by  waving  a  flag, 
handkerchief,  hat  or  the  hand  and  arm.  At  night  by  using  a 
lantern  or  rocket  or  if  working  with  the  whip  by  jerking  on  either 
the  hawser  or  the  whip. 


The  Steward  Line- Throwing  Gun. 

Caution :  Keep  cool.  Don't  get  excited  and  try  to  calm  your 
passengers  and  crew  as  much  as  possible.  You  may  have  to 
wait  several  hours  after  you  are  discovered,  but  help  will  surely 
come. 

Summary  of  Instructions 

When  the  Coast  Guard  crew  arrive  at  a  point  opposite  your 
vessel  they  will  immediately  proceed  to  shoot  a  line  over  her. 
Get  hold  of  this  line  as  soon  as  you  can  and  if  possible  reeve  the 
end  of  it,  cutting  away  the  projectile,  through  a  block  well  up 
your  rigging  on  the  mast  nearest  shore  is  best.  If  this  cannot 
be  done  reeve  it  through  the  ratlines  or  over  something  so  that 
several  persons  can  help  haul  on  it.  By  this  shot  line,  as  it  is 
called,  you  will  haul  on  board  a  tail  block  through  which  is  rove  a 
whip.  Attached  to  this  tail  block  will  be  a  tally  board  giving 
directions  in  French  and  English  as  to  how  to  proceed. 

Make  the  tail  block  fast  as  high  up  on  your  mast,  or  if  the  mast 
is  gone  then  up  as  high  as  you  can  on  your  vessel  and  signal  to 


m 


886 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


shore  that  they  should  haul  away.    When  you  determine  which 
is  the  hauling  part  give  all  the  assistance  possible  and  get  the 
three  mch  hawser,  which  you  will  find  attached  to  the  whip  line, 
on  board.    Make  this  line  fast  to  the  mast  about  two  feet  above 
the  tail  block  and  signal  to  shore  that  they  should  haul  away. 
They  will  tighten  up  on  the  hawser  and  as  soon  as  it  is  taut  will 
send  out  to  the  ship  a  breeches  buoy  suspended  from  the  hawser 
by  a  specially  constructed  block  and  hauled  back  and  forth  by 
the  whip  line.    Place  your  passengers  in  the  buoy  makmg  them 
stick  their  legs  through  the  breeches.    ChUdren  should  be  sent 
ashore  in  care  of  an  adult  placing  the  child  in  such  a  position 
that  it  will  free  its  protector  and  thereby  be  in  a  better  position 
to  hold  on.    The  same  procedure  should  be  followed  with  crip- 
ples.   Women  should  be  sent  ashore  in  pairs  facing  each  other. 
Send  a  young  strong  man  with  an  old  woman  or  man.    Unless 
too  heavy,  men  can  be  sent  ashore  easiest  by  having  each  place  a 
leg  in  the  breeches  and  straddling  the  buoy.    If  the  weather  is 
very  cold,  wrap  children,  old  people  and  cripples  in  blankets. 
Women  can  stand  more  cold  than  men. 

IV 

Cleanliness 

The  smart  appearance  of  a  vessel  is  the  best  mdication  of  the 
quality  of  her  crew.  Insist  upon  a  regular  routme  of  cleaning 
every  day  m  the  week,  no  matter  what  the  weather.  Crew's 
quarters  should  be  inspected  daily  by  the  Chief  Mate;  water 
closets,  galleys,  store  rooms,  all  should  be  ready  for  inspection 
at  some  appointed  hour.  It  is  a  good  plan  for  the  Master  to 
make  a  weekly  inspection  of  the  entire  vessel  from  stem  to 
stem  with  all  store  rooms  opened  and  the  men  responsible 
standing  by,  dressed  clean  and  neat. 

The  condition  of  some  forecastles  is  a  reflection  on  everyone 
on  board.  If  owners  came  on  board  frequently  and  just  took  a 
quiet  walk  around  many  mates  would  get  very  busy. 

The  preparation  of  food  should  only  be  permitted  under 
sanitary  conditions.  Kids,  dishes,  and  all  mess  rooms,  lockers, 
etc.,  should  be  carefully  mspected  and  kept  scrupulously  clean. 
It  takes  some  effort  to  start  such  a  system  where  the  contrary 


SAFETY  ON  BOARD   SHIP 


887 


prevails,  but  when  once  under  way  the  men  themselves  insist 
upon  the  standard  established. 

A  wise  marine  superintendent  will  look  into  the  forecastle, 
the  moment  a  vessel  returns  to  port. 

Vessels  that  are  not  clean  carry  with  them  an  odor  of  neglect 
that  is  reflected  in  the  slovenly  and  careless  way  in  which  every- 
thing is  done.  Dirt  shows  poor  seamanship,  and  costs  someone 
a  lot  of  money,  generally  the  owner  and  the  underwriter,  in  the 
end. 

Living  Quarters 

Greater  care  is  being  taken  in  the  design  of  living  accommo- 
dation for  the  crew.  The  vessel  should  be  looked  upon  as  a 
home,  and  with  a  small  amount  of  care  improvements  in  light, 
ventilation,  and  arrangement  can  easily  be  made.  Many  naval 
architects  are  doing  valuable  work  in  studying  this  question  of 
housing  the  crew. 

Bath  rooms  should  all  be  showers,  placed  in  a  light  and  roomy 
situation  where  they  can  be  kept  clean  and  can  be  scrubbed  out 
each  day.  A  shower  under  the  break  of  the  poop  or  the  fore- 
castle with  large  openings  for  sunlight  and  air  would  be  ideal. 
Usually  these  things  are  placed  in  some  out-of-the-way  corner 
and  smell  to  the  skies,  never  seeing  sunlight  or  air.  The  deck 
crew  should  wash  out  on  deck  in  mild  weather  under  the  deck 
hose.    They  generally  do  this. 

Mess  rooms  should  be  provided  for  the  various  divisions  in  a 
vessel.  The  principal  officers  should  mess  in  the  cabin  with  the 
Master.  The  jimior  officers  should  have  their  own  mess  room. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  the  watch  officers  and  the  assistant 
engineers  mess  together  with  the  chief  steward  and  the  wireless 
operators.     Keep  mess  rooms  a  decent  distance  from  W.  C.'s. 

Quartermasters,  oilers,  watertenders,  etc.,  should  have  a 
separate  mess.  The  boatswain  and  deck  engineer  and  car- 
penter should  be  in  this  mess. 

Seamen  and  firemen  and  coal  passers  should  have  their 
separate  messes. 

This  duplication  of  messes  is  not  so'  difficult.  It  calls  for  ar- 
rangement in  design  and  helps  in  the  better  working  of  the  vessel. 
All  messes  should  have  a  recognized  head  who  should  be  held 
responsible  for  the  condition  and  behavior  of  the  mess. 


888 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


The  Master  should  actively  concern  himself  with  the  quality, 
cleanliness  and  quantity  of  the  food  in  the  ship  and  should  visit 
the  various  messes  whenever  he  feels  like  seeing  how  well  his 
command  is  getting  on,  this  should  be  quite  often. 

Clean  living  quarters  and  wholesome,  well-cooked  food  go  a 
long  way  toward  working  efficiency.  Mess  rooms  should  be  well 
ventilated. 

Drinking  Water 

The  supply  of  drinking  water  should  be  carefully  guarded. 
Drinking  water  tanks  should  be  so  connected  that  nothing  can  be 
put  into  them  without  some  safeguard.  The  writer  recalls  a  case 
where  water  from  the  Schuylkill  River  was  run  into  a  drinking 
tank.  The  Master  died  of  typhoid  and  the  Chief  Engineer  nearly 
lost  his  life  through  the  same  sickness,  caused  by  this  water, 
served  on  the  cabin  table  before  the  mistake  was  discovered. 

In  taking  drinking  water  aboard  be  certain  that  it  is  pure  and 
fit  for  use. 

Where  scuttle  butts  are  used  clean  them  thoroughly  every 
Saturday  morning. 

Where  water  cannot  be  evaporated  on  board,  and  the  shore 
supply  is  suspicious,  filter  this  and  boil.  Bedford  in  The  Sailofs 
Pocket  Book,  gives  these  instructions  :* 

"  In  all  localities  where  the  quality  of  the  water  is  suspicious, 
condensed  water  should,  if  possible,  be  used  for  drinking  and 
cooking  purposes.  When  this  is  not  feasible,  the  water  should 
be  carefully  filtered  and  boiled. 

"  Two  barrels,  one  inside  the  other,  having  a  space  of  four  to 
six  inches  clear  all  round  between  them,  filled  with  layers  of 
sand,  gravel,  and  charcoal,  form  an  excellent  filter.  The  inside 
one,  without  a  bottom,  rests  on  three  stones  placed  in  layers  of 
sand,  charcoal,  and  coarse  gravel;  the  water,  flowing  or  being 
poured  into  the  space  between  the  two  barrels,  and  having  thus 
to  force  its  way  through  the  substances  into  the  inner  barrel, 
becomes  purified. 

"  The  water  should  be  drawn  off  by  means  of  a  pipe,  running 
through  the  outer  into  the  inner  barrel.  Animal  charcoal  is  the 
best.  When,  after  a  time,  it  ceases  to  act,  it  should  be  removed 
and  well  dried.  It  can  then  be  used  again  with  advantage.  It  is 
impossible  to  use  too  much  of  it." 

Bedding 

All  mattresses,  blankets,  etc.,  should  be  got  up  at  least  once 
*An  old,  but  very  useful  book. 


> 


SAFETY  ON  BOARD   SHIP 


889 


a  week  and  kept  on  deck  in  the  sun  all  day.  Make  this  day  a 
field  day  for  the  crew  and  tell  oflp  a  few  men  to  thoroughly  clean 
out  the  living  quarters.  Inspect  the  bedding  and  condemn  it  or 
have  it  scrubbed  if  not  sanitary.  All  mattresses  should  have 
covers  which  can  be  washed.  Thorough  fumigation  of  all  Uving 
quarters  is  advised  at  least  once  a  year  or  more  often  if  neces- 
sary. Before  battening  down  be  sure  all  hands  are  out  of  spaces 
to  be  purified. 

The  Master  in  most  cargo  vessels  is  charged  with  the  duty  of 
doctoring  the  crew.  Some  Masters  dislike  this  and  have  the 
steward,  or  some  smart  youngster,  prescribe  the  usual  doses  of 
black  draft,  etc.  However,  many  of  the  old-school  shipmasters, 
old  sailing  ship  men,  looked  upon  this  as  one  of  their  real  respons- 
ibilities. In  fact  it  is  a  grave  responsibility  and  should  be  so  con- 
sidered. Masters  should  have  the  benefit  of  simple  instruction 
ashore  in  first  aid  and  in  prescribing  the  medicines  carried  in 
the  ship's  chest.  This  is  so  essential,  that  with  all  of  our  "  re- 
forms "  no  one  seems  to  have  considered  it  as  being  necessary.* 

One  of  the  best  handbooks  is  the  "  Medical  Handbook  of 
the  U.  S.  Lighthouse  Service."  This  may  be  had  from  the 
Superintendent  of  Documents,  Government  Printing  Office, 
Washington,  D.  C.    The  price  is  fifty  cents. 


Morale 

The  vessel  takes  her  tone  from  the  Master,  who,  in  turn, 
gets  his  inspiration  from  the  owners.  It  pays  very  handsomely 
to  have  a  clean,  well-organized  and  contented  vessel.  There  is 
less  loss  from  damage  to  ship  and  cargo.  Less  of  the  ship's 
stores  are  wasted.  Crew  changes  are  cut  down  and  the  acci- 
dent risk  from  new  men  is  lessened.  Cargo  is  better  looked 
^ter,  holds  are  policed  better,  and  a  feeling  of  good  will  prevails 
that  IS  missing  in  the  "  grouchy  "  vessel  where  everyone  goes 
about  with  a  chip  on  his  shoulder. 

This  is  of  course  very  desirable,  and  the  question  is.  "  How 
can  it  be  done? "  ^  i         uw 

In  the  first  place  the  Master  and  his  officers  both  on  deck  and 
below,  must  work  together.    In  ships  where  the  "  Old  Man  " 
*Medical  advice  is  now  often  available  by  radio. 


890 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


1 


and  the  "  Chief  "  work  together  for  the  best  interests  of  the 
owners,  and  are  supported  by  competent  and  level-headed 
executives  in  the  persons  of  the  Chief  Mate  and  the  First  Assis- 
tant, a  "  home  ship  "  can  easily  be  organized. 

Organizing  ability  is  simply  applied  common  sense.  Without  it 
a  crew  may  be  on  the  verge  of  mutiny  in  a  few  days.  The  mates 
stand  upon  their  rights j  the  men  invoke  all  of  their  rights,  and 
the  result  is  a  mess  of  discomfort,  ill  will,  and  loss  to  all. 

As  a  general  rule  men  never  do  any  thinking  for  themselves. 
The  mate  who  gets  up  awnings,  lays  out  work  in  a  rational  way, 
demands  that  it  be  done  properly,  and  who  is  just  as  insistent 
for  the  comfort  of  his  men  as  he  is  for  the  work  they  are  to  do, 
soon  makes  a  home  ship.  When  a  man  finds  he  is  under  skilled 
direction,  and  actually  has  more  time  to  himself  while  doing  first- 
class  work  for  his  employers,  and  finds  himself  in  clean  and 
orderly  surroimdings,  he  bucks  up  and  takes  new  interest. 

On  so  many  vessels  the  men,  after  their  little  trick  of  duty, 
are  thrown  into  a  dirty  forecastle,  fed  atrocious  food,  and  allowed 
to  exist  at  the  standard  set  by  the  dirtiest  members  of  the 
crew.  When  these  conditions  are  reversed,  the  scudgy  members 
are  soon  eliminated  and  a  clean  self-respecting  crowd  comes  in. 

Expensive  near-cabin  food,  poorly  prepared  and  served,  seems 
to  -be  the  rule  on  many  ships.  Waste  of  any  kind  always  brings 
with  it  a  sense  of  neglect  higher  up. 

Seamen  prefer  clean  well  cooked  wholesome  food  properly 
served  on  a  clean  mess  table. 

The  writer  lived  for  a  year  in  a  clean  well-kept  forecastle  and 
knows  what  he  is  talking  about.  A  seaman,  in  the  old  days, 
and  let  us  hope  in  the  new,  carried  a  few  books  to  sea  with  him, 
had  a  few  belongings,  and  his  bag  or  chest  was  the  essence  of 
neatness.  Now  that  pay  is  better,  crooks  ashore  are  less 
dangerous,  and  advancement  is  more  easily  attained,  young  men 
should  find  the  forecastle  a  fit  place  to  enter  in  the  first  steps 
toward  command,  and  they  should  bring  something  with  them 
from  this  association  that  will  make  them  more  tolerant  and 
better  men  as  they  advance  to  higher  stations. 


CHAPTER  22 


SHIP  MAINTENANCE 


Painting 

Nowhere  in  the  world  is  there  such  constant  wearing  away 
and  rusting  out  as  on  board  ship.  A  house  may  get  along  for 
years  without  paint  or  attention,  but  a  ship  will  fall  apart  from 
neglect  if  she  is  not  attended  to  almost  every  day.  Steel  is 
especially  subject  to  rust  under  sea  conditions  and  the  nature 
of  the  structure,  the  wide  temperature  ranges  and  stresses  under 
which  it  operates,  tends  to  help  corrosion  and  decay. 

A  newly  built  ship  is  allowed  to  rust  in  order  that  the  mill 
scale  can  be  brushed  off.  This  scale  itself  will  not  rust,  but 
if  allowed  to  remain  it  sets  up  a  galvanic  couple  with  the  steel 
and  gradually  pits  the  surface. 

Rust,  forming  under  the  mill  scale,  loosens  it  and  it  is  then 
removed  by  wire  brushes,  or  by  some  mechanical  method,  either 
a  sand  blast  or  a  mechanical  scraper  or  brush. 

Rust  itself  is  not  generally  understood  by  seamen  and  the 
following  is  of  interest.  It  is  from  a  pamphlet  by  the  Bitucoat 
Company. 

"  When  iron  or  steel  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  air,  moisture, 
and  a  limited  degree  of  warmth— RUST— a  hydrated  oxide  of 
iron  of  no  exact  chemical  formula— is  formed,  and  this  com- 
pound has  the  peculiar  faculty  of  giving  up  part  of  its  oxygen  to 
the  neighbormg  molecules  of  iron,  thus  oxidizing  or  rusting 
them,  and  this  new  rust  then  re-absorbs  fresh  oxygen  from  the 
air  and  again  distributes  it;  so,  once  formed,  its  action  is  con- 
tmuous,  ever  increasing,  ever  growing. 

"Oxygen  is  necessary  to  the  formation  of  rust.  Therefore 
the  longer  you  exclude  this  element,  the  longer  do  you  ward  off 
corrosion." 

On  board  ship  the  time-honored  method  of  cleamng  away 
rust  was  the  chipping  hammer.    The  scraper  was  also  employed 

891 


\ 


892 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


and,  after  chipping  for  a  day  or  so,  the  wire  brush  was  brought 
into  play. 

With  the  increase  in  size  of  vessels  and  the  comparative  in- 
crease in  the  cost  of  labor,  mechanical  scraping  and  cleaning 
tools  seem  in  a  fair  way  of  coming  into  general  use.  These  may 
be  either  pneumatic  or  electrical.  Current  is  always  available, 
and  an  air  compressor  is  almost  a  necessity;  in  the  Diesel  ships 
it  is  part  of  the  main  propelling  plant. 

Scaling  and  chipping  by  hand  seem  to  be  doomed,  and  no  one 
will  regret  their  passing  away.  Chipping  all  day  over  the  side 
on  a  scaffold  plank  in  the  burning  sun,  knowing  that  you  were 
getting  nowhere  and  never  would,  was  soul  destroying  labor. 

The  Rotary  Scraper  has  shown  that  one  man  can  do  as  much 
work  as  ten  to  fifteen  men  working  by  hand,  furthermore  he 
knows  he  is  getting  a  dirty  job  done  quickly. 

In  the  Porterite  apparatus  a  sand  blast  is  used  in  cleaning  off 
old  paint  and  rust.    This  operates  by  air  pressure. 

Air  pressure  is  also  used  by  this  system  to  apply  the  paint  or 
other  coating.  In  fact  paint  spraying  is  in  general  use  where 
large  surfaces  must  be  covered. 

The  largest  surfaces  in  a  ship  are  the  stretches  of  the  outside 
shell  plating.  Here  the  hull  is  conveniently  divided  as  follows. 
The  bottom,  or  underbody,  from  keel  to  light  load  line— the 
boot-top  between  light  and  a  foot  or  so  above  deep  load  line — 
the  topside  above  this  and  to  the  rail. 

Paint  guns  are  used  to  apply  paint  under  air  pressure,  and 
care  has  to  be  taken  to  use  them  according  to  instructions.  The 
following  instructions  for  the  use  of  a  paint  gun  apply  to  the 
Spraco  pneumatic  painting  equipment. 

To  Use  Paint  Gun 

First:  Fill  material  container  with  coating  material,  being 
careful  to  strain  out  all  paint  skins  or  foreign  matter.  The 
material  may  be  poured  into  the  container  through  the  filler 
plug  in  the  top  of  the  container,  after  bleeder  valve  on  control 
head  has  been  screwed  all  the  way  m.    Refill  in  same  way. 

Second:  Screw  filler  plug  back  in  place  and  make  hose  con- 
nections from  air  and  paint  outlets  on  control  head  to  air  and 
paint  inlets  on  the  gun.    Two  kinds  of  hose  are  furnished,  and 


SHIP  MAINTENANCE 


893 


it  is  important  that  the  rubber  hose  be  used  on  the  air  line,  and 
the  special  material  hose  on  the  paint  line. 

Third:  Blow  out  your  air  supply  line  to  remove  all  moisture 
and  dirt,  then  connect  same  to  the  control  had  at  point  marked 
"Line." 

Fourth:  Screw  bleeder  valve  out  to  the  limit  and  open  paint 
shutoff  cock  in  paint  line. 

Fifth:  Turn  on  air  supply  and  adjust  reducing  valves  so  as  to 
obtain  the  proper  pressures  on  both  air  and  material,  as  speci- 
fied in  the  following  table. 

The  air  pressure  is  indicated  on  the  gauge  marked  "  Air," 

and  is  adjusted  by  means  of  the  reducing  valve  to  right  of  the 

gauge.    The  paint  pressure  is  indicated  on  the  gauge  marked 

"  Paint,"  and  is  adjusted  by  means  of  reducing  valve  to  right  of 

gauge. 

Approximate  Operating  Pressures 


Kind  of  Material 


Approz.  Air  Pres- 
sure 


Approx.  Paint 
Pressure 


Lacquers,  Shellacs,  Light  Varnishes,  Fillers, 

and  Light  Primers 

Light  Mill  Whites,  Steel  Primers,  etc 

18  lbs.  Red  Lead,  Structural  Paints,  and 

Light  Copper  Oxide  and  Graphite  Paints . . 
25  lbs.  Red  Lead,  Heavy  Copper  Oxides, 

Anti-corrosives,  and  similar  paints 

30  lbs.  Red  Lead,  Norfolk  Special  Anti- 

f ouling  Paint,  etc 

Freight  Car  Paints,  Heavy  Mill  Whites,  etc., 

for  rapid  work 

Asphaltum  and  similar  paints 

Varnishes  (varjdng  according  to  make  up) . . 


15  to  30  lbs. 

30  to  45  lbs. 

40  to  55  lbs. 

60  to  80  lbs. 

100  to  125  lbs. 

55  to  70  lbs. 

50  to  80  lbs. 

15  to  45  lbs. 


5  to  15  lbs. 
15  to  30  lbs. 

30  to  45  lbs. 

50  to  60  lbs. 

75  to  90  lbs. 

40  to  60  lbs. 

20  to  60  lbs. 

5  to  35  lbs. 


When  starting  up  the  equipment,  the  operator  should  be 
guided  by  the  above  schedule  of  operating  pressures.  It  is  to 
be  noted  that  these  pressures  are  only  approximate,  and  the 
pressure  should  be  varied  up  or  down  until  the  desired  fineness 
of  spray  and  speed  of  application  are  secured.  If  more  than  one 
length  of  hose  is  used,  or  the  gim  is  operated  at  a  considerable 
height  above  the  material  container,  higher  gauge  pressures  will 
be  required. 

In  general,  the  higher  the  air  pressure,  the  finer  the  spray 
produced,  and  the  higher  the  material  pressure,  the  greater  speed 
of  application.  It  is  not  advisable,  however,  to  use  higher 
pressures  than  are  necessary  to  produce  satisfactory  results. 


894 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Sixth:  Pull  back  the  gun  trigger  as  far  as  possible  and,  holding 
it  in  this  position,  adjust  needle  valve  PG-15  and  cap  PG-11 
until  the  desired  character  of  spray  is  produced.  The  flow  of 
air  is  regulated  by  screwing  the  needle  valve  in  or  outy  and  the 
flow  of  material  by  screwing  the  cap  PG-1 1  on  or  off.  When  the 
needle  valve  has  been  set  at  the  desired  position,  it  shovdd  be 
clamped  by  means  of  lock-nut  G-16,  and  the  equipment  is  ready 
for  operation. 

To  "  Blow  Back  "  Gun 

When  using  the  gun  continuously  it  may  be  necessary  peri- 
odically to  "  blow  back  "  the  gun  to  dislodge  any  solids  in  the 
paint,  which  may  have  collected  in  the  body  of  the  gun  or  material 
hose,  also  to  agitate  the  paint  in  the  container.  This  may  be 
done  in  the  following  manner : 

First:  Turn  spreader  attachment  on  gun  to  position  marked 
"  Ofif." 

Second:  Screw  in  bleeder  valve  to  the  limit,  which  will  relieve 
pressure  on  material  container. 

Third:  Block  opening  in  cap  with  finger  and  pull  the  trigger. 
The  air  will  drive  any  material  in  the  gun  or  paint  hose  back 
into  the  container,  and  the  air  bubbling  up  through  the  material 
will  agitate  same. 

Fourth:  Screw  bleeder  valve  out  to  the  limit  and  proceed  with 
the  work. 

Continuous  Agitation 

If  it  is  necessary  that  the  material  be  continuously  agitated  so 
as  to  keep  the  heavier  parts  in  suspension,  the  agitating  attach- 
ment, shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration,  should  be  used. 
This  attachment  is  screwed  into  the  main  air  port  in  the  bottom 
of  the  control  head.  To  agitate  the  material  it  is  necessary  only 
to  screw  bleeder  valve  part  way  in.  This  will  allow  air,  which 
has  passed  through  the  agitator  attachment  and  bubbled  up 
through  the  paint,  to  blow  out  through  the  opening  around  the 
bleeder  valve  stem.  The  farther  in  the  bleeder  valve  is  screwed, 
the  greater  will  be  the  agitation.  The  bleeder  valve  should  not 
be  screwed  in  too  far,  however,  as  this  will  hold  the  check  ball 
on  its  seat,  and  thus  prevent  any  air  passing  through  the  agitator 
pipe.    The  proper  place  to  set  the  bleeder  valve  to  agitate 


i\ 


SHIP  MAINTENANCE 


895 


sufficiently  any  particular  kind  of  paint  can  be  easily  determined 
by  a  little  experimentation.  It  is  advisable,  however,  not  to 
agitate  the  paint  any  more  than  necessary. 

Shutting  Down  and  Cleaning 

When  shutting  down  the  equipment  for  a  short  period,  such 
as  overnight,  proceed  as  follows : 

First:  "  Blow  back  "  gun  as  described  above  and  close  paint 
shutofif  cock  in  paint  line. 

Second:  Shut  off  main  air  supply. 

Third:  Dip  nose  of  gun  is  can  of  paint  solvent  suitable  for 
use  with  the  particular  material  handled. 

If  the  equipment  is  to  be  shut  down  for  a  long  period,  proceed 

as  follows : 

First:  "  Blow  back  "  gun  as  heretofore  described  and  leave 
bleeder  valve  screwed  in  to  the  limit. 

Second:  Remove  cover  of  material  container.  Empty  out  all 
paint  and  clean  interior  of  container. 

Third:  Put  a  small  amount  of  paint  solvent  into  the  container 
and  replace  cover. 

Fourth:  Screw  bleeder  valve  out  to  the  limit. 

Fifth:  Screw  needle  valve  on  gun  in  to  the  limit,  and  unscrew 
cap  part  way. 

Sixth:  Pull  the  trigger  and  discharge  the  solvent  a  sufficient 
length  of  time  entirely  to  clear  control  head,  hose,  and  gun  of 
paint. 

Seventh:  Screw  out  needle  valve  and  screw  in  bleeder  valve 
to  the  limit  and  "  blow  back  "  gun. 

Eighth:  Turn  off  main  air  supply  and  empty  out  any  paint 
solvent  remaining  in  the  material  container. 

The  equipment  may  now  be  left  for  any  length  of  time  and 
will  be  ready  for  use  again  without  further  cleaning. 

Paints  in  General 

Much  of  the  following  information  is  adapted  from  The 
Sailor's  Manual  of  Paints  and  Painting  and  General  Instructions 
for  Painting  and  Cementing  Vessels,  issued  by  the  U.  S.  Navy. 

Definitions 

Paint  is  a  mixture  of  pigment  with  vehicle,  intended  to  be 
spread  in  thin  coats  for  decoration  or  protection,  or  both. 

32 


l1 


896 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


According  to  this  definition,  a  mixture  of  pigment  and  varnish 
is  a  paint  and  on  the  other  hand,  a  solution  of  stains  in  oil  or 
varnish,  no  pigment  being  present,  is  not  a  paint. 

*  Pigment,  The  fine  solid  particles  used  in  the  preparation  of 
paint  and  substantially  insoluble  in  the  vehicle. 

Asphaltic  materials  are  not  pigments  except  when  they  contain 
substances  substantially  insoluble  in  the  vehicle  in  which  they 

are  used.  ,.  ..  j  •  x 

The  pigments  used  in  paint  manufacture  may  be  divided  into 
(a)  white  bases,  (b)  extenders,  (c)  natural  earth  colors,  (d)  chemi- 
cal colors,  (e)  pigment  lakes,  etc. 

*  Vehicle,    The  liquid  portion  of  a  paint. 

Here  anything  that  is  dissolved  in  the  liquid  portion  of  a  paint 
is  a  part  of  the  vehicle. 

The  vehicles  used  in  paints  may  be  divided  into  (a)  Imseed  oil, 
(6)  poppy-seed  oil,  (c)  perilla  oil,  (d)  China-wood  oil,  (e)  sun- 
flower oil,  (0  menhaden  fish  oil,  (g)  cottonseed  oil,  (h)  corn  oil, 
(i)  soya-bean  oil,  turpentine,  mineral  substitute  turpentines, 
varnishes,  and  driers. 

Pigments 
Principal  White  Pigments 

The  most  important  white  pigments  are  white  lead,  zinc  oxide, 
basic  sulphate  of  lead,  lithopone,  and  certain  inert  pigments, 
such  as  bar3rtes,  asbestine,  silica,  etc. 

White  Lead 

White  lead  (basic  carbonate)  is  a  compound  of  metallic  lead 
with  carbonic  acid  gas,  oxygen,  and  water.  It  is  manufactured 
by  a  number  of  processes,  the  two  most  important  of  which  are 
the  well-known  "old  Dutch  process"  and  the  more  modern 
"  cylinder  "  or  "  quick  process."  White  lead  made  by  either 
process  is  acceptable  to  the  Navy  Department  under  the  standard 
specifications  for  white  lead. 

In  the  "  old  Dutch  process  "  metallic  lead  is  melted  and  cast 
into  perforated  disks,  called  buckles.  These  buckles,  which  are 
about  6  inches  in  diameter,  are  placed  into  pots  containing  about 
one  pint  of  dilute  acetic  acid  (vinegar).  The  pots  are  placed  in 
rooms,  in  tiers  or  layers,  600  to  1,000  pots  to  each  tier.  They 
are  covered  with  boards  and  layers  of  tan  bark  are  placed  between 
tiers.  The  rooms,  kown  as  "  stacks,"  are  kept  closed  for  three 
or  four  months,  during  which  period  the  heat  and  carbonic  acid 
gas  generated  by  f  ormentation  of  the  tan  bark,  together  with  the 
acid  vapors,  combine  to  crrode  the  lead  more  or  less  completely 
into  a  white  flaky  substances  (basic  lead  carbonate). 

Note.  Definitions  marked  with  the  asterisk  (*)  are  quoted  from  "  Stan- 
dard definitions  of  terms  relating  to  paint  specifications,"  American  Society 
for  Testing  Materials — W16. 


SHIP  MAINTENANCE 


897 


This  white  substance  after  it  is  crushed,  screened,  floated. 

fnH^'-c  '^.^''^^''\a''^  dried  forms  the  white  lead  of  commerce 
and  is  either  sold  m  the  dry  state  to  paint  and  color  manu- 
facturers or  ground  m  Imseed  oil  and  sold  in  this  form  for  general 

^^^L'^^'T^Z'  ^""^  ^^  1'  ^y^^^^^  "  ^^  "  Q^ck  process  " 
method  lead  is  blown  mto  fine  granules  by  means  of  a  jet  of 
superheated  steam.  This  powdered  lead  is  charged  into  large 
s  owly  reyolvmg  wooden  cylinders  or  drums,  moistened  with 
f^  onH  "^  'k^""^'  ^"^^  subjected  for  several  days  to  the  action  of 
air  and  carbonic  acid  derived  from  burning  coke.  The  subse- 
quent procedure  resembles  closely  the  methods  of  the  old  Dutch 

prwt/css. 

o^y^'^i?  "S®*"1  ??d  valuable  pigment  on  account  of  its  opacity 
and  working  qualities,  it  is  subject  to  somewhat  rapid  disinte- 
gration. 

h.  J?^  durability  of  good  white  lead  may  be  about  three  years, 
o^^  ^  the  meanwhile  the  paint  wiU  disintegrate  on  the  surface 
and  begm  to  wear  off  m  the  form  of  a  fine  powder  ("  chalking  ") 
or  to  come  off  in  flakes  ("  scaling  »).  *."aiiuug    ; 

White-lead  paint  seldom  retains  its  original  color;  it  is  een- 
erally  darkened  by  the  action  of  sulphur  contained  in  the  at- 
mosphere. 

Sublimed  White  Lead  or  Basic  Sulphate  White  Lead 

<,  ^^A  ^?1"5*  ^'^  ^**  ^^^^  because  it  is  obtained  from  Galena, 
a  ead  sulphide  ore,  by  a  sublimation  process.    The  ore  as  it  is 

^hl'i  '"*'''^:  I^^  ^""""^  "'^^«  fr<"»  *e  roasLS  ore  unit! 
mth  the  oxygen  in  the  ^  and  form  a  white  powder,  which  does 

not  require  grmdmg.  SubUmed  white  lead  differs  from  (baSc 
carbonate)  white  lead  in  that  it  is  a  basic  sulphate  of  le^d. 

It  exceeds  m  the  fineness  of  the  particles  the  ordinary  grades 
to  teene^Tn"^  white  lead,  and  is  considered  equ7tlthem 
m  whiteness,  body,  covermg  power,  and  wearing  qualities.  It 
d^ers  from  basic  carbonate  white  lead  in  that  it  is  practically 

ing  action  of  the  sulphur  compounds  of  sewer  gas  and  of  fuel  gas. 
Zinc  Oxide. 

ox^^n."^***'  *^  "^  """^  ™P"*^'  *^  *  compound  of  zinc  and 

m^^n*f%'^  the  finest  and  nearest  white  of  all  so-called  wUte 
thf^th  A  ^^^^^^  P'*"'^^^  ^^<=  o^<l«  is  more  nearly  pure  white 
I^H  I„^  ^American  process  pigments.    It  costs  more"  however! 

anv  n?/m^^t^*tr  ^l^^^"^^  ^  *^^  atmosphere,  has  no  effect  upon 
oiiniFS  ^'}^  "^^'^^  '}  "^y  ^^  °^«<»'  a«d  is  non-poisonous. 
cSe.tlJ'^'^T}'^^'^''^^^' "  '^  '«ss  resistant  to  temperature 
changes  than  is  white  lead.    It  is  used  to  advantage  Si  white 


i* 


li 


i 


898 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


enamels  and  in  combination  with  white  lead  and  various  other 
pigments. 

In  consequence  of  the  extreme  fineness  of  the  zinc  oxide  pig- 
ment, it  requires  more  oil  in  mixing  than  any  other  white  pigment. 
In  100  pounds  of  zinc  oxide  paint,  ready  for  use,  there  are  about 
46  pounds  of  oil  and  54  pounds  of  pigment,  while  the  proportions 
in  corroded  white  lead  of  similar  consistency  are  about  36  pounds 
of  oil  to  76  poimds  of  pigments. 
Lithopone, 

Lithopone  is  essentially  a  combination  of  zinc  sulphide  and 
barium  sulphate  (blanc  fixe  or  "  permanent  white  ").  It  is  very 
fine,  white,  and  amorphous,  and,  if  properly  made,  has  excellent 
body  and  valuable  properties  as  a  pigment.  Most  varieties  of 
lithopone  should  not  be  used  with  white  lead  pigments  or  with 
oils  containing  a  lead  drier,  because  of  the  tendency  of  the  mix- 
ture to  darken.  Lithopone  has  the  peculiar  property  of  darken- 
ing in  sunlight  and  recovering  its  color  in  the  dark.  As  a  paint 
pigment  lithopone  is  best  suited  for  interior  use  in  wall  finishes 
and  enamels. 
Extenders, 

An  extender  is  a  white  or  colorless  substance  added  to  white 
or  colored  paints.  It  is  sometimes  used  to  form  the  solid  base 
in  which  staining  colors  or  dyes  are  precipitated  to  decrease  the 
preponderance  of  chemically  active  pigments  in  the  paint  film. 
Barytes  or  silica  is  sometimes  added  to  basic  carbonate  white 
lead  to  limit  the  excessive  spreading  power  of  a  paint  and  thus 
to  increase  the  thickness  of  the  paint  film. 
Some  of  the  extenders  in  common  use  are : 

Barium  sulphate  (barytes,  blanc  fixe,  permanent  white). 

Silica  (silex,  silicious  earth). 

Magnesium  silicate  (asbestus,  asbestine,  pulp  talc). 

Alununum  silicate  (china  clay,  kaolin). 

Calcium  sulphate  (gypsum,  terra  alba). 

Calcium  carbonate  (white  mineral  primer,  Paris  white, 
whiting,  etc.). 
These  extenders  are  inert  in  the  sense  that  they  are  chemically 
stable ;  that  is,  they  neither  act  upon  nor  are  acted  upon  by  any 
other  constituent  in  the  paints.  They  therefore  do  not  affect 
color  nor  destroy  the  life  of  the  vehicle. 
Principal  Color  Pigments, 

Color  pigments  are  used  in  conjunction  with  white  base  pig- 
ments, to  produce  any  desired  shade  of  color.  They  are  also 
used  alone  with  the  necessary  vehicles.  They  may  be  divided 
into  the  following  classes,  based  on  the  methods  of  manufacture, 
viz: 

Natural  earth  colors.  These  are  found  as  deposits  in  the 
earth  and  utilized  as  pigments  either  in  their  natural  state,  after 


SHIP  MAINTENANCE 


899 


grinding  and  purification,  or  after  further  treatment,  such  as 
oxidation  by  burning,  calcination,  etc.  Some  of  the  colors  are: 
Indian  red,  ochre,  metallic  brown,  siennas,  umbers,  mineral 
blacks. 

Chemical  colors.  Chemical  colors  are  pigments  produced  by 
chemical  action  of  one  substance,  usually  in  solution,  upon  an- 
other substance,  resulting  in  the  formation  of  a  colored  com- 
pound. Some  of  the  chemical  colors  are :  Prussian  and  Chinese 
blue,  lead  chromate,  chrome  green,  ultramarine  blue,  cobalt  blue, 
vermilion,  red  lead,  orange  mineral,  and  litharge. 

Carbon  blacks.  The  carbon  blacks  are  practically  pure  carbon. 
They  comprise  (a)  lampblack,  which  is  a  specially  prepared 
soot  from  oil  lamps;  (b)  gas  blacks,  from  natural  gas;  (c) 
graphite,  which  was  originally  a  natural  product,  but  which  now 
may  also  be  produced  by  means  of  the  electric  furnace ;  (d)  bone 
black,  ivory  black,  drip  black,  vine  black,  etc.,  made  by  car- 
bonizing animal  and  vegetable  substances. 

With  the  exception  of  those  named  under  (cf),  the  above 
blacks  are  practically  pure  carbons.  They  are  therefore  chemi- 
cally inert,  but  are  not  classed  among  the  "  inert  or  reinforcing 
pigments  "  because  they  are  not  used  to  obtain  the  results  for 
which  inert  pigments  are  used. 

The  carbon  blacks  have  enormous  covering  capacity  in  pro- 
portion to  their  weight.  Their  durability  and  tintmg  power  is 
good.  They  are  seldom  used  alone  as  a  pure  color;  it  is  better 
to  grind  with  them  such  a  proportion  of  colorless  inert  pigment  as 
will  measurably  increase  the  thickness  of  the  plant  fihn  without 
impairing  its  quality. 

Vehicles 

A  vehicle  is  a  liquid  carrier  which  is  mixed  with  a  pigment  to 
permit  the  application  of  the  pigment  by  brush  or  other  suitable 
means,  and  which  acts  as  a  binder  for  the  pigment. 

Vehicles  may  be  subdivided  as  follows : 
Oils: 


Drying  oils — 

Linseed  oil. 

Poppy-seed  oil. 

China-wood  oil. 

Sunflower-seed  oil. 

Menhaden  or  fish  oil. 
Semidrying    and    nondrying 
oils — 

Cottonseed  oil. 

Corn  oil. 

Soya-bean  oil. 


Volatile  oils  or  thinners : 

Turpentine  (pure  gum 
spirits). 

Wood  turpentine 

Mineral  spirits  (tur- 
pentine substitute). 

Benzol. 

Toluol. 

Coal-tar  naphtha. 

Alcohol. 


900 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Driers : 

Oil  driers:  Compounds  such  as  lead  oxide,  manganese 

oxides,  lead-manganese  oxides,  cobalt  acetate,  dissolved 

in  linseed  oil. 
Liquid  driers:  Oil  driers  which  also  contain  turpentine, 

benzine,  or  both. 
Japan  driers:  Liquid  driers  which  also  contain  gums  or 

gum  resins. 

Oils. 

Oils  are  divided  into  "  drying,"  "  semidrying,"  and  "  non- 
drying  "  oils.  Drying  oils  have  the  property  of  absorbing  oxygen 
and  forming  a  tough  elastic  film.  Semidrying  oils  possess  this 
property  in  a  less  degree,  and  for  this  reason  are  not  used  as 
extensively  as  the  drying  oils.  Oils  are  used  in  paint  to 
give  it  the  necessary  fluidity,  to  insure  the  uniform  distribution 
of  pigment  on  the  painted  surface,  to  form  a  firmly  adherent 
and  coherent  film,  and  to  impart  to  the  paint  the  desire  Iduster. 

Linseed  oil.  Linseed  oil  is  generally  used  to  form  the  non- 
volatile part  of  the  vehicle.  It  is  extracted  from  the  seed  of  the 
flax  plant.  The  seed  is  first  ground,  then  subjected  to  steam 
heat,  and  the  oil  extracted  by  means  of  a  hydraulic  press.  The 
oil  after  this  treatment  contains  various  foreign  substances 
called  "  foots."  These  "  foots  "  are  removed  by  settling  or  fil- 
tration. As  storage  has  the  effect  of  settling  the  "  foots,"  lin- 
seed oil  should  not  be  unnecessarily  shaken  up  just  prior  to  its 
introduction  into  the  paint. 

China  wood  oil.  China  wood  oil,  or  tung  oil,  as  it  is  some- 
times called,  is  the  oil  obtained  by  heating  and  crushing  the 
nuts  of  tung  trees,  which  grow  in  China  and  Japan.  This  oil, 
when  properly  treated,  will  dry  to  a  clear  waterproof  elastic 
film. 

Menhaden  or  fish  oil.  This  oil  is  obtained  by  steaming  and 
pressing  menhaden  or  "  piogey  "  fish,  which  are  caught  in  large 
quantities  off  the  Atlantic  coast.  There  are  several  grades,  the 
most  satisfactory  of  which  is  the  grade  known  as  "  light  winter 
pressed."    This  oil  is  of  pale  straw  color  and  dries  quickly. 

Cottonseed  oil.  This  oil  is  pressed  from  the  seed  of  the 
cotton  plant.    It  is  little  used  in  paint  manufacture. 

Corn  oil.  This  oil  is  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of 
starch  and  alcoholic  liquids.  It  dries  slower  than  cottonseed  oil 
and  is  used  principally  in  color  grinding. 

Soya-bean  oil.  This  oil  is  obtained  by  crushing,  steaming,  and 
pressing  the  seed  of  soya-bean  plant.  When  mixed  in  proper 
proportions  with  linseed  oil  it  gives  fairly  good  service  in  some 
paints.  It  is  a  semidrying  oil,  but  can  be  made  to  dry  quickly 
by  mixing  it  with  lead  manganese  driers. 


SHIP  MAINTENANCE 


901 


Volatile  Oils  or  Thinners. 

Of  all  the  volatile  oils  or  thinners  mentioned  in  the  classifica- 
tion given  above,  the  two  turpentines  evaporate  the  most 
slowly.  The  turpentines  differ  from  the  other  thinners  listed, 
in  that  they  are  oxidizers;  that  is,  they  assist  the  oils  used  in 
the  paint  to  absorb  oxygen  from  the  air  and  become  dry.  The 
other  thinners  are  not  oxidizers.  All  the  thinners,  however,  are 
used  only  for  their  mechanical  effect  on  the  oil.  They  thin  or 
"  cut "  the  oil  to  facilitate  the  spreading,  to  reduce  excessive 
proportions  of  oil,  and  to  hasten  the  "  setting  "  of  the  paint. 
They  also  assist  the  penetration  of  the  priming  coat  on  wood, 
reduce  the  gloss  of  undercoatings,  thereby  improving  the  ad- 
hesion of  subsequent  coats,  and  destroy  gloss  entirely  in  the  case 
of  flat  finishes. 

Thinners,  however,  should  not  be  used  in  excess,  as  they  will 
then  seriously  impair  the  durability  of  the  paint  by  reducing  the 
proportion  of  oil.  As  the  oil  in  the  paint  is  the  "  binder  "  or 
life  of  the  paint,  the  thinning  of  the  binder  results  in  lessened 
durability. 

This  result  is  very  apparent  in  what  is  known  as  "  flat  "  paint, 
where  the  proportion  of  oil  is  reduced  by  the  addition  of  thinners 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  paint  dries  without  gloss. 

Gum  spirits  of  turpentine.  Gum  spirits  of  turpentine  is  ob- 
tained from  pine  trees  by  cutting  pockets  in  the  bark  of  the 
trees  and  collecting  the  sap  drippings.  When  this  sap  is  dis- 
tilled, either  by  direct  fire  or  steam,  it  yields  turpentine. 

Wood  turpentine.  Wood  turpentine  is  produced  by  destruc- 
tively distilling  or  steam  distilling  pine  wood.  High  grade 
refined  wood  turpentine  has  a  sweet  smell,  is  transparent,  and 
equal  to  gum  spirits  as  a  solvent.  It  is  accepted  for  use  on  a 
par  with  pure  gum  spirits  of  turpentine. 

Mineral  spirits  {turpentine  substitute).  Turpentine  substi- 
tute is  a  light  volatile  product  collected  in  the  distillation  of 
crude  oil.  Where  this  product  has  the  proper  evaporating  value, 
high  flash  point,  and  freedom  from  sulphur,  it  is  very  suitable 
as  a  paint  thinner.  It  differs  from  the  two  turpentines  in  that 
it  completely  evaporates  as  the  paint  dries,  and  therefore  serves 
only  to  dilute  the  oil.  Turpentine,  on  the  other  hand,  acts  on 
the  oil  somewhat  as  a  drier;  it  also  leaves  on  the  surface  of  the 
paint  a  small  percentage  of  glossy  material,  which,  in  a  slight 
degree,  acts  as  a  "  binder  "  for  the  pigments. 

Turpentine  substitute  is  sometimes  used  as  a  thinner  in  var- 
nishes. Varnishes  thinned  with  turpentine  can  not  be  further 
reduced  with  substitute,  because  of  the  tendency  of  an  excess 
substitute  to  separate  the  gums  in  the  varnish  from  the  oil;  it  is 
therefore  imperative  that  Navy  varnishes  should  never  be  thinned 
with  turpentine  substitute. 


• 


902 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


If  varnishes  on  board  ship  become  too  thick  for  proper  appli- 
cation they  should  be  thinned  with  turpentine. 

Benzol.  Benzol  is  a  product  obtained  from  the  distillation  of 
coal  tar.  A  small  portion  of  benzol  is  a  valuable  constituent  of 
paint. 

Toluol.  Toluol  or  toluene  is  a  light  oil  distillate  from  coal 
tar.  It  has  a  higher  boiling  point  than  benzol.  It  is  produced 
in  commercial  grades  suitable  for  paint  trade.  It  is  not  used  by 
the  Navy  Department. 

Coal  tar  naphtha.  Coal  tar  naphtha  is  not  used  much  in 
above-water  paints,  but  is  used  in  bottom  paints  and  in  varnishes. 
It  is  one  of  the  products  obtained  in  the  distillation  of  coal  tar. 

Driers — In  General. 

To  expedite  the  drying  of  a  paint  driers  are  used.  It  has  been 
found  that  certain  mettllic  compounds,  when  mixed  with  oU, 
add  to  their  drying  properties.  When  raw  linseed  oil  is  treated 
in  this  way  and  heated  to  a  certain  temperature  for  a  definite 
length  of  time  it  becomes  "  boiled  oil."  It  is  for  this  reason  that 
boiled  oil  dries  more  quickly  than  raw  oil. 

If  a  strongly  concentrated  mixture  of  oil  and  metallic  oxides 
is  thinned  with  a  volatile  thinner,  it  becomes  an  "  oil  or  paint  " 
drier.  If  a  gum  or  resin  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  drier, 
it  is  sometimes  called  a  "  Japan  "  drier. 

A  drier  acts  on  the  oil  in  a  paint  and  does  not  affect  the  pig- 
ment. The  drier  aids  the  drying  of  the  oil  because  of  a  change 
which  takes  place  in  the  oil  due  to  the  chemical  action  of  drier. 
This  chemical  action  is  known  as  catalysis. 

Mixed  Paints 
White  Paint. 

A  white  paint  consists  of  a  base,  usually  white  lead  or  white 
zinc,  or  both,  an  oil,  thinners,  and  driers.  All  of  these  ingredi- 
ents have  been  described  in  the  preceding  pages. 

Se  t tling  of  Pigmen  ts. 

A  paint  is  a  mixture  in  which  the  solid  and  liquid  ingredients 
do  not  combine  chemically.  The  pigments  can  separate  from  the 
vehicle  and  settle  to  the  bottom  of  the  container. 

A  separation  of  this  kind  takes  place  in  practically  all  paints 
where  heavy  pigments  are  used.  This  settling  of  heavy  pig- 
ments, in  red  lead  and  white  lead  paints,  very  often  results  in 
the  pigments  forming  a  hard,  solid  mass  on  the  bottom  of  the 
container. 

The  caking  of  the  pigment  is  due  to  the  affinity  between  par- 
ticles of  pigment.  As  soon  as  they  come  into  contact  they  unite 
and  gradually  form  a  solid  mass. 


SHIP  MAINTENANCE 


903 


Prevention  of  Settling. 

The  settling  and  caking  can  be  greatly  reduced  by  incorpo- 
rating in  the  paint  an  inert  pigment  of  the  type  already  described. 
These  inert  pigments  get  in  between  the  particles  of  pigment, 
prevent  the  uniting  of  the  latter,  and  thereby  reduce  settling 
and  almost  entirely  obviate  caking. 
Value  of  Thorough  Mixing. 

Experience  and  good  judgment  are  required  to  know  when  a 
paint  has  been  properly  mixed.  In  general,  however,  paint 
should  be  mixed  about  fifteen  minutes. 

Preparation  of  Surfaces  to  be  Painted 

Next  in  importance  to  a  properly  compounded,  well-mixed 
paint  is  the  careful  cleaning  of  the  surface.  The  old  biblical 
adage,  "  A  house  founded  on  the  sand  will  fall,"  holds  true  in 
paint  work.  The  most  expensive  paint  will  be  of  little  value  as  a 
protective  or  decorative  coating  if  it  is  applied  on  an  insecure 
foundation.  The  paint  secures  its  hold  on  the  surface  by  the 
penetration  of  part  of  the  vehicles  in  the  pores  of  the  surface. 
If  loose  old  paint,  rust,  dirt,  dust,  moisture,  or  grease  exists  on 
the  surface,  it  will  prevent  the  new  paint  from  entering  the 
surface  pores. 

When  painting  ironwork  it  is  very  important  to  remove  all 
scales,  grease,  rust,  and  moisture.  Rust  has  the  property  of 
spreading  and  extending  from  a  center  if  there  is  the  slightest 
chance  to  do  so.  Deep-seated  rust  spots  may  be  removed  by 
applying  heat  from  a  painter's  torch.  The  heat  converts  the  rust 
into  another  form,  which  is  harmless  and  can  be  easily  dusted  off. 

Application  of  Paint 

As  painting  on  board  ship  is  mostly  done  by  brush,  only  this 
method  of  application  will  be  considered.  The  following  advice 
will  be  of  value  if  properly  followed : 

First.  Hold  the  brush  by  the  handle  and  not  by  the  stock. 
If  the  brush  is  held  by  the  stock  the  hands  become  covered  with 
paint,  which  may  cause  blood  poisoning,  especially  if  small  cuts 
are  exposed  and  lead  paints  are  used. 

Second.  Hold  the  brush  at  right  angles  to  the  surface,  with 
the  ends  of  the  brush  alone  touching,  and  lift  it  clear  of  the 
surface  when  starting  the  return  stroke.  If  the  brush  is  held 
obliquely  to  the  surface  and  not  lifted  the  painted  surface  will 
be  uneven,  showing  laps  and  spots  and  a  general  dauby  appear- 
ance. 

Third.  Do  not  completely  fill  the  brush  with  paint.  Dip  only 
the  ends  of  the  brush  into  the  paint.  Do  not  charge  the  brush 
with  paint  until  the  preceding  charge  has  become  sufficiently 
exhausted. 


I 


904 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Fotirth.  Apply  the  paint  with  long  strokes  parallel  to  the  grain 
of  the  wood.  When  painting  along  smooth  surfaces  draw  the 
brush  along  the  whole  surface  if  convenient,  so  that  there  will  be 
fewer  breaks  in  the  lines. 

Fifth.  Cross  the  work  by  laying  off  the  paint  over  a  small 
section  with  parallel  strokes  and  then  crossing  the  first  appli- 
cation with  parallel  strokes  at  right  angles  to  the  first  ones.  A 
medium  pressure  should  be  applied  during  the  crossing  and  a 
light  pressure  during  the  final  laying  off.  All  final  laying  off 
should  be  in  the  length  direction  of  the  work. 

Sixth.  When  painting  overhead  surfaces,  the  ceiling  panels 
should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  laid  off  fore  and  aft,  and  the  beams 
athwartship.  Where  panels  contain  a  great  many  pipes  running 
parallel  with  the  beams  it  would  be  difficult  to  lay  off  the  ceiling 
panel  fore  and  aft.  In  such  cases  better  results  will  be  obtained 
by  laying  off  parallel  with  the  beams. 

Seventh.  When  painting  vertical  surfaces,  bulkheads,  etc., 
the  work  should  be  laid  off  vertically.  In  all  cases  each  suc- 
ceeding coat  of  paint  should  be  laid  off  in  the  same  direction. 

Eighth.  Keep  the  paint  in  the  pot  well  mixed  while  the  work 
is  proceeding. 

Ninth.  Remember  that  paint  applied  in  a  too  heavy  coat  will 
show  brush  marks  and  will  give  an  uneven  finish.  Better  results 
will  be  obtained  by  applying  two  coats  of  thin  or  medium  body 
paint  than  one  coat  of  heavy  paint. 

Tenth.  Do  not  apply  a  succeeding  coat  of  paint  before  a  pre- 
vious coat  is  sufficiently  dry.  A  paint  dries  because  of  its  contact 
with  the  air,  and  the  drying  of  the  first  coat  will  be  retarded  if 
the  second  coat  is  applied  too  soon. 

Care  of  Paint 

After  a  container  of  paint  has  been  opened  and  the  paint 
partly  used  it  should  be  covered  and  kept  as  air-tight  as  possible 
to  prevent  a  paint  scum  from  forming  on  the  surface. 

When  scums  or  foreign  substances  become  mixed  in  with  the 
paint  it  should,  before  being  used,  be  strained  through  fine- 
gauge  wire  or  cheesecloth. 

Do  not  expose  shellac  unnecessarily  to  the  air,  as  the  alcohol 
evaporates  quickly  from  the  shellac,  thereby  producing  a  thick 
stringy  mass. 

Do  not  allow  nails  or  other  iron  substances  to  fall  into  shellac, 
as  iron  will  discolor  the  shellac  sufficiently  to  render  it  useless. 
Shellac  should  not  be  applied  on  a  damp  day,  as  moisture  has  a 
tendency  to  turn  it  white.  Always  pour  unused  paint  back  into 
the  stock  container  and  wipe  out  the  empty  pot  with  a  brush. 
This  will  prevent  skin  forming  on  the  sides  of  the  pot  and  will 
keep  the  pot  in  good  condition  for  the  subsequent  use. 


SHIP  MAINTENANCE 


905 


Brushes  and  How  to  Care  for  Them 

For  general  work  on  board  ship  the  following  brushes  have 
been  found  to  be  most  suitable.  Sizes  are  generally  specified 
by  number  in  manufacturers'  catalogues. 


Type  of  Brush 

Suitable  for  Use  on— 

Flat  paint  brush 

Large  surfaces. 

Sash  tool  brush 

Small  surfaces. 

Fitch  brush 

Do. 

Do 

Veiv  small  surfaces. 

Oval  varnish  brush 

Rough  work. 

Flat  varnish  brush 

Medium  work. 

Ox-hair  varnish  brush 

High-grade  work. 

Camel's-hair  lettering  brush 

Small  surfaces. 

Do.  larger 

Large  work. 

Painter's  dusters 

Cleaning  work. 

How  to  Prevent  Bristles  from  Falling  Out, 

Steps  should  be  taken  to  tighten  the  bristles  of  all  brushes 
before  they  are  put  in  use,  since  paint  and  varnish  brushes  which 
are  in  every  way  satisfactory  at  the  time  of  inspection  when 
delivered  by  contractors,  may  when  issued  from  store  be  de- 
fective in  that  they  shed  bristles  to  a  very  objectionable  extent. 
This  shedding  of  bristles  has  been  ascertained  to  be  due  to  the 
drying  out  of  handles  while  in  store.  The  bristles  may  be 
tightened  by  holding  the  brush  in  a  vertical  position  with  the 
bristles  pointing  up  and  wetting  the  end  of  the  wooden  handle 
inside  the  bristles  with  about  a  teaspoonful  of  water,  then 
allowing  about  half  an  hour  for  the  handle  to  swell,  thus  restoring 
the  original  pressure  of  handle  and  ferrule  on  the  bristles;  or  it 
is  still  better  to  immerse  the  brush  for  24  hours  in  water  to  top 
of  ferrule. 

How  to  Properly  Clean  a  Brush, 

No  matter  how  good  a  brush  may  be  it  will  be  ruined  very 
quickly  if  not  properly  treated  when  not  in  use.  A  paint  brush 
after  use  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  out  in  turpentine  sub- 
stitute or  soap  and  water.  If  left  in  water  for  any  length  of 
time,  the  bristles  are  liable  to  twist  and  lose  their  elasticity. 
After  cleaning,  the  brush  should  be  kept  in  a  trough  containing  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  raw  linseed  oil  to  cover  about  one-half  5ie 
bristle.  Large  brushes  should  have  a  small  hole  bored  through 
the  handle  well  up  toward  the  stock.  A  wire  can  be  inserted 
so  that  the  brush  can  be  suspended  in  the  trough  of  oil.  Brushes 
should  never  be  stowed  standing  in  buckets  with  the  weight  of 
the  brush  on  the  bristles.  If  large  brushes  are  allowed  to  stand 
on  the  point  they  soon  lose  their  shape  and  become  useless. 


906 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


{Note,  Should  a  paint  brush  become  quite  hard  with  paint, 
it  should  be  soaked  for  24  hours  in  raw  linseed  oil  and  then  in  hot 
turpentine.    This  treatment  will  generally  loosen  up  the  bristle.) 

Varnish  brushes  should  be  suspended  in  the  same  kind  of 
varnish  with  which  they  are  used.  If  this  method  is  not  possible, 
boiled  oil  may  be  used  instead.  If  a  varnish  brush  has  been 
thoroughly  cleaned  in  turpentine  substitute,  gasoline,  or  soap  and 
hot  water  it  may  be  kept  lying  flat  on  its  side  in  a  suitable  box. 

Lettering  brushes  should  be  washed  in  turpentine  substitute 
or  gasoline  until  clean.  If  they  are  not  to  be  used  for  some  time 
they  should  be  dipped  in  olive  oil  and  smoothed  from  heel  to 
point. 

Shellac  brushes  should  be  kept  in  a  small  amount  of  mixed 
shellac  or  alcohol.  Never  put  them  in  water.  If  the  brush  is 
not  required  for  use  in  the  near  future,  clean  it  in  alcohol. 

Binding  of  Brushes, 

To  prevent  the  bristle  in  a  round  brush  from  spreading,  it  is 
good  practice  to  bind  the  heel  end  of  the  bristles  at  the  ferrule 
with  cotton  line.  The  effect  of  the  serving  or  binding  is  to  make 
the  brush  stiffer  and  to  hold  the  bristles  together.  As  the 
bristles  become  shorter,  due  to  wear,  the  binding  can  be  removed. 
Flat  brushes  need  not  be  boimd. 

Varnish 

A  varnish  is  a  solution  or  fluid,  usually  transparent  or  trans- 
lucent, though  occasionally  opaque,  which  when  spread  upon  a 
surface  in  a  thin  film  dries  by  the  evaporation  of  its  volatile  con- 
stituents, by  the  oxidation  of  other  constituents,  or  partly  by 
evaporation  and  partly  by  oxidation,  to  a  continuous,  protective 
coating  which  improves  or  better  displays  the  surface  over  which 
it  is  spread,  and  to  a  considerable  degree  protects  it  from  dirt 
and  injury.  Varnish  is  usually  made  by  melting  resin  or  varnish 
resins  in  pots,  after  which  it  is  mixed  with  heated  linseed  oil 
or  a  mixture  of  linseed  and  china  wood  oils.  This  compound 
is  further  heated  until  the  desired  consistency  has  been  obtained, 
after  which  it  is  thinned  with  turpentine,  mineral  spirits,  or  a 
mixture  thereof.  The  drier  is  usually  added  in  the  form  of  lead 
manganese  oxides. 

Application,  After  the  surface  to  be  varnished  has  been 
thoroughly  cleaned,  filled,  and  rubbed  off,  the  varnish  is  applied 
with  a  brush  in  the  form  of  a  uniform  coat  by  crossing  the  work 
and  allowing  the  varnish  to  flow  in  a  smooth  coating.  It  is 
essential  that  the  surfaces  be  thoroughly  cleaned  from  all  dust 
particles,  as  these  show  plainly  in  the  varnish. 

Three  days  should  be  allowed  to  intervene  between  coats. 
Three  coats  should  be  applied  on  all  new  work. 


SHIP  MAINTENANCE 


907 


For  a  dull  finish,  rub  with  pumice  stone  and  water,  then  wash 
off  and  dry  the  surface  with  damp  chamois  skin. 

For  a  gloss  finish,  rub  with  pumice  stone  and  crude  oil,  wipe 
and  rub  surface  with  rotten  stone,  then  clean  with  crude  oil 
(8  parts),  mineral  spirits  (1  part),  finishing  with  cheesecloth  or 
clean  waste. 

Do  not  apply  the  varnish  too  thick  as  it  will  not  dry  under- 
neath. The  outer  surface  will  dry  first,  forming  a  skin  which 
will  prevent  the  varnish  underneath  from  coming  in  contact  with 
the  air  and  dr3nLng. 

Bituminous  Compositions 

Efficiency,  Experience  extending  over  a  number  of  years 
has  indicated  that  the  most  efficient  coating  for  metal  work 
when  applied  on  clean  or  new  surfaces  in  double  bottoms,  inner 
bottoms,  machinery  spaces,  fresh-water  tanks,  and  similar  spaces 
is  a  material  usually  made  from  coal  tar,  pitch,  or  asphalt. 

Nature  of  material.  Bituminous  composition  is  generally  con- 
sidered to  consist  of  a  bituminous  solution,  which  is  applied 
cold  as  a  priming  coat,  and  a  bituminous  enamel,  which  is  applied 
hot  over  the  solution.  The  solution  consists  of  bituminous  mate- 
rial thinned  with  a  suitable  solvent  to  a  brushing  consistency. 
The  enamel  consists  of  bituminous  material  of  relatively  high 
melting  point,  with  or  without  the  addition  of  mineral  matter. 

Notes  on  the  Use  of  Bituminous  Compositions 

(!)  The  solution  will  not  adhere  to  a  dirty  surface  and,  as 
the  solution  forms  a  bond  between  the  metal  and  the  enamel, 
it  is  essential  that,  prior  to  applying  the  solution,  the  metal  sur- 
face be  absolutely  free  from  oil,  grease,  or  rust.  Many  of  the 
failures  of  bituminous  compositions  have  been  due  to  the  applica- 
tions of  the  material  over  dirty  surfaces  rather  than  to  any  in- 
herent defect  in  the  bituminous  material  itself. 

(2)  Care  must  be  exercised  in  heating  the  enamel  previous  to 
application.  As  this  material  has  a  tendency  to  boil  over, 
the  pot  must  be  only  partly  filled.  The  mineral  matter  tends 
to  settle  out  from  the  hot  enamel,  and  hence  the  material  must 
be  kept  well  stirred. 

(3)  The  enamel  should  be  applied  to  a  uniform  thickness  of 
1/16  to  1/8  inch.  Care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  enamel 
completely  covers  the  solution,  as  the  solution  itself  affords  but 
little  protection.  As  the  solution  and  enamel  are  both  black  it 
may  be  difficult  to  see  where  the  enamel  has  been  applied,  but 
with  care  and  proper  supervision  this  difficulty  can  be  avoided. 

Bottom  Paints 

Kinds  used.  Although  in  the  past  a  number  of  proprietary 
bottom  paints  were  used,  the  only  bottom  paints  now  used  as 


,'•1 
.1 


908 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Standard  are  the  anticorrosive  and  antifouling  paints  as  manu- 
factured at  navy  yards.    The  formulas  for  such  pamts  are  given 

in  the  following  table.  .        ^  x*t.    ^«^+^«o 

Object  of  anticorrosive  bottom  paint.  To  prevent  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  steel  plating  an  msulating  coatmg  is  first  applied  to 
the  steel  vessePs  bottom.  This  insulates  the  metals  in  the  anti- 
fouling coating  from  the  steel.  This  first  coating  is  known  as 
the  ^ticorrosive  coating  because  of  the  fact  that  it  prevents  the 

corrosion  of  the  plating.  .  . 

Object  of  antifouling  bottom  paint.  As  is  well  known,  the 
object  of  applying  a  bottom  pamt  is  to  prevent  the  fouling  of 
^e  ship's  bottom^  The  ingredient  used  in  antifoulmg  paint  to 
destroy  marine  growth  is  oxide  of  mercury.  The  antifouling 
pamt  should  not  come  in  contact  with  the  steel  platmg  of  a  ship  s 
bottom,  since  it  may  cause  pitting  and  the  consequent  destruction 

""^  Preparation  of  surface.  It  has  been  stated  i^  .the  preceding 
section  on  the  preparation  of  surfaces  to  be  painted,  that  all 
Surfaces  must  be  cLefuUy  cleaned.  This  statement  is  particu- 
larly true  in  the  case  of  ship  bottom  paints  because  of  the  service 
conditions  to  which  these  paints  are  subjected.  Oil  and  grease 
frequently  found  at  the  water  line  must  be  cleaned  off  with 
gasoline  or  some  other  solvent  of  grease. 

Even  though  all  loose  pamt  has  been  scraped  and  chipped  off, 
the  anticorrosive  paint  wiU  flake  off  almost  as  soon  as  it  has  been 
appUed  if  the  oil  and  grease  have  not  been  removed. 

Application  of  anticorrosive  paint.  Before  applymg  any  paint 
stir  each  drum  until  the  pamt  has  reached  a  uniform  consistency. 
As  the  paint  contains  heavy  pigments  which  settle  rapidly  it 
must  be  frequently  stirred  during  its  application. 

The  anticorrosive  paint  dries  very  quickly  because  of  the  quick 
evaporating  properties  of  its  vehicle,  and  for  this  reason  an  oper- 
ator must  take  care  not  to  unconsciously  keep  pamtmg  oyer  one 
spot  and  thereby  build  up  a  thick  coating,  with  resultant  waste 

^  T^paint  should  be  applied  with  short  rapid  strokes,  while  the 
operator  progresses  steadily  over  the  area  to  be  pamted. 

Application  of  antifouling  paint.  The  antifoulmg  paint  can  be 
applied  almost  immediately  over  the  ^ticorrosive  Pfint,  two 
hours  bemg  generally  considered  a  sufficient  mterval  of  time 
between  the  two  coats.  As  in  the  case  of  the  anticorrosive,  the 
antifouling  contains  heavy  metallic  pigments.  These  impart 
to  the  pamt  its  antifouling  properties  and  must  not  be  allowed 
to  settle.  Stir  the  paint  frequently.  Apply  the  antifouling  paint 
only  over  the  anticorrosive  paint  and  not  over  bare  metal,  for 
if  this  is  done  pitting  of  the  steel  wiU  surely  follow. 


SHIP  MAINTENANCE 


Outside  Paints 


909 


' 


Weight  per 
Gallon 

Cover- 
ing 

Power, 

Sq. 

Yds. 

Ingredients 

Quantities  Required  for 

Material 

1  Gallon 

1 

10  Gallons 

1 

Red  lead 

25  lbs. 
4  ozs. 

56 

Red  lead,  dry . . 
Raw  linseed  oil 
Petroleum 

spirits 

Drier 

20  lbs 

5  pts 

2  gills 

2  gills 

200  lbs. 
6  gals.  1  qt. 

2  qts.  1  pt. 
2  qts.  1  pt. 

Boot-topping 

9  lbs. 

10  ozs. 

45 

1 
Venetian   red, 
dry 

2    lbs.    141/2 

ozs. 
4  pts.  1  gill .  . 

S%  gills 

31/3  gills 

29  lbs.  1  oz. 

***j 

Mixing  varnish 

Drier 

Petroleum 
spirits 

5    gals.    2V2 

pts. 
2  gals.  5  pts. 

Igal. 

Boot-topping 
black. 

9  lbs. 
5  ozs. 

76 

Mixing  varnish 

Drier 

Petroleum 

spirits 

Drop  black,  in 

oil 

2  pts 

2  pts 

2pts.  iVagiUs 
2  lbs 

1  lb.  14  ozs.  . 

2  gals.  2  qts. 

2  gals.  2  qts. 

3  gals. 

19  lbs.  11  ozs. 

White     zinc, 
dry,    Ameri- 
can process . . 

18  lbs.  12  ozs. 

Boot-topping 
slate  color. 

9  lbs. 
12  ozs. 

76 

White  zinc,  dry 
Lampblack,  in 
oil 

3  lbs 

3  ozs 

3  pts.  2  gills  . 

2  pts 

2  pts 

30  lbs. 

1  lb.  14  ozs. 

Mixing  varnish 
Petroleum 

spirits 

Drier 

4  gals.  3  pts. 

2  gals.  2  qts. 
2  gals.  2  qts. 

Slate  color  .  . 

15  lbs. 
8  ozs. 

53 

Neutral  blanc 
fixe 

3  lbs.  5  ozs.  . 
3  lbs.  7  ozs.  . 

IOV2  ozs 

3/10  oz 

5  pts.  1  gill .  . 
5  gills 

V2giU 

33  lbs. 

Zinc  oxide,  dry 
Acheson 

graphite 

Lampblack,  dry 
Linseed  oU, 

raw 

34  lbs.  6  ozs. 

6  lbs.  8  ozs. 
3  ozs. 

6  gals.  5  pts. 

Drier 

Petroleimi 
spirits 

1  gal.  2  qts. 
1  pt.  1  gill 

Outside 
white. 

17  lbs. 
4  ozs. 

54 

White  lead,  in 
oil 

5  lbs 

9  lbs 

3  pts 

50  lbs. 

White  zinc,  in 
oil 

90  lbs. 

Raw  linseed 
oil 

1  3  gals.  3  qts. 

i 


I 


910 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


Outside  Paints — Continued 


Material 

Weight  per 
Gallon 

Cover- 
ing 

Power, 

Sq. 

Yds. 

Ingredients 

Quantities  Required  for 

1  Gallon 

10  Gallons 

Outside 
white. 

17  lbs. 
4  ozs. 

54 

Petroleum 

spirits 

Drier 

Ultramarine 

blue 

3gms 

2  gills 

1/12  oz 

3  qts.  1^/^pts. 
2  qts.  1  pt. 

4/5  oz. 

Spar  color.  . . 

18  lbs. 
11  ozs. 

55 

White  lead,  in 
oil 

14  lbs 

1  lb.  6  ozs.  . . 

9/10  oz 

3  pts.  1  gill .  . 

32/3  giUs 

11/2  giUs 

140  lbs. 

Yellow   ocher, 
in  oil 

Venetian   red, 
in  oil 

Raw  linseed 
oil 

14  lbs. 

9  ozs. 

3  gals.  3  qts. 

Petroleum 

spirits 

Drier 

1  gal.  1  pt. 
1  qt.  7  gills 

Spar  color  for 
smoke- 
stacks 
(silica 
paint). 

20  lbs. 
10  ozs. 

37 

Silica,  dry 

White  lead,  in 

oil 

White  lead,  dry 
Yellow   ocher, 

in  oil 

Litharge 

Boiled  oil 

Petroleum 

spirits 

Venetian   red, 

dry 

2  lbs 

6  lbs 

6  lbs 

1  lb.  4  ozs.  . . 
1  lbs.  4  ozs.  . 
10  gills 

8  gills 

1  oz 

20  lbs. 

60  lbs. 
60  lbs. 

12  lbs.  8  ozs. 
12  lbs.  8  ozs. 
3  gals.  1  pt. 

2  gals.  2  qts. 

10  ozs. 

Spar  color  for 
smoke- 
stacks. 

12  lbs. 

40 

Spanish 

whiting 

Portland 

cement 

Yellow   ocher, 

in  oil 

Venetian   red, 

in  oil 

Kerosene  oil . . 

4  lbs 

13  ozs 

1  lb.  3  ozs.  . . 

1  oz 

6  pts.  2  gills. . 

40  lbs. 

8  lbs. 

12  lbs. 

10  ozs. 
8  gals. 

Slate  color 
for  smoke- 
stacks. 

13  lbs. 

53 

White  lead,  dry 
White  zinc,  dry 
Lampblack,  dry 

Litharge 

Mineral  oil 

(kerosene) . . . 
Drier 

4  lbs.  13  ozs. . 

1  lb.  14  ozs. . . 

534  ozs 

5%  ozs 

2  qts 

21/2  gills 

1  qt 

48  lbs.  2  ozs. 
18  lbs.  12  ozs. 
3  lbs.  91/2  ozs. 
3  lbs.  53^  ozs. 

5  gals. 
3  qts. 

Damar  varnish 

2  gals.  2  qts. 

H*" 

I 

1 


' 


\ 


SHIP  MAINTENANCE 


Outside  Paints — Continued 


911 


Material 


Hospital  ship 
green. 


Outside 
black. 


Anticorrosive 
ship-bot- 
tom paint 
(Norfolk 
No.  17). 


Antifouling 
ship-bot- 
tom paint 
(Norfolk 
No.  19). 


Weight  per 
Gallon 


Outside 
brown. 


17  lbs. 
4  ozs. 


11  lbs. 
8  ozs. 


8  lbs. 
4  ozs. 


11  lbs. 
8  ozs. 


10  lbs. 
8  ozs. 


Cover- 
ing 

Power, 

Sq. 

Yds. 


Ingredients 


50 


53 


30 


27 


White  lead,  in 

oU 

Burnt   sienna, 

in  oil 

Burnt   tunber, 

in  oil 

Indian  red,  in 

oil 

Raw  linseed  oil 
Petroleum 

spirits 

Drier 


Quantities  Required  for 


1  Gallon 


10  Gallons 


10  lbs. 
3  lbs. . 
8  ozs.. 


4  ozs. 
3  pts. 


3giUs. 
2gms. 


100  lbs. 
30  lbs. 
5  lbs. 

2  lbs.  8  ozs. 

3  gals.  3  qts. 

3  qts.  11/2  pts. 
2  qts.  1  pt. 


Chrome  green, 
in  oil 


7  lbs.  9 V2  ozs. 


Raw  linseed  oil  5  pts.  2  gills 


Petroleum 

spirits 

Drier 

Spar  varnish  . . 


3  3/10  gills 
2  giUs 

y2gill 


76  lbs. 
3    gals.    2% 
pts. 

Igal. 

2  qts.  134  pts. 

1  pt. 


Lampblack,  in 
oil 

Raw  linseed  oil 

Petroleum 
spirits 

Drier ....... 


3  lbs.  12  ozs.. 
3  pts.  1  gill  . . 

3  gills 

31/2  giUs 


Grain  alcohol. . 
Gum    shellac, 

grade  A 

Turpentine 

Pine-tar  oil  . . . 

Metallic   zinc, 
dry 

White  zinc 
oxide,  dry . . . 


3  qts. 


13  ozs. 
2  gills. 

2  gills. 


lib.. 
3  lbs. 


37  lbs.  8  ozs. 
4  gals.  1/2  pt. 

3  qts.  iy2pts. 
1  gal.  1  gill. 

7  gals.  1  qt. 

7  lbs.  14  ozs. 

4  pts.   31/5 
gills. 

4   pts.   31/5 
gills. 

9  lbs.  8  ozs. 

28  lbs.  8  ozs. 


Grain  alcohol. 
Gum    shellac, 

grade  A . . . . 
Pme-tar  oil . . , 

Turpentine 

White  zinc 

oxide,  dry . .  . 
Indian  red .... 
Red  oxide   of 

mercury,  dry.  1  8  ozs 


4  pts.  3  gills. .  I  6  gals. 


1  lb.  8  ozs.  . 

3  gills 

3  gills 


1  lb.  8  ozs. 
1  lb.  8  ozs. 


13  lbs.  12  ozs. 

Igal. 

Igal. 

13  lbs.  12  ozs. 
13  lbs.  12  ozs. 

4  lbs.  12  ozs. 


I 


'1 


912 


STANDARD  SEAMANSHIP 


Inside  Paints 


height  per 
Gallon 

Cover- 
ing 

Power, 

Sq. 

Yds. 

Ingredients 

Quantities  Required  for 

Material 

1  Gallon 

10  Gallons 

Red  lead  for 
confined 
spaces. 

26  lbs. 
14  ozs. 

40 

Red  lead,  dry  . 

Boiled  linseed 
oil 

20  lbs.  101/2 
OZS. 

6  pts.  1  gill. . . 

206  lbs.  9 
OZS. 

8  gals. 

Inside  white . 

18  lbs. 

48 

White  lead,  in 
oil 

7  lbs 

7  lbs 

72/3  gills 

81/6  giUs 

IVzgiUs 

1/12  OZS 

70  lbs. 

White  zinc,  in 
oil    (Ameri- 
can)   

Raw  linseed  oil 

Petroleum 
spirits 

Drier 

70  lbs. 

2  gals.  3  pts. 

2  gals.  2  qts. 

3  pts.  3  gUls 

Ultramarine 
blue,  in  oil. .. 

4/5  oz. 

Inside  white 
for  con- 

18  lbs. 
10  ozs. 

40 

White  lead,  in 
oil 

14  lbs.  91/2 
ozs. 

5  pts 

146  lbs. 

fined 
spaces. 

Boiled  linseed 
oil 

6  gals.  1  qt. 

Flat  white. . . 

17  lbs. 
8  ozs. 

60 

White  zinc, 
French,  in  oil 

Petroleum 
spirits 

Damar  varnish 

Drier 

15  lbs.  4  ozs. 

3  pts 

V2giU 

V4gill....... 

2/25  oz 

152  lbs.  8  ozs 

3  gals.  3  qts. 
5  gills. 
21/2  gills. 

Ultramarine 
blue,  in  oil. . . 

8/10  oz. 

White 
enamel. 

11  lbs. 
1  oz. 

60 

White  zinc, 

French,  in  oil 
Damar  varnish 
Ultramarine 
blue,  in  oil. . . 

4  lbs 

7  qts 

1/25  oz 

40  lbs. 

8  gals.  3  qts. 

4/10  oz. 

Priming 
green. 

18  lbs. 
14  ozs. 

60 

White  lead, 
basic  sul- 
phate, in  oil. 

White  zinc,  in 
oil    (Ameri- 
can)   

Petroleum 
spirits 

Raw  linseed  oil 

Drier 

Chrome  green, 
in  oil 

7  lbs 

8  lbs 

2  pts 

[  2  pts 

11/2  gills 

Vzoz 

70  lbs. 

80  lbs. 

2  gals.  2  qts. 
2  gals.  2  qts. 
1  qt.  7  gills. 

5  ozs. 

Under  cork. 


SHIP  MAINTENANCE 


Striping  Paints — Continued 


913 


Material 

Weight  per 
Gallon 

Cover- 
ing 

Power, 

Sq. 

Yds. 

Ingredients 

Quantities  Required  for 

1  Gallon 

10  Gallons 

Black 

10  lbs. 

11  OZS. 

48 

Lampblack,  in 
oil 

9  lbs 

1  pt 

90  lbs. 

spirits 

Drier 

1  gal.  1  qt. 
1  gal.  1  qt. 

*    IT** 

1    Pt 

r**  ••••••.• 

Green 

13  lbs. 
10  ozs. 

50 

Chrome  green, 

in  oil 

Raw  linseed  oil 
Drier 

10  lbs.  8  ozs 

91/4  gills 

2giUs 

43/4  gills 

105  lbs. 

2  gals.  7  pts. 

2  qts.  1  pt. 

1  gal.  2  qts. 

Petroleum 
spirits 

Red 

15  lbs. 
7  ozs. 

53 

Vermilion,    in 
oil 

13  lbs 

2  qts 

1  pt 

130  lbs. 

Raw  linseed  oil 
Petroleum 

spirits 

Drier 

5  gals. 

1  gal.  1  qt. 

2  qts.  1  pt. 

2  gills 

Lead  color. . . 

21  lbs. 
7  ozs. 

70 

White  lead,  in 
oil 

Lampblack,  in 
oil 

Raw  linseed  oil 

Petroleum 
spirits 

Drier 

17  lbs. 

1  lb 

7  gills 

7  gills 

Igill 

170  lbs. 

10  lbs. 

2  gals.  1  qt. 

2  gals.  1  qt. 
2  pts.  2  gUls. 

YeUow 

13  lbs. 
12  ozs. 

48 

Chrome  yellow, 
in  oil 

Raw  linseed  oil 

Petroleum 
spirits 

Drier 

nibs 

2  pts 

1  pt 

110  lbs. 

2  gals.  2  qts. 

1  gal.  1  qt. 

2  pts.  2  gills. 

IgiU 

Blue 

16  lbs. 
4  ozs. 

48 

Ultramarine 
blue,  in  oil... 

White  lead,  in 
oU 

2  lbs.  10  ozs.. 

10  lbs.  10  ozs. 
2  pts.  1  gill  . . 

1  pt 

26  lbs.  4  ozs. 
106  lbs.  4  ozs. 

Raw  linseed  oil 
Petroleum 

spirits 

Drier 

2  gals.  3  qts. 

1  gal.  1  qt. 

2  qts.  1  pt. 

2  gills 

Miscellaneous  Formula 


12  lbs. 
5  ozs. 


15 


Spanish 

whiting 

Interior 

varnish 

Raw  linseed  oil 


Drier 1  gill 


7  lbs.  5V^  ozs. 

5 pts.  Igill. . . 
Igill 


73  lbs.  8  ozs. 

6  gals.  2  qts. 
10  4/5  gills. 
10  4/5  gills. 


914 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


i\ 


\U 


O 


n:in 


Asphalt  Cement 

Paving  asphalt pounds  90 

Trinidad  asphalt do . .  25 

Val  de  Travers  asphalt do . .  25 

Powdered  English  resin do . .      2 

Powdered  slack  lime do . .      3  Vi 

Portland  cement do . .  30 

This  is  boiled  four  hours  and  kept  working  during  boiling.  The  metal  is 
first  coated  with  formtila  No.  58. 

Linoleum  Cement 

Spanish  whiting pounds  120 

Gum  shellac,  grade  B do . .    32 

Alcohol  (grain) gallons      71/2 

Gasoline do . .       1 

Crude  rubber ounces      2 

The  rubber  is  cut  in  the  gasoline  and  is  then  added  to  the  mixture  of  the 
other  three  ingredients  and  the  whole  is  then  grotmd  to  an  intimate  mixture. 
The  price  of  this  cement  is  approximately  8  cents  per  pound,  and  since  there 
are  about  10^/2  pounds  of  cement  in  1  gallon,  the  price  per  gallon  is  approx- 
imately 84  cents.    Pre-war  prices. 

Slate  Color  Smoothing  Cement 

(For  100  pounds.) 

Spanish  whiting pounds  10 

White  lead,  dry do . .  32 

White  zinc,  American,  dry do . .  16 

Litharge do.  .  16 

Lampblack,  American,  dry do . .  16 

Raw  Unseed  oil gallons  PA 

Turpentine do . .         % 

Drier do . .        % 

Red  Smoothing  Cement 

(For  100  pounds.) 

Venetian  red,  dry pounds  10 

Spanish  whiting do . .  32 

White  lead,  dry do . .  16 

White  zinc,  American,  dry do . .  16 

Litharge do . .  16 

Raw  linseed  oU gallons      IV2 

Turpentine do . .         j4 

Japan  drier do . .        % 

Oil  and  Water  Stop* 

(Weight  per  gallon,  19  pounds.) 

Clear  shellac 3  quarts  2  gills. 

Red  lead,  dry 121/2  pounds. 

*  The  above  will  give  a  mixture  about  the  consistency  of  thick  paste.  For 
light  plating,  stops  will  be  made  by  soaking  10-oimce  canvas  for  one-half  day 
in  clear  shellac,  then  coated  with  the  above  mixture.  For  heavy  platingt 
ball  lamp  wick  will  be  treated  in  the  same  way. 


SHIP  MAINTENANCE 


915 


Cementing 

The  use  of  cement  wash  in  tanks  and  in  other  parts  of  the 
ship  is  increasing.  This  makes  a  very  good  protective  cover  and 
can  be  used  where  moisture  would  prevent  the  adhesion  of  other 
materials. 

Have  the  surfaces  clean  and  use  sharp  sand.  Sea  sand, 
tumbled  about  by  the  waves  with  the  small  sharp  edges  worn  off 
is  not  the  best.  Sharp  sand  is  the  sand  dug  from  the  side  of  a 
bank.     Sometimes  this  also  is  worn. 

Portland  cement  takes  its  initial  set  in  about  a  half  hour, 
possibly  sooner.  Do  not  mix  cement  mortar  until  ready  to  use 
it  at  once.  When  cement  mortar  takes  its  initial  set  some  men 
re-temper  it,  that  is  they  soften  it  up  with  a  trowel.  This  makes 
it  less  strong. 

As  Portland  cement  will  harden  best  under  water  it  is  an  ideal 
material  for  use  in  tanks.  Salt  water  does  not  materially  effect 
its  strength. 

Where  hot  water  is  rim  into  tanks  the  asphaltic  compotmds 
soften  and  cement  should  be  used. 

Drinking  tanks  coated  with  cement  wash,  and  allowed  to 
season,  are  very  satisfactory.  After  the  cement  has  hardened 
fill  and  empty  them,  or  wash  them  down  with  a  fresh  water  hose 
before  filling. 

Where  deep  pockets  have  to  be  cemented  use  clean  sharp 
cinders  as  an  aggregate.  Work  the  spaces  between  them  full  of 
cement  mortar. 

Mortar  is  generally  best  with  one  part  of  cement  to  two  of 
sand.  This  coats  each  grain  of  sand  and  also  fills  the  spaces  in 
between. 

This  is  called  a  1-2  mixture. 

n 

Docking 

The  American  Bureau  of  Shipping  recommends  that  all  vessels 
be  docked  within  six  months  of  launching. 

Periodical  docking  thereafter  is  necessary  and  should  be  a 
regular  part  of  the  maintenance  program. 


916 


STANDARD   SEAMANSfflP 


Wale  Shores^ 


Wa/e  Shores 


''Bi/cfe  Blocks'    '^- Heel  Blocks 
Graving  Dock 


When  necessary  to  get  at  a 
vessel's  bottom  she  may  be  put 
into  the  following  kinds  of 
docks : 

Graving,  or  dry  dock.  This  is 
an  excavation  that  fills  at  high 
water.  The  vessel  is  floated 
in,  a  gate  is  closed  and  the 
dock  is  pumped  out,  the  vessel 
resting  on  keel  and  bilge  blocks 
and  held  by  wale  shores. 


Floating  dock.  This  consists  of  a  series  of  pontoons  with 
bottom  and  sides.  Sea  cocks  are  opened  and  the  dock  sinks, 
the  bottom  pontoons  lying  below  the  level  of  the  vessel's  keel. 
The  vessel  is  then  floated  into  the  submerged  dock,  placed  over 
the  blocks  and  the  dock  is  pumped  out,  rising  under  the  vessel 
on  the  blocks,  and  lifting  her.    No  wale  shores  are  used. 


A  Floating  Dock. 

The  Marine  Railway  is  limited  to  lifting  vessels  of  moderate 
tonnage.  This  is  simply  a  reversal  of  the  process  of  launching. 
A  vessel  is  hatiled  up  an  inclined  railway,  riding  in  a  cradle 
running  on  tracks  that  extend  under  water  beneath  the  vessel 
to  be  hauled  out.  A  heavy  winch  or  engine  is  connected  to  the 
cradle  by  means  of  chains  or  wire  purchases. 


SHIP  MAINTENANCE 


917 


In  former  times,  before  the  use  of  docks  and  when  craft  were 
smaller,  heaving  downy  and  careening  was  resorted  to. 


A  Marine  Railway, 

Strictly  speaking  a  vessel  was  hove  down  in  deep  water,  her 
bottom  being  exposed  by  the  simple  expedient  of  attaching 
tackles  from  her  mast  heads  to  another  vessel,  or  a  hulk,  and 
heeling  her  over.     Suitable  preventer  shrouds  were  rigged. 

Where  a  propeller  wheel  is  damaged,  and  no  dock  available, 
this  method,  applied  longitudmally ,  is  often  used.    See  next  page . 

Careening  consists  in  runnmg  a  vessel  on  a  sloping  beach  at 
high  tide  and  letting  the  drop  of  the  tide  heel  her  over  and 
expose  her  bottom  for  examination  or  repair. 

These  two  ancient  practices  are  practical  for  small  craft  and 
are  still  employed  where  other  facilities  are  not  available. 

Breaming  is  the  term  used  when  grass  and  other  marine  growth 
is  burned  off  of  a  vessel's  bottom. 

The  repairs  to  be  made  on  an  average  vessel  when  in  dry  dock 
are  summed  up  in  the  following  note  from  Marine  Engineering: 

"The  length  of  time  between,  dry-dockings  depends  upon 
many  factors,  such  as  the  port  repair  faciUties,  time  available, 
the  practice  of  the  operating  company,  etc.  Some  companies 
make  it  a  custom  to  dry  dock  a  vessel  every  six  months,  others 
at  a  much  longer  interval.  The  United  States  Shipping  Board 
has  tried  to  average  about  eight  months  between  dockings. 
It  IS  wise  to  dry  dock  a  new  vessel  within  six  months  of  launching. 


918 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


if.' 

-i 


"Besides  the  managing  company's  shore  representative,  a 
surveyor  from  the  registration  socie^,  and  possibly  an  inspector 
from  the  United  States  Steamboat  Inspection  Service,  who  have 
been  notified  in  advance  of  the  docking,  will  make  an  inspection 
of  the  vessel  and  require  or  suggest  various  repairs,  some  of 
which  are  noted  here.  K  the  shell  plating  is  indented  percep- 
tibly, these  plates  should  be  located,  and  if  not  faired  at  this 
time  a  record  should  be  kept  of  same  so  as  to  place  the  responsi- 
bility. ,, 

"  If  it  be  a  new  vessel  it  will  be  advisable  to  remove  the 
propeller  fair  water  cone  and  harden  up  the  propeller  nuts 
(which  may  take  up  a  quarter  of  a  turn  in  the  case  of  a  new 
wheel).  K  time  permits,  find  the  pitch  of  the  propeller,  doing 
this  for  all  blades.  Examine  and  harden  up  blade  nuts  of 
separable  blade  propeller,  if  necessary.  Measure  the  amount 
of  clearance  in  the  stern  bearing  (i.  e.,  the  amount  the  shaft  is 
down).  The  lignum  vitae  is  bored  for  a  clearance  of  about 
1/16  inch  and  the  classification  societies  require  that  this  bearing 
be  re- wooded  when  this  clearance  as  shown  by  a  tapered  wooden 
wedge  has  increased  to  about  5/16  inch. 

"  Tail  Shaft  and  Rudder  Gudgeon  Bearings 

"  li  the  tail  shaft  has  two  separate  bronze  liners,  or  one  at  the 
stern  bearing  near  the  propeller  and  one  in  way  of  the  stuffing 


Exposing  a  damaged  propeller  by  shifting  weights  forward. 

box  at  the  aft  peak  bulkhead,  the  classification  societies  will 
require  that  the  shaft  be  drawn  clear  of  the  stern  tube  for  survey 


SHIP  MAINTENANCE 


919 


I 


every  two  years.  This  consists  in  tapping  the  liners  lightly  to 
see  whether  they  are  loose,  also  to  examine  the  shaft  between 
the  liners  for  cracks  or  undue  corrosion.  The  fit  of  the  propeller 
on  the  tail  shaft  should  also  be  examined.  This  must  bear  at 
the  large  end  of  the  taper;  the  small  end  of  the  shaft's  taper  can 
be  .005  inch  smaller  in  diameter  than  the  hole  in  the  hub  for  a 
large  propeller.  The  fit  and  bearing  of  the  key  should  also  be 
checked,  as,  if  local,  the  tail  shaft  may  crack;  looseness  will,  of 
course,  cause  vibration.  Some  firms,  with  the  separate  liner 
type  of  tail  shaft,  red  lead  the  shaft  between  liners  and  cover  it 
with  canvas  and  a  layer  of  rope  marline  coated  with  red  lead. 
If  the  bronze  liners  are  continuous,  i.  e.,  in  separate  pieces  but 
soldered  to  each  other  at  the  joints,  the  societies  call  for  the  tail 
shaft  survey  every  three  years. 

"  Further  repairs  directly  under  the  engineering  department 
would  be  to  examine  and  grind  in,  if  necessary,  all  sea  valves, 
clear  their  strainers  and  re- 
pack the  tail  shaft  gland. 

"  The  rudder  gudgeon  pin 
or  pintle  bearings  should  be 
examined  for  proper  bearing 
and  clearance ;  when  new,  the 
latter  may  be  about  3/32  inch 
on  the  diameter  of  the  pin  for 
a  fair  sized  cargo  vessel.  The 
gudgeon  pin  bearings  are 
either  lignum  vitae  or  bronze, 
although  of  late  soft  steel  has 
been  used. 


"  Riveting,  Scraping  and 
Painting 

"  It  is  advisable  where  pos- 
sible when  docking  to  have  all 
ballast  tanks  full,  as  any  leaks 
will   then   readily   show   up. 
Any  tanks  that  require  clean- 
ing or  rivet  driving  may  be 
drained,  although  with  steam 
up  they  can  be  more  quickly 
pumped    out,  and  the  writer 
would  advise  that  steam  be 
kept  up,  as  the  ship  can  be 
listed  or  trimmed,  if  desired, 
and  is   under  control.      All 
leaky  rivets  will  be   calked, 


The  propeller  unshipped  by  use  of 
chain  hoists.  This  and  above  photo 
show  work  on  S.  S.  Nesco^  Capt.  E.  R. 
Bergh.    Done  at  Fayal,  Azores. 


920 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


V 


I 


II 


hardened  up  or  re-driven  as  required  by  the  classification  society 
stirveyor  and  the  work  when  completed  passed  by  him. 

"  Before  coming  off  the  dry  dock  it  is  customary  to  wire- 
brush  or  scrape  the  shell  plating  and  apply  one  coat  of  anti- 
corrosive,  together  with  a  coat  of  anti-fouling,  below  the  light 
waterline  and  one  of  boot-topping  above. 

"  If  the  important  repairs,  condition  of  the  hull,  condition  and 
clearance  of  tail  shaft  and  rudder  gudgeon  bearings  and  any 
other  important  data  are  noted  in  the  log  books,  much  money 
will  be  saved  in  the  operation  of  the  vessel  by  avoiding  the  need- 
less repetition  of  certain  repairs,  and  a  better  report  can  be 
turned  into  the  managing  company."    See  Maintenance  book* 

In  addition  to  the  above  a  great  deal  of  work  is  done  by  the 
deck  department.  Cables  are  ranged  on  the  floor  of  the  dock 
and  all  shackle  pins  knocked  out  and  examined.  Markings  are 
overhauled  and  the  chain  tested.  This  work  may  not  be  done 
every  time  the  vessel  docks  but  it  should  be  attended  to  at  every 
second  docking  at  least.  Then  too,  the  absence  of  water  on 
deck  makes  it  a  good  time  to  do  a  lot  of  deck  painting  in  water- 
ways, etc. 

On  entering  a  dock  the  Chief  Mate  or  Master  should  consult 
the  dock  master  and  get  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  dock. 
The  Dock  Master  will  call  for  the  docking  plan,  and  this 
should  be  ready  for  him. 

Where  there  is  no  docking  plan,  on  a  large  vessel  the  dock 
master  will  get  certain  dimensions,  draft,  dead  rise,  etc.,  from 
the  regular  blue  prints. 

It  is  generally  best  to  enter  a  dock  light,  tanks  pumped  out, 
etc.  The  vessel  should  be  on  an  even  keel  and  a  good  method 
of  putting  her  exactly  even  is  to  hang  a  hand  lead  over  the  stem, 
where  the  vessel  has  a  straight  stem. 

Assistance  should  be  given  in  every  way  to  the  dock  master 
and  his  crew. 

While  in  dock  examine  carefully  and  note  the  location  of  all 
under-water  valves.  See  the  condition  of  the  bottom,  the  loca- 
tion and  state  of  the  zinc  plates  near  bronze  valves  and  propeller. 
The  condition  and  actual  construction  of  the  rudder.  Keep  in 
mind  the  possibility  of  some  day  having  to  use  a  jury  rig.  Make 
careful  notes  of  ever3rthing  that  pertains  to  the  maintenance  of 
the  vessel  and  enter  it  in  the  maintenance  book  under  the  head- 


SHIP  MAINTENANCE 


921 


ing  of  "docking."  Each  docking  should  be  given  a  serial  num- 
ber with  date,  place,  condition  of  hull  and  fittings,  also  repairs 
effected,  time  in  dock,  and  remarks. 

When  docking,  after  grounding,  examine  cement  in  double 
bottoms  also  "sight"  all  outside  bilge  strakes  to  note  any 
deflection. 

An  interesting  article  on  the  corrosion  of  steel  vessels  appeared 
in  Yachting  of  November,  1918,  and  we  quote  from  it  here. 

"  It  is  significant  that  when  examining  a  vessel's  bottom  after 
several  months  at  sea  it  is  seldom,  if  ever,  that  corrosion  is  found 
to  have  taken  place  equally  over  any  considerable  area:  it  is 
mvariably  found  in  *  spots,'  as  exemplified  by  the  famiUar  *  rust- 
cones.  This  IS  exactly  what  one  would  expect  from  galvanic  as 
oistmct  from  chemical  action,  and  seems  to  support  the  theory 
^hat  even  the  commencement  of  corrosion  is  attributable  to 
electrical  action. 

"  Zinc  protectors  are,  of  course,  a  valuable  preventative  of 
corrosion,  but  their  action  is  distinctly  local.  In  way  of  valves 
through  the  ship's  bottom,  propellers  of  gun  metal  or  other  aUoys, 
etc.,  they  divert  the  electrolythic  action  to  themselves,  but  thei^ 
radius  of  influence  is  not  great.  In  order  to  render  any  effectual 
help  m  combatmg  corrosion  of  the  vessel's  structure,  it  would 
be  necessary  to  fit  thousands  of  them,  an  obviously  impractical 
arrangement. 

•  1^  interesting  feature  about  the  corrosion  of  vessels'  bottoms 
is  that  it  is  enormously  greater  nearer  the  waterline  than  at  the 
bottom  portions  of  the  structure,  more  particularly  in  the  case  of 
deep-draught  vessels.  Thus,  in  one  special  case  of  a  vessel 
ot  26  or  28  feet  draught,  experience  showed  that  the  corrosion 
was  small  m  those  portions  deeper  than  about  20  feet;  it  then 
increased  rapidly  up  to  a  depth  of  about  6  or  8  feet,  above  which 
It  was  more  or  less  constant  and  greater  than  the  remamder 
This  phenomenon  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  in  those, 
portions  of  the  surrounding  water  which  were  constantly  aerated 
by  the  disturbmg  motion  of  the  sea,  fresh  active  corrosive 
elements  are  continually  added.  Hence,  the  especial  care  which 
ILc®  P^'T^  n^'P'l?  t^^  *  between  wind  and  water  '  portions  of  a 
to    fn  ^' "  ^^  frequently  coated  with  a  special  *  boot- 

When  in  some  foreign  docks  be  careful  about  Uttle  things  like 
having  the  zinc  plates  stripped  off  at  night  just  before  flooding 
the  dock.    This  has  been  done. 
Also,  before  flooding  be  satisfied  that  all  bottom  plugs,  re- 


I, 


922 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


moved  for  drainage,  have  been  properly  replaced.  The  Chief 
Mate  and  First  Assistant  should  look  after  this  themselves. 

On  leaving  a  dock  a  large  vessel  may  be  riding  very  light. 
The  unfortunate  case  of  the  St  Paul,  capsizing  shortly  after 
leaving  dry  dock,  where  it  is  said  some  sea  cocks  were  left  open 
by  workmen,  should  be  kept  in  mind.  Also  always  close  all 
lower  coal  ports.  Take  every  precaution  against  capsizing.  A 
vessel  once  out  of  the  dock  should  at  once  fill  enough  of  her 
ballast  tanks  to  insure  stability. 

The  dry  dock  and  the  repair  yard  are  an  excellent  place  for  the 
seaman  to  gain  knowledge  of  the  structure  of  his  ship.  The 
repairs  that  go  on,  the  opening  up  of  vessels,  afford  a  fine  oppor- 
tunity to  study  naval  construction  at  first  hand  and  to  see  the 
effects  of  collisions  and  other  accidents. 

It  is  a  very  useful  thing  for  the  ship's  officer  to  know  just  what 
repairs  can  be  made.  Some  of  the  recent  Thermit  welds  almost 
surpass  belief.  Nowadays  nothing  seems  to  be  broken  beyond 
complete  repair. 

m 

Decks 
The  ship's  deck,  where  planking  is  laid,  deserves  better  care 
than  is  given  it  on  the  average  vessel  today.  Once  the  deck  was 
almost  holy  and  a  shipmaster  looked  upon  a  spot  on  the  deck  as  a 
dkect  personal  grievance.  Chief  mates  were  constantly  looking 
after  the  condition  of  the  deck.  Tar  spots  on  deck  brought  down 
the  wrath  of  the  mate  as  nothing  else.    In  fact  a  snow  white 

deck  has  a  wonderful  effect  upon 
all  hands.  On  passenger  vessels 
and  on  the  bridge  about  the 
wheelhouse  and  wherever  plank 
decking  is  to  be  found  the  same 
care  should  be  taken  as  in  the 

past. 

Deck  plugs  are  often  set  with 

the  grain  running  at  an  angle 
with  the  planking  and  graving  pieces  are  put  in  without  regard 
to  finish.  Best  deck  plugs  are  made  of  white  pine  or  poplar. 
Always  use  graving  pieces,  do  not  run  strakes  full  of  pitch  or 


How  to  fit  a  Graving  Piece, 


SHIP  MAINTENANCE 


923 


glue.  Most  American  decks  are  of  long  leaf  yellow  pine. 
Margin  plank  is  often  made  of  teak,  a  brownish  wood  that  is  not 
discolored  by  rust.  Teak  is  a  very  durable  wood  excellent  for 
decking  and  boat  construction.  It  is  said  to  resist  decay  for  two 
thousand  years  when  properly  handled.  Teak  may  therefore  be 
considered  durable  enough  for  any  part  of  a  modern  steel  vessel. 

Deck  seams  are  caulked  with  oakum  and  pitched  or  filled 
with  marine  glue.  For  fine  promenade  decks  white  marine 
glue  is  sometimes  used  and  makes  a  very  smart-looking  deck. 

The  directions  below  are  given  with  Jeffrie's  Marine  Glue : 

14  lbs.  of  marine  glue  will  run  from  200  to  250  ft.  of  seam 
%  in.  deep  by  l^  in.  wide.  If  properly  used  and  not  over  heated, 
it  will  last  4  to  6  years  in  a  seam,  and  has  been  known  to  last 
10  to  12  years.  When  carefully  applied  to  a  dry  deck  it  will  never 
leave  the  sides  of  the  seam. 

Caulking  Decks 

The  oakum  to  be  laid  well  down  in  the  seam,  hard,  leaving  the 
seam  three-quarters  of  an  inch  deep  after  caulking,  for  the  glue, 
the  seam  as  usual,  to  be  payed  promptly. 

Water,  cold  naptha,  or  coal  oil  to  be  used  in  dipping  the  catilk- 
ing  irons,  as  linseed  oil  or  grease  prevents  the  glue  from  adhering 
to  the  edge  of  the  planks. 

Paying  Decks' 

In  paying  decks  the  glue  should  be  poured  from  the  ladle  into 
the  seams,  holding  the  nose  of  the  ladle  an  inch  from  the  deck. 

Note. — ^If  the  ladle  is  drawn 
on  the  seams,  as  is  frequently 
done  when  pitch  is  used,  a  quan- 
tity of  atmosphere  is  enveloped, 
and  has  not  time  to  escape  be- 
fore the  glue  becomes  set;  this 
will  cause  air  bubbles  in  hot 
weather  and  leave  the  seams  i^i 
hollow  and  unsoimd. 

The  workmen  in  all  cases 
paying  from  them,  that  is  walk- 
ing backwards. 

When  old  caulking  is  to  be 
broken  out  a  rase  knife  is  used  to 
clear  the  seams,  in  order  that  the  glue  may  adhere  to  the  edge 
of  the  plank ;  the  seams  may  be  afterwards  caulked  or  hardened 
down,  as  may  be  reqtiired,  to  the  depth  before  described,  viz., 


-v^'  Tar 


l^^nsinB<-  -  Tor" 


Paying  Seams  of  Deck, 


924 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


three-quarters  of  an  inch,  if  the  thickness  of  the  timber  will  allow 
of  it;  and  if  the  weather  be  sufficiently  fine  to  allow  the  decks  to 
be  payed  with  pitch,  it  will  do  also  for  the  glue. 

Cleanmg  Off 
The  deck  to  be  cleaned  off  on  the  following  day  if  the  ship  be 
required  for  immediate  service,  otherwise  it  is  best  to  clean  off 
when  she  goes  to  sea.     No  inconvenience  from  its  uncleanliness 
will  be  found  as  with  pitch." 

Caulking 

The  caulking  of  a  ship's  seams  and  the  caulking  of  decks,  is  of 
such  ancient  origin  that  no  one  can  say  with  certainty  when 
the  art  was  first  practiced.  Undoubtedly  it  was  an  old  method 
of  making  a  vessel  watertight,  even  in  the  days  of  Noah. 


A/\ 


Reaming 
Iron 


\ 


Lj 


Calking  or  Crooked     Deck  or     Spike    Sharper    Clearing 
Making      orBcnt      Dumb       Iron       Butt      orReefTng 
Iron  Iron  Iron  Iron         Irori 


The  tools  used  by  caulkers  carry  with  them  the  slow  changes 
of  this  ancient  art.  Caulkers,  as  a  body  of  men,  are  slow  to  talk, 
and  long  on  thinking  and  thoroughness.  And  in  speaking  of 
"  caulkers  "  we  refer  to  the  men  who  have  grown  up  in  the 
craft. 

The  tools  of  the  caulker  are  his  special  pride.  Caulking  and 
golf  have  much  in  common.    The  right  "  iron  "  must  be  used, 

and  it  must  be  used  in  just  the  right 

way.     The  oakum  must  be  rolled 

just  so,  the  seam  must  be  reamed 

open,  if  too  close,  the  hawsing  iron 

may  have  to  be  employed,  driven 

in  by  the  hawsing  beetle,  a  large  long-handled  maul  with  soft 

steel  rings,  mind  you,  and  not  the  tempered  steel  rings  of  the 

caulking  mallet. 


ms 


Hawsing  Iron, 


SHIP  MAINTENANCE 


) 


925 


Reef  Hook     Boot  Iron 


In  fact  the  whole  business,  or  I  should  say,  "  art  "  of  caulking 
is  hedged  in  with  technicalities. 

Like  so  many  things  connected  with  ships  and  the  sea,  the 
question  of  caulking  has  many  sides.  The  reaming  iron  is 
really  a  broad  sharp-edged  chisel.  The 
hawsing  iron  is  held  by  a  loose  iron 
handle,  giving  the  helper  a  chance  to 
stand  clear  of  the  long  handled  haws- 
ing beetle.  The  hawsing  iron  may  be 
sharp  like  the  reaming  iron,  or  it  may 
have  a  square  edge  like  the  caulking 
iron. 

Caulking  irons  are  of  various  shapes 
and  kinds,  as  shown  in  the  illustrations. 
The  making  iron  has  a  sharp  edge ;  the 
deck  or  dumb  iron,  sl  broad  edge.  The 
edge  of  irons  maybe  sharp,  or  squared 
off  or  have  one,  two,  or  three  creases. 

When  old  oakum  is  to  be  cleared  out  of  a  seam  a  reef  hook  is 
used,  also  a  rase  knife  or  reefing  iron  may  be  used.  The  boot 
iron  is  a  long-handled  caulking  tool  used  to  get  the  oakum  into 
places  not  easily  reached  by  the  ordinary  irons. 

While  the  irons  are  import- 
ant, the  old  catilker  places  a 
great  deal  of  store  by  his  mallet. 
In  the  first  place  a  real  mallet 
must  be  of  specially  seasoned 
live  oak.  Nothing  else  will  do 
as  well.  Black  mesquite  and 
red  woody  have  been  used,  and  during  the  war  thousands  of 
white  oak  mallets  were  made,  but  the  real  caulking  mallet  must 
be  of  live  oak,  otherwise  it  has  no  virtue.  A  caulker,  when 
selecting  his  mallet  will  try  the  "  ring  "  of  every  mallet  in  the 
shop,  working  them  down  one  against  another  until  his  choice 
falls  between  two.  Then  for  a  half  hour  or  so  he  will  try  them, 
striking  the  ends  of  the  mallet  with  a  caulking  iron.  Have  you 
ever  heard  the  peculiar  musical  ring  of  a  caulking  mallet?  This 
is  simply  the  outward  evidence  of  the  perfect  rebound  of  a  fine 
mallet. 


i 


[||iyi(tll||l|IHIIIIl|ll| 


llflttlllltHUllllllllllllHlfa 


iijijpj 


Head  of  Caulking  Mallet, 


926 


STANDARD   SEAMANSHIP 


SHIP   MAINTENANCE 


927 


How  to  hold  a  Caulking 
Iron. 


A  first-rate  caulking  mallet  will  spring  back  into  position  for 
the  next  stroke  without  effort  on  the  part  of  the  experienced 
caulker.  This  effect  is  largely  due  to  the  "  slits  "  to  be  found 
in  the  best  mallets.  The  slits  are  in  Ime  with  the  hole  for  the 
handle  and  are  placed  with  the  greatest  care,  directly  through 
the  axis  of  the  hammer. 

Mr.  G.  W.  Campbell,  of  253,  Broadway,  New  York,  who  has 
made  caulking  tools  for  the  past  thirty-five  years,  is  authority 

for  much  of  the  lore  here  given. 

The  caulker  is  a  conscientious  man; 
the  safety  of  the  ship  and  its  lives  de- 
pend upon  the  honesty  and  thorough- 
ness of  his  work;  perhaps  he  feels  this ; 
it  is  a  part  of  the  business,  and  he  is  very 
touchy  about  his  tools. 

Of  course  we  all  know  that  a  caulking 

iron  is  held  as  shown  in  the  drawing, 

and  worked  along  a  seam  in  the  deck 

with  a  rocking  motion. 

Many  a  fine  deck  has  been  ruined  by 

poor  caulking.     Now  that  the  war  is  over  we  are  getting  back  to 

the  old  smart  ways  at  sea. 

IV 

Washing  Down 

Washing  down  is  a  daily  rite  on  every 
well-conducted  vessel  and  usually  takes 
place  in  the  morning  watch  just  after  coffee 
around  the  fore  hatch.  Where  wooden 
decks  are  to  be  kept  in  condition  it  is  very 
necessary.  Where  coal  is  burned  it  clears 
away  the  cinders,  freshens  up  the  wooden 
fittings  on  deck  and  generally  puts  a  morn- 
ing shine  on  things  fore  and  aft.  Wash 
deck  gear  should  be  kept  in  special  chests 
near  the  hose  reels.  Wash  deck  hose 
should  be  small,  fitting  to  the  deck  plugs 
with  suitable  reducers,  iVi  inch  hose  is 
very  handy. 


McNah-Kitsell  host' . 
^    coupling — opfn,fr,  cL 


Coir  brooms  axe  best  for  decks,  and  long-handled  holystones 
should  be  used  on  the  white  decks  at  least  once  a  week  with 
plenty  of  sand.  Where  plain  ladders  and  hand  rails  are  used, 
sand  and  canvas  with  plenty  of  elbow  grease  is  all  that  is 
necessary  to  make  the  ship  look  like  a  Dutch  kitchen  of  a  Sun- 
day morning. 

Gratings  should  always  be  left  in  the 
natural  wood  and  scrubbed  with  sand  and 

canvas. 

A  very  handy  hose  coupling  has  been  de- 
vised, doing  away  with  threads.  The 
coupling  has  no  "male"  or  "female" 
parts  and  can  be  attached  anywhere.  This 
is  the  McNab-Kitsell  coupling. 

Swabs  have  gone  out  of  fashion  but  may 
come  back  again.    It  is  a  nice  sailor  job 
to  make  hand  and  deck  swabs,  and  all 
paint  work  and  varnish  work  wet  with  salt  j^.j^^^.KUseii  coupling 
water  should  be  swabbed  off  before  it  dries.  —closed. 

Only  lubbers  use  waste  for  this  purpose. 
Swabs  are  economical.     Waste  is  well  named. 

Squeegees  should  be  used  on  the  deck  before  swabbing. 

In  many  liners  the  promenade  deck  is  washed  down  and 
holystoned  at  night,  winding  up  at  the  end  of  the  mid- 
watch. 

Brass  work  is  going  out  of  fashion  as  an  evidence  of  smartness. 
Very  little  goes  a  long  way.  A  shiny  door  handle  with  a  rim 
of  grease  about  the  base  of  it,  smearing  the  white  paint,  is  a 
left-handed  sort  of  smartness. 

The  gangway  should  be  washed  and  wiped  down  each  morning 

when  in  port. 

Wherever  canvas  screens  are  fitted  have  them  clean^  and  al- 
ways in  good  repair. 

Do  not  attempt  anything  that  cannot  be  kept  up.  Have 
everything  simple  but  clean.  Wheel  covers,  binnacle  covers, 
telegraph  covers,  all  should  be  kept  clean,  and  should  be 
scrubbed  when  at  sea  and  stowed  away  clean  and  dry  for 
use  when  in  port. 

33 


928 


STANDARD    SEAMANSHIP 


SHIP  MAINTENANCE 


929 


The  routine  of  washing  down  should  be  carefully  worked 
out  by  the  Chief  Mate,  the  men  told  ofif  for  certain  duties  until 
the  work  is  reduced  to  a  system  eUminatmg  all  wasted  effort. 
Follow  this  principle  throughout.  If  you  save  a  half  hour  by 
this  give  it  to  the  men  to  clean  up  for  breakfast. 


Laying  Up 

A  modern  vessel  deteriorates  rapidly  when  out  of  active  ser- 
vice unless  the  greatest  care  is  taken  to  protect  all  exposed 
metal  parts,  to  keep  water  out  of  boats,  to  open  up  aU  scuppers 
and  drains,  and  to  keep  the  tanks  and  bilges  free  from  stagnant 
water.  Deck  machinery  is  specially  subject  to  neglect  under 
conditions  generally  prevaiUng  when  a  craft  Ues  idle. 

White  lead  and  tallow,  should  be  applied  to  all  exposed 
wearing  surfaces  and  cyUnders  and  valves  should  be  oiled  in- 
ternally before  draining  ofif  steam. 

Decks  are  Uable  to  rapid  deterioration.  This  is  specially 
so  of  planked  decks  in  warm  weather  ports.  The  daily  wetting 
down  is  a  necessity  that  should  be  provided  for  when  a  vessel 
is  out  of  active  service. 

The  safety  of  a  vessel  itself,  whether  at  a  wharf  or  lying  in 
the  stream,  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  Where  craft  are 
moored  close  together  damage  is  certain  to  follow  with  heavy 
weather.  The  placing  of  lines  and  laying  out  of  anchors  under 
these  conditions  is  of  the  utmost  importance.  Lines  may  chafe 
through,  anchors  may  foul  and  loose  their  holding  power. 

Vessels  moored  m  shallow  water  may  rest  on  the  bottom  at 
low  tide.  On  the  face  of  it  this  may  not  seem  harmful,  but 
boulders  have  a  habit  of  getting  under  ships,  and  vessels  have 
been  known  to  ride  over  their  own  or  other  vessePs  anchors 
and  settle  down  with  the  tide,  the  anchor  flukes  punching  up 
against  their  bottom  plates. 

Vessels  covered  with  salt  water  marine  growths  are  best 
taken  care  of  when  anchored  or  tied  up  in  fresh  water. 

The  fire  risk  is  great  on  idle  vessels.  Nothing  but  careful 
poUcing  and  constant  attention  to  the  ship  by  selected  ship 
keepers  can  lessen  this  risk. 


Where  a  vessel  is  laid  up  imder  proper  supervision  and  a 
skeleton  crew  is  kept  at  regular  work,  the  ship  may  come  into 
active  service  in  good  condition  and  with  much  valuable  work 
done.  A  vessel  laid  up  should  be  surveyed  and  a  plan  of  main- 
tenance work  provided.  This  should  be  done  each  day  by  the 
stand-by  crew,  no  matter  how  small.  Washing,  cleaning  and 
painting  should  go  on  constantly  during  working  hours.  Night 
watches  should  be  strictly  kept  and  all  lines  and  ground  tackle 
tended,  riding  and  gangway  lights  kept  lit. 

The  log  book  should  be  written  up  each  day,  and  signed  by 
the  responsible  ship  keeper.  Stores  received,  issued  and  ex- 
pended should  be  entered  in  the  log,  or  stores  ledger,  and  every 
detail  of  the  business  of  keeping  ship  should  be  recorded. 

A  vessel  out  of  service  represents  a  heavy  charge  against  the 
owners,  and  the  owners  should  insist  upon  proper  care  and  an 
authentic  record  of  such  care. 

VI 

The  Maintenance  Book 

This  is  an  important  record  and  should  remain  with  the  ship 
from  voyage  to  voyage,  being  turned  over  from  one  Chief  Mate 
to  another,  by  the  Master,  who  should  inspect  it  from  time  to 
time  and  initial  his  approval,  or  disapproval. 

The  Maintenance  Book  should  be  divided  into  the  various  parts 

of  the  ship. 

Fore  peak. 

Chain  locker— Grond  tackle. 
Forecastle  under  deck. 
Forecastle  upper  deck. 
No.  1  lower  hold. 

lower  'tween  deck, 
upper  'tween  deck. 
And  so  on,  taking  m  the  bridge  deck,  boats  and  all  parts 
coming  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Chief  Mate. 

All  repair  work,  alterations,  painting,  etc.,  should  be  entered 
with  the  date,  the  time  employed,  the  number  of  men,  and  a 
brief  description  of  what  was  done,  material  used,  etc. 

A  separate  section  for  dockings  will,  as  indicated  previously, 
be  of  great  value  later  on. 


I 


I 


I 


I 


930 


STANDARD    SEAMANSHIP 


The  Chief  Mate  may  tell  off  a  smart  youngster,  who  writes  a 
good  hand,  to  keep  the  book  posted  up  to  date,  using  the  Boat- 
swain's Order  Book,  and  his  own  notes  to  compile  the  data. 
Most  mates,  where  a  Maintenance  Book  is  kept,  write  it  up 
themselves  as  a  record  of  their  personal  care  of  the  vessel. 

The  Maintenance  Book  should  also  have  a  column  for  repair 
notes,  giving  the  parts  in  need  of  repair,  when  and  how  broken. 
This  forms  a  constant  record  of  repairs  needed,  of  repairs  made 
at  sea,  and  of  repairs  made  in  port,  or  by  shore  labor.  A  wide 
awake  owner  will  require  an  abstract  from  the  ship's  Mainten- 
ance Book  to  be  deposited  at  the  office  after  each  voyage,  same 
to  be  certified  as  correct  by  the  Master,  Chief  Engineer  and 
Chief  Mate. 


In  closing  the  author  wishes  to  leave  a  final  word  with  his 
readers.  Seamanship  can  only  be  acquired  at  sea.  The  pro- 
fessional seaman,  after  a  long  apprenticeship,  develops  a  special 
aptitude  and  sea  habit  unknown  to  those  who  live  ashore.  The 
great  size  of  vessels  and  the  modern  complication  of  their  gear, 
calls  for  constant  study  and  practice.  Wherever  possible  prac- 
tice the  art  of  seamanship.  Learn  all  you  can  and  instruct 
others,  this  is  specially  the  duty  of  an  officer— he  must  be  a 
leader  and  an  instructor  in  all  things  pertaining  to  his  work. 

When  seamanship  is  neglected  the  world  at  large  has  no  great 
respect  for  seamen.  Strandings,  collisions,  fires,  foundering 
and  numerous  minor  accidents  leave  an  appalling  loss  of  life 
and  property  in  their  wake.  Bad  luck  always  follows  close  be- 
hind the  lubberly  seafarer.  The  sooner  owners,  underwriters, 
examiners  and  seafaring  men  themselves  come  to  realize  this 
the  better  for  safe  and  profitable  commerce  on  the  sea. 

When  seamanship  is  diligently  practiced  it  attains  its  just 
importance,  and  the  thorough  seaman  takes  on  a  personal  dig- 
nity in  keeping  with  his  great  responsibilities. 


Accommodation  ladder,  45 
Acland,  Mr.  Frank  D.,  36 
Admiralty  Manual  on  Com- 
pass Adjustment,  458 
Admiralty,  Manual  of  Sea- 
manship, 726 
Advance,  ship,  754 
Affreightment,  contract  of, 

762 
Alejandrina,  Ship,  747 
Alison,  Mr.  J.  Melville,  83 
Allingham,  Mr.  Wm.,  Man- 
ual  of  Marine   Meteor- 
ology, 795-797 
Aluminum,  65 
American,  S.  S.,  655-692 
American,     Dutch   S.    S., 

715 
American  Bureau  of  Ship- 
ping, 25,  30,  37,  39,  51, 
189,  237,  299,  300,  301, 
303,  363,  367,  624,  629, 
633,  739,  758,  915 
American- Hawaiian     Line, 

173,  291 
American  Museum  of  Safe- 
ty, 876 
American    Practical    Navi- 
gator, 456 
Am.  Society  of  Naval  Archi- 
tects and  Marine  Engi- 
neers, 723 
Ames,  Henry  C,  217 
Anchor,  backing  an,  658 
coming  to,  645-646 
davit,  50 
pocket,  650 
riding  at  single,  656- 

657 
shackies,  636 
stem,  629-630 
stern,  4,  630 
testing  holding  power, 

627-628 
to  lay  out,  651-653 
weighing,  647-648 
Andrina,  Ship,  747 
Angle,  41 

Anschutz  Kaempfe,  470 
Anchoring,  655-656 
a  sailer,  792-793 
scope  of  chain,  647 
Anchors,  622 

Admiral,  626 
Allison,  626 
boat,  630 
Baldt,  626 
bower,  629 
classification  of,  629 


INDEX. 

Anchors,  Dunn,  626 

Eells,  627-628 

grapnel,  628-630 

Gruson-Hein,  625-626 

kedges,  630 

marking,  A.  B.  S.  rules, 
631-632 

mooring,  628 

mushroom,  631,  648 

National,  626 

old-fashioned,  623-624 

sea,  703-704 

sheet,  629 

stowing,  649-651 

stream,  630 

Trotman's  628-629 
Applied    Naval     Architec- 
ture, 671-672 
Approaching  port,  571 
Aquitania,  S.  S.,  7,  469 
Arakan,  S.  S..  742, 743,  744, 

747 
Archbold,  S.  &.,  John  D.,  363 
Ark,  71 

Articles  of  agreement,  760 
Atkin,  Judge,  258 
Audio  piloting  cable,  530- 

531 
Auxiliary  craft,  17 
Average,  kinds  of,  763 
Awning  deck,  5 

jack  stays,  45 

stanchions,  45' 

Baldheaded    schooner,    16 
Balsa  wood,  for  insulation, 

297 
Bark,  15 

Barkentine,  12,  15,  216 
Barranca,  S.  S.,  302 
Bartlett,  Capt.  Robert  A., 

660-663 
Basis,  80 
Beam,  44,  45 

knee,  44,  45 

box,  48 
Beams,  lower  deck,  45 

poop  deck,  45 
Bearings,  data  on,  517-520 
Bedding,  888    ' 
Bedford's    Sailor's  Pocket 

Book,  888 
Bees,  47 

Belaying  pin,  45,  46 
Bellingham,  S.  S.,  607 
Belt  conveyor,  178 
Bends,  85 

carrick,  91 

double  carrick,  91 

931 


Bends,  fisherman's,  92 

open  carrick,  91 

reeving  line,  91 

sheet,  90 

stuns'le  halyard,  93 

stuns'le  tack,  93 
Ben  Lodi,  S.  S.,  000 
Bennett,  Commodore  A.  B., 
of   U.  S.  Power  Squad- 
rons, 799 
Benson  Telemotor,  552 
Bent  plate  washer,  46 
Berengaria,  S.  S.,  7 
Bergensfiord,  S.  S.,  469 
Bergh,  Capt.  E.  R.,  919 
Bernard,  Capt.  W.  J.,  464 
Bethlehem  S.  B.  Corp.,  308 
Biles'    Design    and     Con- 
struction of  Ships,  23 
Bilging,  737 
Bilge  blocks,  46 

keels,  720 

keelsons,  000 

stringers,  000 

water,  000 
Bilges,  303 
BiU  of  health,  761 
BiU  of  lading,  761 
Binns,  Jack,  732 
Birchman,  Capt.,  712 
Bismarck,  S.  S.,  7 
Bitts,  46 

Bitucoat  Company,  891 
Blind  port,  60 
Bliss  Log,  490 
Blockades,  767 
Block  coefficient,  23,  46 
Blocks,  166 

design  of,  132 

extra  heavy,  132 

five-fold  purchase,  159 

kinds  of,  132 

ordering,  136 

parts  of,  129 

rope  strapped,  132 
Bluejacket's  Manual,  451 
Board  of   Underwriters  of 
New  Orleans,  rules   for 
grain,  281 
Board  of  Trade,  31 
Board  of   Underwriters  of 

N.  Y.,  277-280 
Boats,  ancient  galleys,  427 

balsa  wood,  388 

beaching     through     a 
surf,  436 

boarding  a  wreck,  439 

capacity,  to  determine, 
396 


f 


,t 


li 


il 


932 

Boats,  carvel  built,  387 

cat  rig,  446 

certificated    lifeboat 
men,  405 

chocking,  410 

classes  of,  394 

clinker  btiilt,  386 

collapsible,  417 

cutter,  426 

davits,  398,  402,  410 
old-fashioned,  441 
Steward,  398 
Welin,  408,  411- 
416 

diagonal  built,  387 

double-banked,  430 

drill,  382,  404,  413 

Englehardt    type,    417 

equipment  of  lifeboats, 
400 

equipment  of  rafts,  402 

falls,  82 

reeving,  422 

Falmouth  lugger,  446- 
450 

food  and  water  for,  401 

framing,  390 

handling,  418 

under  sail,  446 

hoisting  and  lowering, 
412,  420 

International  Confer- 
ence on  Safety  of 
Life  at  Sea,  385 

kites,  418 

lowering,  419 
*    Lundin,   Capt.    A.   P., 
letter  from,  407 

Lundin  decked,  406 

Lundin  housed  power 
lifeboat,  395 

management  in  a  surf, 
432 

man  overboard,  441 

marking  of  boats  and 
rafts,  400 

metal,  389 

motor  boats,  394 

nested,  411 

oar,  parts  of,  424 

oil,  use  of,  439 

parts  of  a,  389 

pontoon  rafts,  399 

power  lifeboat,  389 

radio,  395,  418,  440 

rafts,  396,  414 

releasing   gear.   Mills, 
419 
Raymond,  422 
Steward,  421 
Yankee,  422 

riding  out  a  gale,  438 

Rouse  sea  anchor,  438 

rowing,  424 

to  seaward,  433 

running  before  a  bro- 
ken sea  or  surf  to  the 
shore,  434 


INDEX 


Boats,  running  out  a  line, 
432 

sailing,  443 

sampans,  427 

schooner-rig,  446 

sculling,  427 

Seamen's  Act  of  1915, 
394 

sin^e-banked,  428 

sliding  gunter,  446-449 

slinging  by  a  crane,  420 

sloop  rig,  445 

special  types,  405 

sprit  sail  rig,  444-452 

standing  lug,  443 

stations,  376 

stowage,  402 

types  of  construction, 
386 

under  oars,  423 

water  breaker,  389 

whale  boat,  426 

wood  most  used,  388 
Bobstay,  46,  191 
Boiler  stool,  46 
Boilers,  types  of,  32 
Bolder ston,  Capt.,  714 
Bollard,  46 
Bolsters,  46 
Bolt  rope,  78 

wire,  205 
Booby  hatch,  46 
Boom,  46,  180 

rests,  166 
Bore,  728 
Bosom  piece,  46 
Boss,  46 
Bossing,  46 
Bottonu7  bond,  764 
Boundary  plank,  47 
Bow  frame,  47 
Bowditch,   456,    459,    795, 

810 
Bowline,  85 

French,  86 

on  a  bight,  88 

Spanish,  88 

two  bowlines,  91 
Bow  plating  frames,  56 
Bow  port,  47 
Bowsprit,  47 

to  take  in,  188 
Box  hauling,  775 
Braces,  198 
Bracket,  48 
Bradlee  and  Co.,  175 
Breaching,  48 
Breadth,  moulded,  27 

registered,  27 
Breakwater,  48 
Breaming,  917 
Breasthook,  48 
Bridge,  48 

bell  time,  568 

captain's  orders,  540 

design,  533 

docking  telegraphs,  538 

dodgers,  535 


Bridge,  engine  telegraphs, 
537 

keeping  watch,  539 

Kent-Chadburn   clear 
view  screen,  535 

log  book,  567 

Mc  Nab   direction  in- 
dicator, 537 

relieving  watch,  540 

routine,  541 

running  light   indica- 
tors, 538 

telephones,  538 

turbine  telegraphs,  538 

wind  shields,  535 
Bridge  piece,  48 
British  Corporation,  39 
Brodthage.Capt.  G.  M.,  356 
Brown,  Capt.  Cecil  M.,  742 
Brows,  322 
Bulkheads,  251 

after  peak,  48 

collision,  44 

deck,  48 

doors,  375 

stepped,  48 

stiffeners,  48 

wash,  48 
Bullwark,  46 
Bunkers,  coaling  hatch,  248 

ports,  248 

cross,  248 

reserve,  48 

side,  248 

oil  fuel,  248 

pocket,  48,  248 

state  of,  when  loading, 
259 

trimmer,  319 

wing,  48 
Burney,  Lieut.,  728 
Bureau  of  Biological  Sur- 
vey, on  rats,  295 
Bureau  of  Standards,  526 
Bureau  Veritas,  39 
"  Burtoning  "  cargo,  233 
Bushings,  129 
Butt  joints,  43 
Buoys,    International    sys- 
tem, proposed,  494 

U.  S.  buoys,  504 

Cabin,  48 
Cables,  77 

attaching    to    anchor, 
638 

cast  steel,  636 

East  River  bridges,  116 
Cable's  length,  639 
Cables,  making  chain,  633 

marking  links,  A.  B.  S. 
rules,  639 

mooring  swivel,  639 

ranging,  637 

securing  in  locker,  638 

stream,  635 

strength  of,  633 

swivel  piece,  639 


Camber,  49 

Campbell,  Mr.  G.  W.,  926 
Cannery  ships,  11 
Cant  frame,  49 
Canvas,  202 

seams,  flat  seam,  203 
round    seam,    000 
sewing,  203 
stitching,  204 
work,  awnings,  219 
boat  covers,  220 
bridge    dodgers, 

220 
crow's   nest    dod- 
gers, 220 
mast  coats,  220 
oil  bags,  220 
tarpaulins,  219 
ventilator  covers, 

220 
windsails,  220 
Cap,  carried  away,  788 

Spanish,  000 
Cape  Fear,  S.  S.,  733 
Capstans    and    warping 

winches,  49,  235 
Careening,  917 
Cago  battens,  49 
Cargo  book,  256 

capacity  sheet,  254 
deadweight,  255 
discharge  at  a  port  of 

disaster,  759 
gear,  166 

care  of,  167 
5-ton,  154 
kinds  of,  2 
Cargo-lights,  257 
Cargo,  measurement,  255 
boom,    efficiency,    157 
permeability  of,  736 
ton,  20 

winches,  types,  211 
winches,    placement 
and  use  of,  277 
fittings,  156,  157 
Cargo  booms,  guying  of,  159 
Cargo  boom,  lattice,  158 
Carlings,  47,  49 
Carriage  of  live  stock,  322 
Carswell,  Mr.  J.  S.,  221 
Cask,  to  calculate  capacity, 

^66 
Cast-steel  ship,  70 
Catch  ratline,  191 
Cathead,  49 
Cat's  paw,  92 
Cattle  slings,  322 
Caulking,  923 
Caulking-steel,  43 
Cavitation,  675 
Ceiling,  49 
Cellular  double  bottom,  47. 

49 
Cementing,  915 
Chain  cables,  632-639 
hoists,  145 
locker,  49 


INDEX 

Channel  bar,  41 
Charles  Pratt,  S.  S.,  364 
Charter  Party,  761 
Charts,  data  on,  494 
Checkered  plate,  49 
Cheek  plates,  49 
Chocks,  49 
Chrome  steel,  65 
Circulating  pump,  49 
City  of  Atlanta,  S.  S.,  733 
Clark,   Capt.  Arthur  H.,  9 
Classification,  36,  760 
Cleanliness,  886-887 
Cleanout  door,  49 
Clearance,  766 
Clearing  plug,  49 
Cleat,  50 

Clements,  Capt.  Ned,  532 
Climax,  Ship,  208 
Clinches,  inside,  98 

outside,  98 
Clinometer,  724 
Clipper  Ship  Era,  9 
Club,  jumbo,  180 

topsail,  181 
Coaling   at   sea    (also   see 

stowage),  693 
Coaming,  50 
CoflFee-slinging,  173 
Coffer  dam,  50 
Coil  of  rope,  78 
Coir  rope,  74 
Colliers'  Weekly,  633 
Collins,  Mr.  Elmer,  529 
Collins,  Mr.  F.  A.,  633 
Collision,  730 

backing  out,  after,  730 
chocks,  50 

concrete  vessels  in,  733 
ice  and  derelicts,  735 
mats,  735 
stand  by,  731 
straight  stem  vs.  clip- 
per stem,  733 
unwritten  rule,  730 
water-tight  doors,  734 
Colloidal  fuel,  32 
Columbus,  455,  622 
Columns,  41,  50 
Commissioner  of  Docks,  N. 
Y.,  regulations  for  hazard- 
ous cargo,  278 
Commissioner   of    Naviga- 
tion, 24 
Companion,  50 
Compartment,  50 
Compass,  adjustment,  458 
binnacle,  454 
boxing,  460,  463 
deviation,  455 
dry,     construction     of, 

455,  457 
error,  456 
gyro,  467 
latitude  error  on  gyro, 

470 
liquid,  457 
lubber  line,  471 


933 

Compass,  lubber's  line,  460 
merchant  service  card, 

467 
origin  of,  453 
origin  of  points  of,  454 
pelorus,  462 
points  versus  degrees, 

461 
problems,  465 
relative  bearings,   463 
"Scientific,"  the,  466 
variation,  455 
Compensation,  50 
Composite  construction,  50, 

71 
Composite  construction,  50, 

71 
Composition  of  forces,  148 
Concrete  ship,  71 
Conditions  of  classification, 

37 
Constitution,  U.  S.  Frigate, 

150 
Construction,   methods   of, 

68 
Convoys,  728 
Copper,  65 
Cost  comparison,  motor  and 

steam  vessels,  8 
Cranes,  kinds  of,  165 
Creasing  stick,  206 
Cringle,  106 
Cross  head,  50 
Crown  (a),  100 
Cruiser  stern,  4 
Curtin,  John,  209 
Cyclops,  Collier,  308,  694, 
697 

Davit  (see  boats),  45,  50 
Davie,  Mr.  H.  M.,  714 
Dead  eye,  50 
light,  60 
rise,  50,  62 
Deadweight  capacity,  20 
Deck  and  Boat  Book,  U.  S. 

Navy,  432,  439 
Decks  of  a  vessel,  50 
Deck,  A.  B.  S.  designations, 

51 
Decks,  care  of,  922 
Deck,  freeboard,  51 
machinery,  221 
plugs,  922 
Deflection,  51 
Delaware,  U.  S.  S.,  469 
Demurrage,  761,  762 
Department  of  Commerce, 

247,  272,  372 
Department    of   the  Inte- 
rior, 310 
Depre,  Capt.  C.  F.,  745 
Depth  by  A.  B.  S.  rules,  27 
Depth,  of  hold,  27 
moulded,  27 
registered,  27 
Derelict,  539 


934 

Derricks,  51,  156 
Design,    elements  of    ves- 
sel, 1 
Diagonal  ties,  51 
Diamond  plates,  51 
Diaphragm,  51 
Diesel  motors,  34 
Dinger,  Commander  H.  C, 

699 
Direction  cable,  530-531 
Displacement,  21 

scale,  22 
Docking,  676,  915 
Dog,  51 

Dolphin  striker,  192 
Donald  McKay,  Ship,  9 
Donkey  boiler,  51 
Doppler  effect,  724 
Draft,  27 

by  A.  B.  S.  rules,  28 

forced,  natural,  32 
Drills,  fire  and  boat,  373 
Drinking  water,  888 
Drop  stroke,  42 
Drowning,    rescuing    from, 
879 

restoring    apparently 
drowned,  000 
Dry  dock,  work  in,  919 
Duct  keel,  57 
Dudley,  Mr.  J.  S.,  69 
Dew  valve,  222 
Dyson,  Admiral  C.  W.,  33 

Eagle   Oil    Transport    Co., 
344 

Eagle  Point,  The,  608 

Ecuador,  S.  S.,  floating  of, 
745 

Edge  strip,  51 

Edward     Sewall,     Ship, 
rounding  Cape  Horn,  779 

Eldredge,  John,  483 

Electric  drive,  33 

Engineering,  734 

Engineering    and    Mining 
Journal,  109 

Engineer's  Society  of  Wes- 
tern Pennsylvania,  83 

Engines,  types  of,  33 

Equipment  tonnage,  25 

Escape  holes,  51 

Europa,  The,  611 

Euphroe,  219 

Everett,  Mr.  H.  A.,  31 

Expansion  bend,  51 
hatch,  55 
plans,  52 

Eye  bolt,  52 

Eyebrow,  52 

Fabricated  ship,  52,  68 
Factor  of  safety,  52,  64 
Fairlead,  52 
Fair  water  cove,  918 
Faraday,  Michael,  530 
Fawcett,  Wm.,  302 


INDEX 

Fa3ring  surface,  52 
Ferro-concrete,  71 
Fid,  49,  52,  102 
Fiddley,  52 
Fire,  749 

aero-automatic    fire 
alarm,  752 

alarm,  749 

automatic     sprinklers, 
752 

carbon  dioxide,  753 

causes  of,  751 

detectors,  751 

Diesel    motor    versus 
coal  and  oil,  756 

driU,  375,  381 

floating  oil,  754 

general  alarm,  373 

Grinnell     automatic 
sprinkler,  753 

Lux  fixe  extinguishing 
system,  753 

prevention,  751 

Rich  system,  752 

room,  66 

stations,  749 

smoke  helmets,  756 

sulphur,  755 

tetrachloride    extin- 
guishers, 754 

warp,  664,  749 

what  to  do,  749 
Fisherman's  cable,  80 
Fishing  a  spar,  150 
Flemish  horse,  180,  195 

coil,  689 
Floating  dock,  916 
Floodable  length,  26,  738 
Floors,  45,  53 
Florida,  S.  S.,  732 
Flotsam,  747 
Flush  deck,  5 
Fog,  609 
Foot  ropes,  195 
Fore  and  afters,  15,  53 
Forecastie,  44,  53 
Forefoot,  53 
Fore  mast,  59 
Fore  peak,  53 
Fore  stays,  47,  188 
Forced  sale,  756 
Forces,  parallelogram,  148 
Foundation  plate,  53 
Framing,  41,  53 

after,  45,  61 

poop,  45 

reversed,  44 

stern,  45 
France,  Bark,  9,  772 
Frapping,  95 
Frear,  Mr.  Hugo  P.,  308 
Freeboard,  28 

certificate,  760 

marks,  54 
Freeing  port,  54 
Froc,  S.J.,.  Louis,  824 
Freight,  764 


Frieda  S.  S.,  755 
Frithjof,  Bark,  218 
Fresh  water-loading,  21 
Fuel  fever,  692 
Fuel  oil  bunkering  at  sea, 

696 
Fuller,  Ship  A.  J.,  86,  781 
Fumigation,  295,  889 
Funds,  by  master,  759 
Funnel  casing,  54 
Furring,  54 

Gaffs,  180 
Galley,  54 
Gammoning,  47 
Gangway  doors,  54 

platform,  45 
Garboard,  47 
Garland,  186 

Gatewood  System,  4,  54,  68 
Gatewood,  Mr.  William,  68 
Germanischer,  Lloyd,  39 
General  boat  alarm,  381 
George  W.  Elder,  The,  000 
George   Washington  S.  S.,      * 

315 
Girders,  47,  49,  54 
Gladiator,  H.  M.  S.,  734 
Gladys,  The,  612 
Goose  neck,  54,  153 
Gopher- wood,  71 
Governor,  S.  S.,  483 
Grace  Log,  745 
Graving  dock,  916 
Grain  feeders,  54 
Granulated  cork,  54 
Graving  piece,  54,  922 
Gray,   Thomas,  verses,  618 
Great  Eastern,  S.  S.,  629 
Great  Lakes,  6 
Great  lakes  are  carrier,  304 
Grommet,  106 
Grounding     (stranding), 

738-748 
Ground   tackle,    anchors, 
622-632 

cables,  632 

general   description, 
619-620       % 

hemp  and  wire  cables, 
619 

old-fashioned    anchor, 
623 

shackles,  636 

stackless   anchor,   625 

swivels,  636 
Guarantee    Exterminator 

Co.,  295 
Guayaquil    custom   house, 

293 
Gudgeons,  45,  54,  919 
Guess  warps,  74 
Gunwale,  54 
Gutter,  54 
Guys,  166 

Gyro  stabilizer  (gyro  com- 
pass— see  compass),  721 


Hackamore,  89 
Half  rounds,  41 
Halifax  disaster,  614 
Halsey,  S.  S.,  356 
Halyards,  79,  211 
Hambroline,  78 
Handbook  for  Masters  (La 

Boyteaux),  748 
Handling  lines,  80 
Hand    sounding    machine, 

480 
Handy  billy,  94,  786 
Hanks,  201 
Harris,  Capt.,  745 
Hatch,  55,  304 
battens,  55 
covers,  738 
ledges,  41 
tarpaulins,  55 
wake  of,  241 
Hatchway,  47,  55 
Havana,  pilfering  at,  293 
Hawse,  clearing,  658 

pipe,  55 
Hawser,  55,  77,  83,  689 
Head   spars,  schooner,  182 
Heaving,  745 
Heaving  down,  917 
Heavy  lifts,  158 

precautions,  163 
rigging  for,  162 
Heel,  angle  of,  725 
Helm,  55 
Hemp,  Phorium,  74 

■Sunn,  74 
Henderson,  Mr.,  209 
Henderson,  U.  S.  S.,  724 
Hermance,      Lieut.- Com. 

Carl  H.,  19 
Herman  Frasch,  S.  S.,  755 
Hitch,  blockwall,  92 
clove,  90 

double    blockwall,    92 
half  (hitch),  89 
marling,  93 
midshipman's,  92 
rolling,  90 
round    turn    and    two 

half  hitches,  90 
timber,  90 

timber  and  half  hitch, 
90 
Hitch(es),    two    half 

hitches,  89 
Hoffman,  Dr.  Frederick  L., 

876 
Holding  down  bolts,  56 
Holds,  241 
beams,  55 
beam  system,  55 
bow   and   stern  parts, 

245 
cargo  battens,  242 
cargo  parts,  245 
divisions,  244 
ladders,  242 
light  conduits,  243 


INDEX 

Hold-limbers,  241 

pillars,  242 

rose  boxes,  243 

shifting  boards,  244 

smothering  lines,  243 

stanchions,  242 

stringers,  242 

strums  or  strainers,  243 

trunks,  245 

'tween  decks,  243 

tjrpical  no.  1,  242 

water  lines,  243 

wings  of,  241 
Holladay,  Mr.  L.  L.,  69 
Holmes'     Practical     Ship- 
building, 7,  39,  64 
Hong  Kong  Obs.,  824 
Hooks,  kinds  of,  174 

safety,  172 
Horses,  carriage  of,  322 
Horsepower,  1,  675 
Hostler,   Capt.  H.    C,  571 
Hot-bulb  engines,  34 
Houseline,  78 
Howes,  Capt.  Fred.,  208 
How    Wooden    Ships    Are 
Built,   E.  Cole  Estep,  73 
Hughes,  on  Admiralty,  733, 

756 
Hulk,  56 
Hull,  efficiency*  56 

number,  56 

parts  of,  45 

wooden,  72,  73 
Humphrey,  Dr.  W.  J.,  799 
Hyland,  Mr.  John  L.,  735 
Ice  doubling,  56 
Ice,  signs  of,  736-737 
Illegal  traffic,  766 
Imo,  S.  S.,  614 
Imperator,  S.  S.,  7 
Imperial    Japanese    Mari- 
time Corporation,  39 
Inspection,  certificate,   760 
Insulation  of  holds,  56,  296 
Insurance,  36 

lines,  690 
Insured  property,  757 
Intercostals,  56 
International      Conference 
on  Safety  at  Sea,   385, 
394,  734 
International  Rules,  574 
Invermark,  Bark,  714 
Invoice,  761 
Irwell,  Lawrence,  522 
Isherwood,  Mr.  J.   W.,  68 
Isherwood  system,  4,  54,  68 
Italian  Lloyd,  732 
Jacks,  hydraulic,  165 
Jack  staff,  56 
Jacobs,  Mr.  Fred  B.,  11 
Jacob's  ladder,  109 
James  Baines,  Ship,  9 
Jansen,  Mr.  A.  W.,  625 
Jeffries*  marine  glue,  923 
Jetsam,  748 


935 

Jettisoning,  747 

Jib  boom,  56 

Jib  guys,  191 

Jib  martingale,  192 

Jobson,  Mr.  C.  D.,  467 

Joggle,  57 

John  A.  Matheson,  schoon- 
er, 712 

Johnson,  Mr.  Eads,  362 

Jones,  Mr.  Bradley,  470 

Journal  of  American  So- 
ciety of  Naval  Engineers, 
34 

Jury  masts,  789 

Jury  rudder,  705 

Karlowa,  Capt.  R.,  709 
Keel,  44,  57 

bar,  000 

blocks,  000 

false,  000 
Keelson,  53 

middle  line,  44 

side,  57 
Keen,    Commander   E.  Y, 

W.,  665 
Kelvin,  Lord,  475 
Kindler,  Capt.,  715 
King  post,  57,  151,  168 
Knight  heads,  47 
Knee,  58 

Knot — the  measure  of  dis- 
tance, 487 
Knots,  85 

bag,  89 

bowline,  85,  86,  88,  91 

crabber's  eye,  93 

figure  of  eight,  89 

granny,  88 

Japanese,  93 

manrope,  100 

masthead,  93 

Mathew  Walker,  100 

overhand,  89 

reef,  88 

shroud,  99 

square,  88 

stevedore's,  93 

stopper,  99 

wall,  99 
Knotting  a  rope  yarn,  95 
Knuckle  line,  58 
Koko  Head,  Barkentine,  H 
Kolster,  Dr.,  526 

La  Boyteaux,  W.  H.,  532, 

576,  608,  748 
Lake  steamer,  6 
Lambert,  Mr.    Walter   D., 

478 
Lanyards,  50,  58 

tarred  hemp,  79 
Larboard,  767 
Larry,  305 

Larsen,  Capt.  C.  T.,  11 
Lashings,  82,  95 
Lashing,  rose,  95 


Il; 


93<5 


Lattice  work,  58 
Lay,  77 

days,  761 
Laying  up,  928 
Lea,  Mr.  Robert  B.,  721 
Lead  lines,  79 

hand,  471 

marking  hand,  471 

Lecky,   Capt.,   Wrinkles  in 

Practical     Navigation, 

459,  692,  795,  797 

Length  by  A.  B.  S.  Rules,  26 

between  perpendicu- 
lars, 25 

floodable,  26 

on  load  water  line,  26 

over  all,  25 

for  tonnage,  26 

registered,  26 
Leviathan,  S.  S.,  7 
Lidgerwood  Mfg.  Co.,  221, 

227 
Life  Saving,  Royal  Society, 

881 
Lifts,  180 
Ligan,  748 
Lightening  Ship,  9 
Lightening  holes,  58 
Lighthouses,  data  on,  506 
Lignum  vitae,   58 
Limber,  board,  58 

chains,  58 

holes,  58 
Limbers,  58 

Limit  in  size  of  vessels,  8 
Linear  dimensions,  25 
Liners,  1 

Living  quarters,  887 
Lloyds'  Register  of  British 
and  Foreign  Shipping,  30, 
38,39 
Loading  Certificate,  765 
Loadline,  28 
Locking  hoop,  58 

pin,  58 
Log,  the,  484 

chip,  485 

Gumming' s,  488 

Dutchman's,  485 

harpoon,  491 

leaving,  486 

line-marking,  485 

Navigator  and  Sal.,  488 

Nicholson,  489 

Sperry  and  shoal  water 
alarm,  492 

tachometers,  488 

taffrail,  489 
Log  book,  761,  766 
Log  lines,  79 
Longitudinal  framing,  68 
Lordship  Manor,  S.  S.,  754 
Louvre,  58 

Lovett,    W.  J.,    "  Applied 
Naval     Architecture," 
671,  718 
Lower  deck  beams,  44 


INDEX 


Lower  yard  fittings,  193 
Lucke,  Dr.  C.  E.,  34 
Lug  pod,  58 
Lynam,  Capt.  E.  V.,  713 

Machinery,    propelling,   31 
Magazine,  58 
Maintenance     book,     637, 

920,  929 
Majestic,  S.  S.,  7 
Manganese  steel,  65 
Manger,  58 
Manifest,  761 
Manila  fibre,   tensile 

strength,  74 
Manila  rope,  use  of,  79 
Mann,  Lieut.- Com.  R.  R., 

493 
Marchbanks,  Capt.  J.,  714 
Margin  plank,  47 
Margin  plate,  47,  58 
Marie  Celeste,  Brig,  754 
Marimeter,  the,  483 
Marine    Engineering,    31, 

543,  630,  720,  917 
Marine   Engineer's   Hand- 
book— Sterling,  238 
Marine  insurance,  765 
Marine  Journal,  71 
Marine  railway,  916 
Marine  Review,  11 
Marktschlaeger,   Capt.  E., 

715 
Marline,  78,  95 
Martha  Washington,  S.  S., 

469 
Martienssen,  470 
Mase field,  143 
Master,  data  for,  757 

disbursements,  759 

duty  of  preparing  for 
sea,  571 

methods  of,  542 

responsibility,  758 
Master,  Mate  &  Pilot,  731 
Masting     with     own     re- 
sources, 184 
Masts,  151 

built,  189 

coats,  152 

cutting  away,  788 

details,  schooner,  181, 
183 
square  rig,  180 

functions  of,  151 

hoops,  201 

housing,  152 

names  of,  59,  72,  179, 
184 

parts  of,  59 

pole,  59,  155 

rope,  189 

square,  000 

table,  152 

tower,  155 
Mathes,  Victor,  86 
Matheson,  Capt.,  712 


Maumee,  U.  S.  S.,  700 
Mauretania,  S.  S.,  469 
Measurement    of    vessels, 

20 
Mechanical     Engineer's 

Handbook,  65 
Mechanical     loading     and 

discharging,  177,  314 
Mechanics  on  board  ship, 

144 
Mellick,   Capt.  Arthur  H., 

803 
Men  On  Deck,  372,  405 
Merchant     Shipbuilding 

Corporation,  69 
Merrill,   Lt.-Com.    R.    T., 

459 
Merriman   Bros.,   137,   140 
Messenger,  59 
Midship  section,  47,  53 
Mildred,  Schooner,  715 
Millet,  Mr.  J.  B.,  522 
Millham,     Prof.,    Meteor- 
ology, 795 
Mizzen  mast,  59 
McAllister,    Capt.    C.    A., 

739 
McDonald,   Capt.   George, 

655 
McEntee,     Commander 

Wm.,  723 
McGray,  Capt.  Arthur  N., 

755 
McNab    Encyclopedia    of 

Marine  Appliances,  282 
Molybdenum  steel,  65 
Monmouth.  S.  S.,  712 
Monroe,  S.  S.,  730 
Montreal,     Canada,     Port 

Warden's  rules  for  grain, 

281 
Moody,  Mr.  A.  J.,  522 
Moon   Co.,  Inc.,  Geo.   C, 

125 
Mooring,  658 

a  flying  moor,  660 
pipes,  46,  60 
weighing  from  a,  649 
Moorsom's  System,  19 
Morale,  889 
Morrell,   Mr.    Robert    W., 

363 
Mortgage,  ship,  764 
Motor-ship,  6,  8,  34 
Mousing,  132 
Mt.  Blanc,  S.  S.,  614 
Muscatine,  S.  S.,  298 
Muster  list,  375 

Nantucket,  Schoolship,  614 
Nantucket,  S.  S.,  730 
National  Board  of  Marine 

Underwriters,  281 
National  Marine,  the,  522 
Nautical  Gazette,  343 
Nautical    Magazine,    the, 

540,  610 


INDEX 


Naval   Artificer's   Manual, 

the,     23 
Nederlandsche     Vereenig- 

ing  van  Assuradeuren,  39 
Nesco,  S.  S.,  919 
Nets,  use  for  old  cargo,  172, 

173 
Newcastle,  N.  S.  W.,  11 
Newport  News  S.  B.  &  D. 

D.  Co.,  68 
Newport,    Schoolship,    50, 

195,  199,  424,  648,  748 
New    York    Produce    Ex- 
change, 281 
New    York     Underwriters, 

the,  31 
Nickel  steel,  65 
Nichols,  Capt.  C.  M.,  781 
Norske  Veritas,  39 


Oakum,  80,  81 
Officer  of  the  watch,  539 
Ohio,  S.  S.,  713 
OU  fuel,  249 

storm,  717 
Oil-tight  riveting,  60,  249 
Oil  use  of,  706-717 
Oliver,  Capt.,  713 
Olympic,  S.  S.,  408-412 
Oracle,  The,  280,  458,  692 
Oriental    Navigation     Co., 

280,  458,  692 
Outreach,  60 
Overhang,  60 
Oxter  plate,  60 

Pacific    Marine    Review, 

483,  742 
Pacific   Steam    Navigation 

Co.,  745 
Paint  formulas,  909-914 
Painting  ship,  891-908 
Pair  masts,  169 
Palms,  roping,  206 
seaming,  206 
Panama  R.  R.  Co.,  291 
Panhandle  State,  S.  S.,  469 
Panting  beams,  44 

stringers,  60 
Paravanes,  728 
Parbuckle,  165,  185 
Parcelling,  107 
Parral  carried  away,  788 
Parrall,  60 

Passenger     vessels,     bag- 
gage, 383 
Passenger   vessels,  certifi- 
cate of  Inspection,  372 
Passenger    vessels,    mails, 

383 
Passenger  vessels,  3,  372 
Passenger    vessels,    order 

and  discipline,  372 
Passenger  Act  of  1882,  372 
Passenger  list,  761 
Peaks,  245 
Permissible  factor,  27 


Physics   of  the  Air,  Hum- 
phreys, 799 
Picard,  G.  S.,  741 
Piddington'sHorn  Book,826 
Pigeon  holes,  49 
PUots,  531 
Piloting,  492 
Pilot  rules,  574,  597-606 
Piloting,  through  fog,  520 
Pintles,  54 
Pitching,  725 
Plating — deck,  44 

sheU,  41 
Plimsoll  mark,  29 
Plimsolh  Samuel,  28 
Plummer  block,  60 
Plymouth  Cordage  Co.,  76, 

124 
Pneumercator    gauge,    251 
Polar  Sea,  S.  S.,  298 
Poop,  60 
Port,  767 
Port  charges,  765 
Porter,  Lieut.  J.  O.,  614 
Portland    cement,  use   of. 

747 
Port  light,  60 
Power  tonnage,  24 
Practical    Shipbuilding, 

Holms,  245,  248 
Pratique,  765 
Preparing  for  sea,  570 
Preventer  guys,  159 

stays,  161 
Pricker,  206 

Prindle,  Edwin  J.,  letter  of, 
741  I 

Prinzess  Irene,  S.  S.,  740 
IMze  money,  756 
Producer  gas  engines,  35 
Propeller,  arch,  61 
post,  45 
shaft,  000 
Protest,  762 

Pulsford,  Mr.  Ernest,  227 
Pumps,  303 

air  bound,  240 
air  chambers,  239 
air  pipes,  238 
bUge,  237 
care  of,  238 
circulating,  236 
connections,  239 
distribution  boxes,  238 
fire,  51 
kinds    used  on  board 

ship,  237 
laying  up,  240 
location,  239 
lubrication,  240 
packing,  240 
pistons,  240 
roses  and  boxes,  238 
sounding  pipes,  238 
steam  connections,  239 
suction  pipes,  238 
Purchases,  137 


937 

Purchases,   efficiency,    138 
Quadrant,  61 
Quarterdeck,  61 
Quartermasters'  stores,  79 
Quarter  pillars,  61 


Rabbet,  61 

Radio    compass    bearings. 

526 
Rafts     (see  boats),  414 
Rake  bunkers,  61 
of  masts,  61 
Rattle  down,  to,  192 
Ratlines,  79,  156,  191 
Reciprocating  engines,  33 
Record    of    American    and 
Foreign  Shipping,  37,  38 
Reducing  gears,  33 
Reeder,  Capt.   W.  H.,  621 
Reefing,  fore  sail,  211 
Refrigerating     machine, 

operations  of  a,  295 
Register,  the,  760 
Regis  tro  Navale  Italiano,39 
Repairs  in  port,  757 

at  sea,  757 
Republic,  S.  S.,  732 
Resolution  of  forces,  148 
Respondentia  bond,  764 
Responsibility,    officer     of 

the  watch,  539 
Reversed  frame,  42 
Ribs,  44 
Rider  plate,  61 
Right  of  approach,  767 
Right  of  search,  766 
Rigger's  vise,  119 
Rigging,  189 

carrying  away,  787 
for  a  moderately  heavy 

lift,  168 
sails  of,  200 
setting  up,  190,  192 
screw,  119 
spanker  of,  201 
spanker  boom  of,  198 
swiftered  in,  193 
Rivets,  top,  43 

swell  neck,  43 
types,  43 
Rockefeller,  S.  S.  John  D., 

363 
Rods,  41 

Roebling'sSonsCo.,J.A.,  1 16 
Rollers,  728 
RolUng,  720 

chocks,  62 

period,  724,  725 
Rope,  74 

acid,  det  imental,  82 

bolt,  76 

cable  laid,  77 

jaw,  long,  short,    7 

largest,  84 

lay  of,  77 

life  of,  83 

Manila,  84 


■1;     4 


•It  •  . 


Rope,  metallic,  74 

notes  on  care  of,  81 

open  a  coil,  to,  81 

plain  laid,  76 

re-made,  84 

rules    for    getting 
strength  of,  128 

tables,  123 

Working  Value  of,  76 
Rope-walk,  84 

water  laid,  77 
Roping  sails,  204 
Rope,  yam,  knotting,  95 
Rose  boxes,  62,  303 
Rosen,  Mr.  S.  S.,  295 
Roundline,  78 
Roundhouse,  62 
Rouse,  Capt.  Fred.,  438 
Row  and  Davis,  oil  heating 

system,  357 
Rucker,  Dr.,  295 
Rubber,  206 
Rudder,  62 

action  of,  545 

arms,  62 

balanced,  62 

bow,  62 

design,  546 

gudgeons,  45,  54,  919 

jury,  705 

Kitchin  reversing,  548 

parts  of,  544 

pintles,  919 

types  of,  546 
Ru,  Capt.  K.,716 
Rules  of  the  A.  B.  S.,  37 
Rules  of  the  road,  574-618 
Rules    of    the  road,  notes 

on,  606H518 
Running  rigging,  195,  196, 

197,  199 
Runners,  200 
Russel-Ranken    steering 

recorder,  556 
Rust,  explanation  of,  891 

Safety  on  board  ship,  876 
Safe  working  loads,  hooks, 

bolts,  shackles,  175 
Sagamore,  the,  608 
Sail  hook,  206 
Sail  needles,  kinds  of,  205 
Sail,  notes  on  handling,  782 
Sailer,  handling,  15,  768 
Sailing,  bracing  yards,  785 
broaching  to,  782 
casting,  793 
craft,  9,  11,  17,  18 
fore-and-aft    canvas, 

786 
goosewing   a   sail,   to, 

780 
heavy  weather,  778 
man  overboard,  789 
Hearing  other  vessels, 

790 
records, 9 


INDEX 

Sailing,  scudding,  781 

squalls,  787 

taking  in  sail,  780 

topsail  splits,  780 

ship  rigging,  179 
Sailmaker,  amount  he  can 

sew,  204 
Sails,  bending,  207,  216 

bending    a    course    in  ! 
heavy  weather,  218 

buntlines,  213 

care  of,  218 

clew  garnets,  212 

clew  irons,  210  ' 

clewlines,  212 

cringles,  206,  210 

draft  of  a  lower  topsail, 
215 

earings,  206 

eyelets,  209 

fittings    of    a    square 
sail,  209 

five-masted  bark,  10 

fore-and-aft,  214 

four-masted   barken- 
tine,  12 

ga£f  topsails,  216 

gantline,  217 

leathering,  214 

leeches,  206 

leech  lines,  214 

lizards,  213 

machine  sewing,  209 

making,  215 

Marconi  rig,  216 

middle    stitching,    216 

midship  tack,  207 

reefing  gear,  213 

reef  joints,  210 

reef  tackles,  214 

repairing,  216 

roach,  216 

roping,  207 

spectacle    irons,    210, 
212 

spilling  lines,  213 

square,  206 

shifting,  218 

ship,  of  a,  202 

stowage,  marking,  215 

tabling,  207 

taking  in,  213 
Salt  water,  loading,  21 
Salvage,  756 
Samson  cord,  79 
Samson  post,  62 
San  Fernando,  S.  S.,  344 
San  Florentino,  S.  S.,  344 
Santa  Maria,  S.  S.,  455 
Santa  Rosalia,  S.  S.,  571 
Savannah  Line,  733 
Sea  anchors,  703 
Sea  cock,  62 
Seafarer,  The,  76 
Sea  kindly,  307 
Sea  letter,  760 
Seam,  62 


Seamanship,  Luce^s,  150 
Seaworthy   certificate,    760 

765 
Sea  kindly,  719 
Seizings,  eye,  97 
middle,  96 
plain,  96 
racking,  96 
round,  96 
throat,  97 
Selvagee,  strop,  94 
Serving,  board,  107 

mallet,  107 
Schooner,  14 

baldheaded,  16,  179 
disadvantages,  17 
sails,  masts,  14 
square  foresail,  776 
Scofield,  S.  S.  D.  G.,  364 
S.  course,  728 
Scotia,  the,  611 
Screw  aperture,  45 
Scuppers,  54 
blind,  62 
Scuttle,  62 

butts,  888 
Shackles,  166 
Sharpe,  Mr.  Geo.,  745 
Shaw,  Capt.,  713 
Shear  legs,  187 
Sheer,  62 
Shear,  43 
Shears,  164 
Sheerstrake,  main,  47 

upper  47 
Sheathing,62 
Sheets,  199,  212 
Shell  plating,  42 
Shifting  board,  62 
Ship,  deck  plan,  773 

maintenance,  891 
Shipwreck,  instructions  by 

U.  S.  Coast  Guard,  883 
Shipping,  453,  461 
Shipping  and  Engineering, 

532 
Ship's  business,  756-765 
Ship's  papers,  759 
Shoulder,  62 
Shovelling  flat,  62 
Shrouds,  62,  186,  191 
Signals,  Continental  Code, 
557 
engine  room,  562 
for  working  derricks  or 

booms,  163 
International     Code, 

558 
lights,  562 
Morse  Code,  557 
notes  on,  557 
rockets,  562 
salutes,  563 
semaphore,  560 
U.  S.  Navy,  560 
Weather  Bureau   Sta- 
tions, 562 


Simmons,  Mr.  H.   T.,  305 
Sirrah,  S.  S.,  716 
Sisal  hemp,  74 

tensile  strength,  74 
Slings,  cargo,  161,  170,  171, 

173,  174 
Sloterdyk,  S.  S.,  713 
Sluice,  bulkhead,  48,  251 
Smith,  Mr.  David  Wright, 

574 
Smoke  boxes,  728 
Society  of  Naval  Architects 
and    Marine    Engineers, 
363 
Sole  piece,  63 
Sontay,  S.  S.,  416 
Sounding,   "  blue   pigeon," 
474 
coasting  lead,  474 
deep  sea  lead,  475 
drift  lead,  475 
hand  lead,  472 
machine,    construction 

and  use,  475 
motor  machine,  482 
pipes,  63,  242 
wells  and  tanks,  245 
Sound,  velocity  of,  518 
Southern  Pacific  Co.,  291 
Sovereign  of  the  Seas,  Ship, 

Spar  deck,  5 
Spanish  windlass,  98 
Specie,  carriage  of,  384 
Speed,  1 

by  revolutions,  487 

sailing,  11 

of  waves,  726 
Sperry,  Mr.  Elmer  A.,  469 
Sperry     Gjrroscope     Com- 
pany, 467,  721 
Spitz,  Samuel,  483 
Splice,  back,  105 

chain,  105 

cut,  106 

eye,  102 

eye  in  four  strand  rope, 
104 

long,  104 

manila  and  hemp,  102 

mariner's,  104 

short,  103 
SpUt  pillar,  53 
Spraco  paint  gun,  892 
Sprague,  Capt.  W.  A.,  550 
Spring  buffer,  63 
Spunyarn,  78 
St.  Louis,  S.  S.,  156,  739 
St.  Mary's,  Schoolship,  621 
St.  Paul,  S.  S.,  734,  740,  922 
StabUity,  717 
Stafford,  Mr.  James,  209 
Standard  Oil  Co.,  347,  350 
Standard,  ship,  2,  68 

ship,  masts,  156 
Standing  rigging,  189,  194 


INDEX 

Starboard,  767 
Station  Bill,  372-380 
Stave  of  bowsprit,  61 
Stays,  152,  169 
Staysails,  209 
Stays,  preventer,  170 
Stealer,  42 
Steamers,  32 

Steamer  characteristics,  654 
coming     alongside     a 

dock,  660 
going  alongside  anoth- 
er vessel,   665- 
670 
handling,  654 
handling   in   heavy 

weather,  701 
heaving  to,  702 
hull    appendages,    655 
single  screw,  671 
triple  screws,  674 
turbine,  674 
twin  screws,  673 
tying  up  to  wharf,  664 
Steel,  63 

construction,  40 
masts,  189 
shapes,  40 
Steering,  543 

electric  telemotor,  552 
engines,  553 
gear,  549 
hand  gear,  555 
helm  commands,  549 
helm     commands — 

Navy,  549 
helm  indicator,  556 
length  of  trick  at 

wheel,  556 
telemotor,  550 
turning  circle,  547 
twin  screws,  673 
Stern,  44,  66 
Stern,  frame,  66 
tube,  66 
post  44 
Stevenson,    Mr.     Thomas. 

727 
Steward's     department, 

boat  stations,  376 
Still  engine,  36 
Still,  Mr.  W.  J.,  36 
Stoek,  Mr.   H.   H.,   "  The 
Safe   Storage   of    Coal," 
310 
Stoke  hold,  66 
Stopper,  96 
Stores  list,  761 
Stowage,  255 
acids,  273 

ammonia — liquid,    275 
aqueous    solution, 
275 
amorphous   phos- 
phorus, 275 
analysis  of  cargo  work, 
294  j 


939 

Stowage,  aqua  regia,  273 
asphalt,  267 
bananas,  301 
Barden's    shifting 

boards,  281 
beef,  298 

beer  and  wine,  298 
bi-sulphide  of  carbon. 

275 
"  blown  up,"  269 
Board  of  Underwriters, 
N.  Y.,  277 
regulations    for 
loading  Calcium 
carbide,  277 
regulations   for 
constructing 
magazines,    277 
Board  of  Underwriters, 
N.  Y.,  rules  for  car- 
rying coal  on  deck, 
313 
Board  of  Underwriters, 
N.    Y.,    regulations 
for    gasoline,   naphtha 
and  for  benzine,  280 
brine  coils  in  hatches, 

298 
carbonic  acid — lique- 
fied, 276 
carbon  papers,  276 
calcium    carbide,    276 
carbolic  add,  274 
cargo  diagrams,  270 
case  oil,  280 
casks,  266 
caustic  potash,  275 
caution,  ore  cargo,  310 
chilled  cargo,  298 
chlorate  of  potash,  274 
chocking  pieces,  258 
coal,  310 
cotton,  265 
damage    due    to    rats, 

295 
dangerous  cargo,  272 
deck  load   of  lumber, 

268 
dinitrobenzol,  276 
dunnage,  258 
eggs,  298 
explosives,  274 
fire  risk  due  to  rats,  295 
fragile  cargo,  292 
freight    rates,    special 

cargo,  290 
frozen  cargo,  298 
general  cargo,  269 
glue-pieces,  276 
grain  in  bags,  282 
grain     cargoes,    rules 

for  stowage,  281 
grain,  loading,   dis- 
charging, 283 
grain,  rules  for  loading 
steamers,    sailing 
craft,  283 


Il' 


I 


940 

stowage,  hatches,  260 

hazardous    cargo,    278 
heavy  packages,  292 
hides,  263 
Hulett  ore  unloaders, 

305 
hydrochloric  acid,  273 
modorous  felt,  276 
jute,  264 
Kentledge,  261 
lampblack,  276 
loading  berth,  260 
locomotive,  loading  a, 

290 
lumber,  268 
mahogany,  269 
manganese  ore,  308 
matches,  276 
Michener  coaling  and 

trimming  gear,  314- 

321 
mild    acids,    citric, 

acetic,  etc.,  273 
naphthalene,  276 
nitrate  of  soda,  273 
nitre  coke,  274 
nitric  acid,  273 
oiled  materials,  276 
ore    carriers — cargoes, 

304 
ore  trunks,  308 
ore  unloading,  305 

loading,  305 
order  of,  260 
peroxide     of     sodium, 

275 
phosphoric  acid,  274 
picric  acid,  274 
pUfering,  292 
preparing  for,  257 
railway  iron,  261 
rats  and  cargo,  294 
refrigerator       ships, 

295 
rice,  289 
roofing    or    sheathing 

felt,  276 
scales    of    permissible 

loading,  261 
screwing    cotton    and 

wool,  266 
shifting  boards,  281 
shifting   of   ore   cargo, 

308 
ship's  option,  291 
sUk,  265 

special  cargo,  289,  291 
spontaneous    combus- 
tion, 310 
steel  billets,  262 
steel  plates,  262 
sugar,  262 
sugar     wet     by     salt 

water,  263 
stUphuric  acid,  273 
sulphide     of     sodium, 

275 


INDEX 

Stowage,   sulphide    of    po- 
tassium, 275 

sulphur  dioxide,  275 

supercargo,  use  for,  272 

supervision  of,  293 

sweat  boards,  264 

tallying,  271 

tea,  265 

tinned   meats    and 
fruits,  298 

tobacco,  265 

ton,  the,  291 

trimming     ore     cargo, 
307 

turn  around,  304 

ventilation,  264,  301 

wool,  266 
Strainer,  62 
Strake  book,  66 
Stresses,  149 
Strakes,  42 
Strand,  76 
Stranding,  738-748 

first  steps  after,  739 
Stranded,  rocking  off,  747 
Stranding,   sand,   to    keep 
out  of  condenser,  739 

things    to    remember, 
748 

treatment   of   ships 
ashore,  741 
Stratton,  Mr.  E.  Piatt,  000 
Stress,  kinds  of,  66 
Stringers,  44,  45,  63,  67 
Strum,  62 
Struts,  46,  67 
Stud,  67 

Submarine     Boat      Corpo- 
ration, 52 
Submarine  bells,  522 

sentry,  484 
Surging,  49,  664,  677 
Surveys,  759 
Sytor,  Chief  Officer,  715 

Tabernacle,  152,  167 
Tables,  chain,  174 

cargo  hooks,  174 

shackles,  174 

tumbucMes,  174 
Tacking,  barkentine,  772 

fore  and  after,  a,  774 

missing  stays,  772 

square  rigger,  769 
Tackles,  137,  143 

boom,  200 

gun,  141 

jiggers,  142 

kinds  of,  142 

luff,  141 

reef,  214 

runner,  141 

single  whip,  140 

sluing,  161 

Spanish  burton,  141 

"  to  fleet,"  143 

to  make  up,  143 


Tables,    "two    blocks," 

142 
twofold,  141 
Tackles,  watch,  141 
Tail  shaft,  918 
Tanker,  3,  343 

action  in  a  seaway,  343 

air  valves,  351 

outer    and    inner    sea 

valves,  355 
ballasting,  357 
barge  delivery  line,  356 
barges,  371 

Baume    table    of    de- 
grees, 370 
bell-mouthed  suctions 

349 
bilge  suctions,  356 
bunker,  346 
care  of  tanks,  358 
chief  mate  in  charge  of 

pipe  lines  and  pumps, 

347 
cleaning  tanks,  359 
cofferdams,  345,  365 
cylindrical   tanks,    354 
desk  delivery  line,  355 
expansion  trunks,  353, 

364 
fire  precautions,  365 
flash  point  of  oil,   369 
general    remarks     on, 

363 
hatches,  352 
heating  coils,  351,  357 
hose  connections,  353 
hydrometers,  370 
important  points,  355 
Isherwood  System,  346 
master  valves,  350 
molasses,  371 
mooring  lines,  353 
numbering    of    tanks, 

346 
oil  cargo,  368 
oil,  a  live  load,  354 
oil    hatches    and    gas 

trunks,  363 
oil-tight    construction, 

345 
oil  wash,  359 
pressure   and   vacuum 

valves,  353 
prevention    of    explo- 
sions, 361 
pumping  out  tanks,  356 
pipe  lines,  348 
pump  room,  347 
repairs    in    dry    dock, 

precautions,  360 
sea  delivery  line,  355 
shelter  decked  vessel, 

363 
short  essay  on  design, 

366 
sounding  tanks,  369 
special  design,  364 


Tanker,  specific  gravity  of 
oU,  369 
steam  smothering 

lines,  351 
steam  valves,  351 
steam   valves,    control 

of,  356 
steaming     tanks,  359 
stripping     lines,      349 
subdivision     of     hull. 

344,  365 
suctions,    location    of, 

348 
summer  tanks,  354 
tanks,  "  gas-free,"  360 
testing  tanks,  360 
ullage,  353 
valves,  349 
valves,  caution  in  use 

of,  350 
valves,    difference  be- 
tween American  and 
British,  351 
valves,  drop,  354 
valve  markings,  342 
valve  rods,  351 
valve  signals,  356 
viscosity  of  oil,  371 
viscosimeters,  371 
Tanks,  45 
Tanks,  air  lock,  248 

double  bot.,  deep,  246 
fresh-water,  247 
settling,  250 
sounding  pipes,  63, 245 
■   swash,  701 
swash  plates,  247 
trimming,  246 
when  loading,  259 
wing,  247 
Tarred  fittings,  78 
Taylor,  Mr.  Thomas  Roth- 
well,  "  Stowage  of  Ship 
Cargoes,"  272 
T  bar,  41 
Teak,  923 

Teesbridge,  S.  S.,  713 
Texan,  S.  S.,  3 
Texas  Co.,  224 
Thermit  welds,  922 
Things  A  Sailor  Needs  to 
Know,    by    Captain    D. 
Wilson- Barker,  418 
Thomas,  U.  S.  Army  Trans- 
port, 713 
Thoroughfooting  a  rope,  81 
Three  Brothers,  Ship,  621 
Three  Island,  steamer,  4 
Thrust  block,  67 
Tides,  data  on,  512-517 
Tide  Water  Oil  C,  363 
Tide  rode,  656 
Timenoguy,  199 
Times,  N.  Y.,  741 
Tingley,  F.  G.,  834 
Tisdale,  Lieut.- Com.  Mah- 
lon  S.,  308 


INDEX 

Todd  &  Whalls'  "  Seaman- 
ship," 307 
Tom,  67 
Tonnage,  19 
Ton,  cargo,  20 
Tonnage,  deck,  20 
certificate,  760 
equipment,  25 
gross,  19 
net  registered,  19 
power,  24 
rules  for,  19 
under-deck,  19 
Tons  per  inch  scale,  23,  256 
Top,  details,  186 
Topmast,  fidded,  155 
fittings,  153 
sending  up,  189 
telescopic,  155 
Topping  lifts,  166,  195 
Topside  strakes,  42 
Towing,  678-691 

abandoning  tow,  690 
casting  off,  689 
engine,  680-688 
hawsers,  A.  B.  S.  rules, 

690 
lines,  80 
regulations,  690 
spar,  728 

taking  vessel  in  tow,  688 
Tramps,  1 

Transatlantic  trade,  7 
Transom  plates,  45,  67 
Transverse  construction,  44 
Trautwine*s     Engineer's 

Pocket  Book,  518 
Trestle  trees,  49,  52 
Trim,  67 
Trochoidal  theory  of  waves. 

725 
Tuck  plate,  67 
Tugela,  S.  S.,  714 
Tumble  home,  62,  67 
Tungsten  steel,  65 
Tunnel  well,  67 
Turbines,  33 
Turret-deck  steamer,  7 
Twin   Brothers,  Ship,   754 
Twine,  kinds  of,  203 
Tjrpes  of  vessels,  3 


941 

U.  S.  Department  of  Com- 
merce, 573 

U.  S.  Hydrographic  Office, 
459,  487,  529,  712,  817 

U.  S.  Inland  Rules  of  the 
Road,  574,  577-596 

U.  S.  Naval  Institute,  Pro- 
ceedings, 19,  308,  493, 
699 

U.  S.  Navigation  Laws,  20, 
372 

U.  S.  Navy,  115,  469,  630 
liquid  compass,  458 
testing  anchor  engines, 
644 

U.  S.  Public  Health  Service, 
295 

V.  S.  Steamboat-Inspection 
Service,  372,  374,  394, 
417,  570,  571,  760,  918 

U.  S.  Shipping  Board,  21, 
297,  917 

U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  799, 
800,  801,  809,  810,  817, 
818,  819,  834,  845,  875 

Vanadium  steel,  65 
Veritas  Austro-Ungarico,  39 
Van  der  Heuvel,  Capt.,  713 
Vangs  or  downhauls,  200 
Vessels,  classes  of,  24 

limiting  size,  2 
Vicksburgh,  U.  S.  S.,  747 
Vouchers,  765 


Under  Sail,  86,  769 

United  Fruit  Co.,  302 

Ultimate  strength,  52 

Uptake,  67 

U.  S.  Army  Transport  Serv- 
ice, 660 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  In- 
dustry, Dept.  of  Agri- 
culture, regulations  for 
transport  of  cattle  and 
horses,  323 

U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic 
Survey,  477 

U.  S.  Coast  Guard,  883 

U.  S.  Consuls,  761 


Wale  shores,  916 
Walton's  Know  Your  Own 

Ship,  23 
Wake,  727 
War,  766 
Warming,  107 
Washing  down,  926 
Wash  plate,  67 

port,  67 
Waterbury  Co.,  124 
Waterway,  67 
Waves,  724 
Wearing,  774 

Wearing  in  heavy  weather, 
777 

a  schooner,  776 
Weather,  The  Atmosphere, 
by  F.  J.  B.  Cordeiro, 
795 
barometer,  801 
Beaufort  scale,  794' 
character  of  day,  809 
data    on    cyclonic 
storms,  818-833 
Weather  deck,  67 

Forecasting,  by    Com- 
modore A.  B.   Ben- 
nett, 799-810 
jingles,  796 
Weather  on  the  oceans  of 
the  world,  835-875 


P4f 


Weather,  pilot  charts,  816 
radio  forecasts,  810 
storm  warnings,  797 
winds,  810-816 
wind-direction,  797 

wind  veering  and  haul- 
ing, 804 
Welded  ship,  69 
WeU  deck   5 
Wellman-Sea  uer-Morgan 

Co.»  305 
West  Avenal,  S.  S.,  280 
West  Togua,  S.  S.,  255 
Whaleback,  6 

Wheat  Tariff  Association  of 
San  Francisco,  rules   for 
grain,  281 
Wheelhouse,  533 
Whelps,  49 

Whipping,  French,  108 
plain,  108 
sailmaker's,  108 
Whistles,  612 
White's  Manual  of  Naval 

Architecture,  20 
White,  Capt.  J.  H.,  357 
Whitlock  Cordage  Co.,  109 
Winches,  2 

electric,  226 


INDEX 

Winches,  freezing,  236 

heavy  duty,  230 

herring-bone  gears,  222 

loading  with  a  single, 
234 

operation  and  care  of, 
222 

platforms,  153 

raised  bed,  232 

repairs,  225 

reverse  lever,  229 

side  by  side,  231 

single    friction    drum, 
228 

two-speed,  single  fric- 
tion drum,  229 

types  of,  221 
Windlass,  general  descrip- 
tion and  use,  639 
Wild  cat,  67 

Wilson- Barker,  Capt.,  418 
Wire  rope,  109 

armored-rope.  111 

deep  sea  towing,  110 

eye-clamped,  120 

eye  splice,  118 

long  splice,  120 

hawsers  and   mooring 
lines,  110 

hemp  covered,  115 


Wire  rope,  how  to  measure, 
128 
relative   strength.    111 
running  rope,  110 
sockets,  122 
splicing,  117 
splicing  tools,  117 
standing    rigging,    110 
tiller  or  hand  rope,  HI 
to  take  out  kinks,  113 
to  uncoil,  112 
use  of,  116 

Wolding,  150 

Wooden  construction,  71 

Worcester,  Schoolship,  418 

Working  load,  52 

World's  Markets,  292 

Wrecking  cable,  80 

Yachting,  217,  921 

Yacht  routine,  563 

Yards,  211 

fittings,  179 
of  a  ship   196 
sprung,  150-788 

Yam  76 

Yates,  Capt.  E.  L.,  692 

Z-bar,  41 
Zig  zag,  728 
Zi-ka-wei  Obs.,  824 


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